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CODE COMMENTARY
concrete properties from Table 19.3.2.1 to include in the
construction documents.
The Code does not include provisions for especially severe
exposures, such as acids or high temperatures.

19.3.1 Exposure categories and classes R19.3.1 Exposure categories and classes

19.3.1.1 The licensed design professional shall assign exposure The Code addresses four exposure categories that affect
classes in accordance with the severity of the anticipated expo- the requirements for concrete to ensure adequate durability:
sure of members for each exposure category in Table 19.3.1.1. Exposure Category F applies to concrete exposed to
moisture and cycles of freezing and thawing, with or without
Table 19.3.1.1—Exposure categories and classes deicing chemicals.
Category Class Condition Exposure Category S applies to concrete in contact
Concrete not exposed to freezing-and- with soil or water containing deleterious amounts of water-
F0 soluble sulfate ions.
thawing cycles
Concrete exposed to freezing-and-thawing Exposure Category W applies to concrete in contact with
F1
cycles with limited exposure to water water.
Freezing and
Concrete exposed to freezing-and-thawing Exposure Category C applies to nonprestressed and
thawing (F) F2
cycles with frequent exposure to water prestressed concrete exposed to conditions that require addi-
Concrete exposed to freezing-and-thawing tional protection against corrosion of reinforcement.
F3 cycles with frequent exposure to water and Severity of exposure within each category is defined
exposure to deicing chemicals by classes with increasing numerical values representing
Water-soluble sulfate Dissolved sulfate increasingly severe exposure conditions. A classification of
(SO42–) in soil, (SO42–) in water, 0 is assigned if the exposure severity has negligible effect
percent by mass[1] ppm[2]
(is benign) or the exposure category does not apply to the
S0 SO42– < 0.10 SO42– < 150 member.
Sulfate (S)
S1 0.10 ≤ SO42– < 0.20
150 ≤ SO42– < 1500 The following discussion provides assistance for selecting
or seawater the appropriate exposure class for each of the exposure cate-
S2 0.20 ≤ SO42– ≤ 2.00 1500 ≤ SO42– ≤ 10,000 gories. Members are required to be assigned to four exposure
S3 SO42– > 2.00 SO42– >10,000 classes, one for each exposure category, and are also required
W0 Concrete dry in service to meet the most restrictive requirements of all of these expo-
In contact Concrete in contact with water where low sures. For example, the slabs of a parking garage in a cold
W1
with water permeability is not required climate might be assigned to Exposure Classes F3, S0, W2,
(W) Concrete in contact with water where low and C2, and a potable water tank inside a heated building
W2
permeability is required might be assigned to Exposure Classes F0, S0, W2, and C1.
C0 Concrete dry or protected from moisture Exposure Category F: Whether concrete is damaged by
Concrete exposed to moisture but not to an cycles of freezing and thawing depends on the amount of
Corrosion C1 water in the pores of the concrete at the time of freezing
external source of chlorides
protection of
reinforcement Concrete exposed to moisture and an (Powers 1975). The amount of water present may be
(C) external source of chlorides from deicing described in terms of the degree of saturation of the concrete.
C2
chemicals, salt, brackish water, seawater, or If the degree of saturation is high enough, there will be
spray from these sources sufficient water in the concrete pores to produce internal
[1]
Percent sulfate by mass in soil shall be determined by ASTM C1580. tensile stresses large enough to cause cracking when the
Concentration of dissolved sulfates in water, in ppm, shall be determined by ASTM
[2]
water freezes and expands. The entire member need not be
D516 or ASTM D4130.
saturated to be susceptible to damage. For example, if the
top 10 mm of a slab or outer 6 mm of a wall is saturated,
those portions are vulnerable to damage from freezing and
thawing, regardless of how dry the interior may be.
For any portion of a member to be resistant to freezing
and thawing, that portion of the concrete needs to have
sufficient entrained air and adequate strength. Adequate
strength is obtained by requiring a low w/cm, which also
reduces the pore volume and increases resistance to water
penetration. Entrained air makes it more difficult for the

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 PART 6: MATERIALS & DURABILITY 359

