Chapter 1

Chapter-1 : Introduction,
overview of network building

blocks
By Dr.Rinesh S
Contents
• Network architecture with layers and
protocols
• Overview of data link concepts
• IP addressing, forwarding, and routing
• BGP and adaptive routing
Building blocks of a computer network
• It describes the basic building blocks of a

computer network that consists of End Nodes,
Intermediate Nodes like Routers, Switches,
Telecommunication links and network protocol
suite.
• It consists of a set of hardware components
and a suite of Network software protocols.
• Hardware components consists of End Nodes (sending/receiving
computers), Intermediate Nodes (Routers/Switches/hubs etc. that are part of the data
exchange) and telecommunication links (wired/wireless media, cables, connectors etc.).
End Nodes:
• Computer or any embedded system with Network Hardware and Software. Hardware
typically consists of add-on-cards called Network Interface cards (NICs).
• The NICs implement some of the communication protocols in hardware, so as not

overburden the main CPU. The NICs also interfaces to the telecommunication links, that
connect the end nodes to the network.
• While certain lower layer protocols are implemented in hardware, lots of higher layer
protocols like TCP, IP, FTP, HTTP etc. are implemented in software. Actual
communication of meaningful data happens between a sending computer and a receiving
computer.
•Data is split into smaller units called packets by the sending computer and then handed
over to the data exchange devices, to be carried over to the receiving computer
Example of End Node in Computer
Networks
Intermediate-Nodes
• These are special purpose computers/ embedded
systems used only for data transfer between end
nodes
• These devices are part of the data exchange and are
used to route data packets between the sending and
receiving computers.
• E.g.: Packet Switches (Routers/Switches), Hubs,
Repeaters, Modems, Satellites etc.
Examples of Intermediate nodes in a
computer Network
Telecommunication Links
• Consists of Wired and wireless medium that actually
carries the electrical/optical/electromagnetic signals.
• Just like vehicles need roads to move, computers
require wired/wireless telecommunication links to
carry the signals between them.
• Includes cables (e.g. twisted pair copper, coaxial etc.)
and connectors (e.g. RJ-11, RJ-45 etc.) for wired
media
• Includes different types of antennae for wireless
media
Examples of Wired and Wireless
Communication links
Network Software
• Wide range of protocols developed specifically
for computer communication (E.g. IP, TCP, UDP
etc.)
• A protocol is a set of rules developed for a very
specific purpose
• Consists of core communication protocols (like
IP, TCP, UDP etc.) and also application specific
protocols (like HTTP, FTP, SMTP etc.)
• Includes device drivers written for specific
hardware (E.g. Ethernet device drivers)
Network architecture with layers and
protocols
• The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model
describes how the information moves from one computer to
another computer through a network.
• This model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984.
• This model is used for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust and inter-
operable.
• OSI model has seven separate but related layers : Physical,
Data link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation and
Application.
• Each layer defines a part of the process of moving
information across the network.
Interface between layers
• Interface is responsible for passing the data and
network information down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the
receiving device.
1. Physical layer:
• Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI
model.
• It coordinates the function required to transmit a
bit stream over a communication channel.
• It defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission.
• Physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices. Direction may
be simplex, full-duplex and half-duplex.
2. Data link layer
• Data link layer is responsible for transmitting the
data over the channels.
• It is used to divide the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
• It adds a header to the frame to define the sender
and receiver of the frame.
• Data link layer detects and corrects the
transmission errors using the correction method.
3. Network layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of a
packet, across multiple network.
• It specifies the intra-network operations and different
types of addressing and routing devices.
• Network layer also provides the logical and service
addressing and switching control.
4. Transport layer
• The transport layer specifies the process to process
delivery of the entire message.
• It is responsible for flow control and error control.
• The transport layer of sending device makes sure that
the entire message arrives at the transport layer of
receiving device without error.
5. Session layer
• Session layer is the network dialog controller.
• It is used to establish, maintain and synchronize the
interaction among communicating system.
• Specific responsibility of session layer is dialog
control.
6. Presentation layer
• The presentation layer is responsible to translate the
information in to bit streams before transmission.
• It is also responsible for data encryption, data
decryption and data comprehension.
7. Application layer
• Application layer allows the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
• This layer provides user interfaces and application
services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network
software services.
TCP/IP
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control

Protocol/Internet Protocol.
• TCP/IP is a set of layered protocols used for
communication over the Internet.
• The communication model of this suite is
client-server model.
• A computer that sends a request is the client
and a computer to which the request is sent is
the server.
IP addressing, forwarding, and routing
• IP address stands for internet protocol address; it is

an identifying number that is associated with a
specific computer or computer network.
• When connected to the internet, the IP
address allows the computers to send and receive
information.
IP forwarding
• IP forwarding also known as Internet routing is a
process used to determine which path a packet or
datagram can be sent.
• The process uses routing information to make
decisions and is designed to send a packet over
multiple networks. Generally, networks are separated
from each other by routers.
IP routing
• IP Routing is an umbrella term for the set of protocols that

determine the path that data follows in order to travel across
multiple networks from its source to its destination.
• Data is routed from its source to its destination through a series of
routers, and across multiple networks.
• The IP Routing protocols enable routers to build up a forwarding
table that correlates final destinations with next hop addresses.
• These protocols include:
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
• IS-IS (Intermediate System - Intermediate System)
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
• “Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a standardized
exterior gateway protocol designed to exchange
routing and reach ability information between
autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet.
• The protocol is often classified as a path vector
protocol but is sometimes also classed as a distance-
vector routing protocol.”
Adaptive routing
• Adaptive routing, also called dynamic routing, is a
process for determining the optimal path a data
packet should follow through a network to arrive at a
specific destination.
• Adaptive routing can be compared to a commuter
taking a different route to work after learning that
traffic on his usual route is backed up.
Advantages and challenges of adaptive
routing
• The purpose of adaptive routing is to help prevent
packet delivery failure, improve network performance
and relieve network congestion.
• Adaptive routing can cause nodes to become
overloaded, however, due to the complex processing
decisions they make.
• Because routers share information about the network
topology, adaptive routing can be less secure than
non-adaptive routing processes and require
more bandwidth.

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Chapter-1 : Introduction,

overview of network building

• It describes the basic building blocks of a

• The NICs implement some of the communication protocols in hardware, so as not

• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control

• IP address stands for internet protocol address; it is

• IP Routing is an umbrella term for the set of protocols that

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