CODE COMMENTARY
concrete to become saturated and allows for expansion of
the water when it freezes.
Exposure class varies with degree of exposure to water,
as this will influence the likelihood that any portion of the
concrete will be saturated when exposed to cyclic freezing

19 Concrete
and thawing. Conditions that increase the potential for satu-
ration include longer-duration or more-frequent contact
with water without intervening drainage or drying periods.
The likelihood that concrete in a member will be saturated
depends on project location, member location and orienta-
tion in the structure, and climate. Records of performance of
similar members in existing structures in the same general
location can also provide guidance in assigning exposure
classes.
Exposure Category F is subdivided into four exposure
classes:
(a) Exposure Class F0 is assigned to concrete that will not
be exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing.
(b) Exposure Class F1 is assigned to concrete that will be
exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing and that will
have limited exposure to water. Limited exposure to water
implies some contact with water and water absorption;
however, it is not anticipated that the concrete will absorb
sufficient water to become saturated. The licensed design
professional should review the exposure conditions care-
fully to support the decision that the concrete is not antici-
pated to become saturated before freezing. Even though
concrete in this exposure class is not expected to become
saturated, a minimum entrained air content of 3.5 to 6
percent is required to reduce the potential for damage in
case portions of the concrete member become saturated.
(c) Exposure Class F2 is assigned to concrete that will
be exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing and that
will have frequent exposure to water. Frequent exposure
to water implies that some portions of the concrete will
absorb sufficient water such that over time they will have
the potential to be saturated before freezing. If there is
doubt about whether to assign Exposure Classes F1 or F2
to a member, the more conservative choice, F2, should
be selected. Exposure Classes F1 and F2 are conditions
where exposure to deicing chemicals is not anticipated.
(d) Exposure Class F3 is assigned to concrete that will be
exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing with the same
degree of exposure to water as Exposure Class F2. Addi-
tionally, concrete in Exposure Class F3 is anticipated to
be exposed to deicing chemicals. Deicing chemicals can
increase water absorption and retention (Spragg et al.
2011), which would enable the concrete to become satu-
rated more readily.
Table R19.3.1 provides examples of concrete members for
each of these exposure classes.

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360 ACI 318-19: BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

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Table R19.3.1—Examples of structural members in
Exposure Category F
Exposure
class Examples
• Members in climates where freezing temperatures will
not be encountered
• Members that are inside structures and will not be
F0
exposed to freezing
• Foundations not exposed to freezing
• Members that are buried in soil below the frost line
• Members that will not be subject to snow and ice
accumulation, such as exterior walls, beams, girders, and
F1 slabs not in direct contact with soil
• Foundation walls may be in this class depending upon
their likelihood of being saturated
• Members that will be subject to snow and ice
accumulation, such as exterior elevated slabs
F2 • Foundation or basement walls extending above grade
that have snow and ice buildup against them
• Horizontal and vertical members in contact with soil
• Members exposed to deicing chemicals, such as
horizontal members in parking structures
F3 • Foundation or basement walls extending above grade
that can experience accumulation of snow and ice with
deicing chemicals

Exposure Category S is subdivided into four exposure

classes:
(a) Exposure Class S0 is assigned for conditions where
the water-soluble sulfate concentration in contact with
concrete is low and injurious sulfate attack is not a concern.
(b) Exposure Classes S1, S2, and S3 are assigned for
structural concrete members in direct contact with soluble
sulfates in soil or water. The severity of exposure increases
from Exposure Class S1 to S3 based on the more critical
value of measured water-soluble sulfate concentration
in soil or the concentration of dissolved sulfate in water.
Seawater exposure is classified as Exposure Class S1.
Exposure Category W is subdivided into three exposure
classes:
(a) Members are assigned to Exposure Class W0 if they
are dry in service.
(b) Members are assigned to Exposure Class W1 if they
may be exposed to continuous contact with water, to
intermittent sources of water, or can absorb water from
surrounding soil. Members assigned to W1 do not require
concrete with low permeability.
(c) Members are assigned to Exposure Class W2 if they
may be exposed to continuous contact with water, to
intermittent sources of water, or can absorb water from
surrounding soil, and if the penetration of water through
the concrete might reduce durability or serviceability.
Members assigned to W2 require concrete with low
permeability.
Exposure Category C is subdivided into three exposure
classes:

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 PART 6: MATERIALS & DURABILITY 361

CODE COMMENTARY
(a) Exposure Class C0 is assigned if exposure conditions
do not require additional protection against the initiation
of reinforcement corrosion.
(b) Exposure Classes C1 and C2 are assigned to nonpre-
stressed and prestressed concrete members, depending on

19 Concrete
the degree of exposure to external sources of moisture and
chlorides in service. Examples of exposures to external
sources of chlorides include concrete in direct contact
with deicing chemicals, salt, salt water, brackish water,
seawater, or spray from these sources.

19.3.2 Requirements for concrete mixtures R19.3.2 Requirements for concrete mixtures

19.3.2.1 Based on the exposure classes assigned from Durability of concrete is impacted by the resistance of
Table 19.3.1.1, concrete mixtures shall conform to the most the concrete to fluid penetration. This is primarily affected
restrictive requirements in Table 19.3.2.1. by the w/cm and the composition of cementitious materials
used in concrete. For a given w/cm, the use of fly ash, slag
cement, silica fume, or a combination of these materials
will typically increase the resistance of concrete to fluid
penetration and thus improve concrete durability. The Code
provides limits on w/cm in Table 19.3.2.1 to achieve low
permeability and the intended durability. ASTM C1202 can
be used to provide an indication of concrete’s resistance to
fluid penetration.
Because w/cm of concrete cannot be accurately verified
in the field using standard test methods, strength tests are
used as a surrogate. Representative values for minimum fc′
have been assigned to each w/cm limit in Table 19.3.2.1.
The acceptance criteria for strength tests in 26.12 establish
a basis to indicate that the maximum w/cm has not been
exceeded. For this approach to be reliable, the values of fc′
specified in construction documents should be consistent with
the maximum w/cm. Considering the wide range of materials
and concrete mixtures possible, including regional varia-
tions, the minimum fc′ limit in Table 19.3.2.1 associated with
the maximum w/cm should not be considered absolute. The
average strength of concrete mixtures for a given w/cm can in
some cases be considerably higher than the average strength
expected for the representative value of fc′. For a given expo-
sure class, the licensed design professional may choose to
specify a higher value of fc′ than listed in the table to obtain
better consistency between the maximum w/cm and fc′. This
improves the confidence that concrete complies with the w/cm
limit if the strength acceptance criteria are satisfied.
As stated in the footnote to Table 19.3.2.1, maximum w/cm
limits are not specified for lightweight concrete because the
amount of mixing water that is absorbed by the lightweight
aggregates makes calculation of w/cm uncertain. There-
fore, only a minimum fc′ is specified to achieve the required
durability.
Table 19.3.2.1 provides the requirements for concrete on
the basis of the assigned exposure classes. The most restric-
tive requirements are applicable. For example, a member
assigned to Exposure Class W1 and Exposure Class S2
would require concrete to comply with a maximum w/cm of

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362 ACI 318-19: BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

CODE COMMENTARY
0.45 and a minimum fc′ of 31 MPa because the requirement
for Exposure Class S2 is more restrictive than the require-
ment for Exposure Class W1.
Exposure Classes F1, F2, and F3: In addition to
complying with a maximum w/cm limit and a minimum
fc′, concrete for members subject to freezing-and-thawing
exposures is required to be air entrained in accordance with
19.3.3.1. Members assigned to Exposure Class F3 are addi-
tionally required to comply with the limitations on the quan-
tity of pozzolans and slag cement in the composition of the
cementitious materials as given in 26.4.2.2(b).
The requirements for plain concrete members in Exposure
Class F3 are less restrictive because of the reduced likeli-
hood of problems caused by reinforcement corrosion. The
licensed design professional should consider the details of
the minimal reinforcement to be included in plain concrete
members to ensure that the less restrictive requirements are
appropriate for the specific project.
Exposure Classes S1, S2, and S3: Table 19.3.2.1 lists
the appropriate types of cement and the maximum w/cm
and minimum fc′ for various sulfate exposure conditions. In
selecting cement for sulfate resistance, the principal consid-
eration is its tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content.
The use of fly ash (ASTM C618, Class F), natural pozzo-
lans (ASTM C618, Class N), silica fume (ASTM C1240),
or slag cement (ASTM C989) has been shown to improve
the sulfate resistance of concrete (Li and Roy 1986; ACI
233R; ACI 234R). Therefore, Footnote [7] to Table 19.3.2.1
provides a performance option to determine the appropriate
amounts of these materials to use in combination with the
specific cement types listed. ASTM C1012 is permitted to
be used to evaluate the sulfate resistance of mixtures using
combinations of cementitious materials in accordance with
26.4.2.2(c).
Some ASTM C595 and ASTM C1157 blended cements
can meet the testing requirements of 26.4.2.2.(c) without
addition of pozzolans or slag cement to the blended cement
as manufactured.
Note that sulfate-resisting cement will not increase resis-
tance of concrete to some chemically aggressive solutions—
for example, sulfuric acid. The construction documents
should explicitly cover such cases.
In addition to the proper selection of cementitious mate-
rials, other requirements for durable concrete exposed to
water-soluble sulfates are essential, such as w/cm, strength,
consolidation, uniformity, cover of reinforcement, and moist
curing to develop the potential properties of the concrete.
Exposure Class S1: ASTM C150 Type II cement is limited
to a maximum C3A content of 8 percent and is acceptable for
use in Exposure Class S1. Blended cements under ASTM
C595 with the MS designation, which indicates the cement
meets requirements for moderate sulfate resistance, are also
appropriate for use. Under ASTM C1157, the appropriate
designation for moderate sulfate exposure is Type MS.

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 PART 6: MATERIALS & DURABILITY 363

CODE COMMENTARY
Seawater is listed under Exposure Class S1 (moderate
exposure) in Table 19.3.1.1, even though it generally contains
more than 1500 ppm SO42–. Less expansion is produced by a
given cement in seawater compared with freshwater with the
same sulfate content (ACI 201.2R). Therefore, seawater is

19 Concrete
included in the same exposure class as solutions with lower
sulfate concentrations. Portland cement with C3A up to 10
percent is allowed in concrete mixtures exposed to seawater
if the maximum w/cm is limited to 0.40 (refer to the footnote
to Table 19.3.2.1).
Exposure Class S2: ASTM C150 Type V cement is
limited to a maximum C3A content of 5 percent and is accept-
able for use in Exposure Class S2. The appropriate binary
and ternary blended cements under ASTM C595 include the
suffix (HS) as part of their designation, which indicates the
cement conforms to requirements for high sulfate resistance.
Under ASTM C1157, the appropriate designation for severe
sulfate exposure is Type HS.
Exposure Class S3 (Option 1): The benefit of the addi-
tion of pozzolan or slag cement allows for a greater w/cm
than required for Option 2. The amounts of supplementary
cementitious materials are based on records of successful
service or testing in accordance with 26.4.2.2(c).
Exposure Class S3 (Option 2): This option allows the use
of ASTM C150 Type V portland cement meeting the optional
limit of 0.040 percent maximum expansion, ASTM C595
binary and ternary blended cements with the (HS) suffix
in their designation, and ASTM C1157 Type HS cements
without the use of additional pozzolan or slag cement, but it
instead requires a lower w/cm than that required for Option
1. This lower w/cm reduces the permeability of the concrete
and thus increases sulfate resistance (Lenz 1992). Use of this
lower w/cm permits a shorter testing period to qualify the
sulfate resistance of a cementitious system in accordance
with 26.4.2.2(c).
In addition to the proper selection of cementitious mate-
rials, other requirements for durable concrete exposed to
water-soluble sulfates are essential, such as low w/cm,
strength, adequate consolidation, uniformity, adequate cover
of reinforcement, and sufficient moist curing to develop the
potential properties of the concrete.
Exposure Class W1: This exposure class does not have
specific requirements for low permeability. However,
because of the exposure to water, the Code (26.4.2.2(d)) has a
requirement to demonstrate that aggregates used in concrete
are not alkali reactive according to ASTM C1778. If the
aggregates are alkali-silica reactive, the Code (26.4.2.2(d))
also requires submission of proposed mitigation measures.
The Code (26.4.2.2(d)) prohibits the use of aggregates that
are alkali-carbonate reactive.
Exposure Class W2: This exposure class requires low
concrete permeability. The primary means to obtain a
concrete with low permeability is to reduce w/cm. For a
given w/cm, permeability can be reduced by optimizing
the cementitious materials used in the concrete mixture.

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364 ACI 318-19: BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

CODE COMMENTARY
In addition, because of the exposure to water, the Code
(26.4.2.2(d)) has a requirement to demonstrate that aggre-
gates used in concrete are not alkali reactive according to
ASTM C1778. If the aggregates are alkali-silica reactive,
the Code (26.4.2.2(d)) also requires submission of proposed
mitigation measures. The Code (26.4.2.2(d)) prohibits the
use of aggregates that are alkali-carbonate reactive.
Exposure Class C2: For nonprestressed and prestressed
concrete in Exposure Class C2, the maximum w/cm,
minimum specified compressive strength, and minimum
cover are the basic requirements to be considered. Condi-
tions should be evaluated for structures exposed to chlo-
rides, such as in parking structures where chlorides may
be tracked in by vehicles, or in structures near seawater.
Coated reinforcement, corrosion-resistant steel reinforce-
ment, and cover greater than the minimum required in 20.5
can provide additional protection under such conditions.
Use of slag cement meeting ASTM C989 or fly ash meeting
ASTM C618 and increased levels of specified compressive
strength provide increased protection. Use of silica fume
meeting ASTM C1240 with an appropriate high-range water
reducer, ASTM C494, Types F and G, or ASTM C1017 can
also provide additional protection (Ozyildirim and Halstead
1988). The use of ASTM C1202 to test concrete mixtures
proposed for use will provide additional information on the
performance of the mixtures.
Chloride limits for Exposure Category C: For Exposure
Classes C0, C1, and C2, the chloride ion limits apply to the
chlorides contributed from the concrete materials, not from
the environment surrounding the concrete. Even for Expo-
sure Class C0, water-soluble chlorides introduced from the
concrete materials can potentially induce corrosion of the
reinforcement and must be limited for both nonprestressed
and prestressed concrete, regardless of external expo-
sure. For nonprestressed concrete, the permitted maximum
amount of water-soluble chloride ions incorporated into
the concrete, depends on the degree of exposure to an
anticipated external source of moisture and chlorides. For
prestressed concrete, the same limit of 0.06 percent chloride
ion by mass of cementitious material applies regardless of
exposure. The limits on chloride ion content for prestressed
concrete are reduced from those for nonprestressed concrete
because corrosion of prestressed reinforcement generally
has more severe consequences than corrosion of nonpre-
stressed reinforcement. Corrosion-induced reduction in the
cross-sectional area of the prestressed reinforcement may
result in fracture of the steel (ACI 222R). The presence of
chloride ions may cause corrosion of embedded aluminum
such as conduits, especially if the aluminum is in contact
with embedded steel and the concrete is in a humid environ-
ment. Requirements for protecting aluminum embedments
from corrosion are given in 20.6.3 and 26.8.2.
Allowable chloride limits are based on the mass of total
cementitious materials rather than portland cement alone.
This change was made in ACI 318-19 to reflect findings that

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 PART 6: MATERIALS & DURABILITY 365

CODE COMMENTARY
demonstrate the beneficial effects of supplementary cementi-
tious materials (SCMs) in reducing permeability and binding
chlorides, thus helping to inhibit corrosion (Kosmatka and
Wilson 2016). Because there are diminishing effects with
increasing amounts of SCMs, the Code limits the mass of

19 Concrete
SCMs to 50 percent of the total cementitious materials that
can be used to calculate the allowable amount of chloride
ions in concrete (Tepke et al. 2016).
Additional information on the effects of chlorides on the
corrosion of steel reinforcement is given in ACI 201.2R,
which provides guidance on concrete durability, and ACI
222R, which provides guidance on factors that impact corro-
sion of metals in concrete. Requirements for the evaluation
of chloride ion content are provided in 26.4.2.2.

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366 ACI 318-19: BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

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Table 19.3.2.1—Requirements for concrete by exposure class
Additional requirements Limits on
Maximum Minimum fc′, cementitious
Exposure class w/cm[1,2] MPa Air content materials
F0 N/A 17 N/A N/A
F1 0.55 24 Table 19.3.3.1 for concrete or Table 19.3.3.3 for shotcrete N/A
F2 0.45 31 Table 19.3.3.1 for concrete or Table 19.3.3.3 for shotcrete N/A
F3  0.40 [3]
35 [3]
Table 19.3.3.1 for concrete or Table 19.3.3.3 for shotcrete 26.4.2.2(b)
Cementitious materials[4] — Types
Calcium chloride
ASTM C150 ASTM C595 ASTM C1157 admixture
S0 N/A 17 No type restriction No type restriction No type restriction No restriction
Types with (MS)
S1 0.50 28 II[5][6] MS No restriction
designation
Types with (HS)
S2 0.45 31 V[6] HS Not permitted
designation
Types with (HS)
V plus pozzolan or designation plus HS plus pozzolan or
Option 1 0.45 31 Not permitted
slag cement[7] pozzolan or slag slag cement[7]
S3 cement[7]
Types with (HS)
Option 2 0.40 35 V[8] HS Not permitted
designation

W0 N/A 17 None
W1 N/A 17 26.4.2.2(d)
W2 0.50 28 26.4.2.2(d)
Maximum water-soluble chloride ion (Cl–)
content in concrete, percent by mass of
cementitious materials[9,10]
Nonprestressed
concrete Prestressed concrete Additional provisions
C0 N/A 17 1.00 0.06 None
C1 N/A 17 0.30 0.06
C2 0.40 35 0.15 0.06 Concrete cover[11]
[1]
The w/cm is based on all cementitious and supplementary cementitious materials in the concrete mixture.
[2]
The maximum w/cm limits do not apply to lightweight concrete.
[3]
For plain concrete, the maximum w/cm shall be 0.45 and the minimum fc′ shall be 31 MPa.
Alternative combinations of cementitious materials to those listed are permitted for all sulfate exposure classes when tested for sulfate resistance and meeting the criteria in
[4]

26.4.2.2(c).
[5]
For seawater exposure, other types of portland cements with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) contents up to 10 percent are permitted if the w/cm does not exceed 0.40.
Other available types of cement such as Type I or Type III are permitted in Exposure Classes S1 or S2 if the C3A contents are less than 8 percent for Exposure Class S1 or less than
[6]

5 percent for Exposure Class S2.

[7]
The amount of the specific source of the pozzolan or slag cement to be used shall be at least the amount that has been determined by service record to improve sulfate resistance
when used in concrete containing Type V cement. Alternatively, the amount of the specific source of the pozzolan or slag cement to be used shall be at least the amount tested in
accordance with ASTM C1012 and meeting the criteria in 26.4.2.2(c).
If Type V cement is used as the sole cementitious material, the optional sulfate resistance requirement of 0.040 percent maximum expansion in ASTM C150 shall be specified.
[8]

[9]
The mass of supplementary cementitious materials used in determining the chloride content shall not exceed the mass of the portland cement.
[10]
Criteria for determination of chloride content are in 26.4.2.2.
[11]
Concrete cover shall be in accordance with 20.5.

19.3.3 Additional requirements for freezing-and-thawing R19.3.3 Additional requirements for freezing-and-thawing
exposure exposure

19.3.3.1 Concrete subject to freezing-and-thawing Expo- R19.3.3.1 A table of required air contents for concrete
sure Classes F1, F2, or F3 shall be air entrained. Except as to resist damage from cycles of freezing and thawing is

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