tench Yourself

TRIGONOMETRY
trigonometry
 SOME OTHER ELBS LOW-PRICED EDITIONS

Abbott TEACH YOURSELF ALGEBRA EUP

TEACH YOURSELF CALCULUS
TEACH YOURSELF GEOMETRY
TEACH YOURSELF MECHANICS
Cohn LINEAR EQUATIONS Routledge
Douce AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EUP
MATHEMATICS OF SERVO­
MECHANISMS
Glauert PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS Routledge
Goodman TEACH YOURSELF STATISTICS EUP
Green SETS AND GROUPS Routledge
Hardy A COURSE OF PURE MATHEMATICS CUP
Hood TEACH YOURSELF MECHANICAL EUP
DRAUGHTSMANSHIP
Jeffrey MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS Nelson
AND SCIENTISTS
Ledermann COMPLEX NUMBERS Routledge
Maxwell PLANE PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY CUP
Pitman’s TEACH YOURSELF TYPEWRITING EUP
College
Ramsey . DYNAMICS, Parts I & II CUP
Snodgrass TEACH YOURSELF THE SLIDE RULE EUP
Spooner and MATHEMATICS FOR TELECOMMUNI- EUP
Grinsted CATIONS AND ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING, Vols. I & II
 TEACH YOURSELF BOOKS

TRIGONOMETRY
P. ABBOTT, B.A.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BOOK SOCIETY

and
THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES PRESS LTD
London
 E.L.B.S. edition first published 1965

E.L.B.S. edition of Second Edition 1970

Reprinted 197a, 1975

Copyright ©
The English Universities Press Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ­
ing photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.

ISBN o 340 05911 7

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
 INTRODUCTION
Two major difficulties present themselves when a book of
thia kind is planned.
In the first place those who use it may desire to apply it
in a variety of ways and will be concerned with widely
different problems to which Trigonometry supplies the
solution.
In the second instance the previous mathematical training
of its readers will vary considerably.
To the first of these difficulties there can be but one
solution. The book can do no more than include those
parts which are fundamental and common to the needs of
all who require Trigonometry to solve their problems. To
attempt to deal with the technical applications of the
subject in so many different directions would be impossible
.within the limits of a small volume. Moreover, students of
all kinds would find the book overloaded by the inclusion
of matter which, while useful to some, would be unwanted
by others.
Where it has been possible and desirable, the bearing of
certain sections of the subject upon technical problems has
been indicated, but, in general, the book aims at equipping
the student so that he will be in a position to apply to his
own special problems the principles, rules and formulae
which form the necessary basis for practical applications.
The second difficulty has been to decide what preliminary
mathematics should be included in the volume so that it may
be intelligible to. those students whose previous mathe­
matical equipment is slight. The general aim of the
volumes in the series is that, as far as possible, they shall be
self-contained. But in this volume it is obviously necessary
to assume some previous mathematical training. The study
of Trigonometry cannot be begun without a knowledge of
Arithmetic, a certain amount of Algebra, and some
acquaintance with the fundamentals of Geometry.
It may safely be assumed that all who use this book will
have a sufficient knowledge of Arithmetic. In Algebra the
student is expected to have studied at least as much as is
contained in the volume in this senes called Teach Yourself
Mathematics. That work does not include a treatment of
vi INTRODUCTION
" Factors ”, but these are not required until Chapter VII.
Nor does it touch on quadratic equations; these do not
appear however until Chapter XI.
A knowledge of logarithms is, however, indispensable,
and there can be no progress in the application of Trigo­
nometry without them. Accordingly Chapter II is devoted
to a fairly full treatment of them, and unless the student
has studied them previously he should not proceed with the
rest of the book until he has mastered this chapter and
worked as many of the exercises as possible.
No explanation of graphs has been attempted in this
volume. In these days, however, when graphical illus­
trations enter so generally into our daily life, there can be
few who are without some knowledge of them, even if no
study has been made of the underlying mathematical
principles. But, although graphs of trigonometrical
functions are included, they are not essential in general to
a working knowledge of the subject. If the student desires
a better understanding of them, he will find a simple
treatment, specially written for the private student, in
Vol. I of National Certificate Mathematics, published by the
English Universities Press.
A certain amount of geometrical knowledge is necessary
as a foundation for the study of Trigonometry, and possibly
many who use this book will have no previous acquaintance
with " Geometry ”. For them Chapter I has been included.
This chapter is in no sense a course of geometry, or of
geometrical reasoning, but merely a brief descriptive
account of geometrical terms and of certain fundamental
geometrical theorems which will make the succeeding
chapters more easily understood. It is not suggested that
a great deal of time should be spent on this part of the
book, and no exercises are included. It is desirable, however,
that the student should make himself well acquainted with
the subject-matter of it, so that he is thoroughly conversant
with the meaning of the terms employed and acquires
something of a working knowledge of the geometrical
'' theorems ” which are stated.
The real study of Trigonometry begins with Chapter III,
and from that point until the end of Chapter IX there is
very little that can be omitted by any student. Perhaps the
only exception is the " Product formulae ” in §§ 86-89.
This section is necessary, however, for the proof of the
important formula of § 98, but a student who is pressed for
time and finds this part of the work troublesome, may be
content to assume the truth of it when studying § 98. In
Chapter IX the student reaches what may be considered
 INTRODUCTION vii
the goal of elementary trigonometry, the " solution of the
triangle ” and its many applications, and there many will
be content to stop.
Chapters X, XI and XII are not essential for all practical
applications of the subject, but some students, such as
electrical engineers and, of course, all who intend to proceed
to more advanced work, cannot afford to omit them. It may
be noted that previous to Chapter IX only angles which are
not greater than 180° have been considered, and these have
been taken in two stages in Chapters III and V, so that the
approach may be easier. Chapter XI continues the work of
these two chapters and generalizes with a treatment of
angles of any magnitude.
The Exercises throughout have been carefully graded and
selected in such a way as to provide the necessary amount of
manipulation. Most of them are straightforward and
purposeful; examples of academic interest or requiring
special skill in manipulation have, generally speaking,
been excluded.
Trigonometry employs a comparatively large number of
formulae. The more important of these have been collected
and printed on pp. 174, 175 in a convenient form for easy
reference.
The author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to
Mr. C. E. Kerridge, B.Sc., for permission to include in this
book the greater part of Chapter II and a number of
examples and illustrations from Vol. I of National Certificate
Mathematics mentioned above; also to Mr. H. Marshall,
B.Sc., for the inclusion of some examples from Vol. II of the
same work. He is further grateful to Mr. Kerridge for
assistance in reading the proofs of the book.
In writing this book the author has had special regard to
the possible needs of those members of the fighting forces
who require a knowledge of Trigonometry, and he earnestly
hopes that the book may prove of some service to them.
Publisher’s Note: This edition has been amended by
Harold Frayman to incorporate S.I. units throughout.
 CONTENTS
PARJU PAOB
Introduction..............................................

CHAPTER 1
GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS
2. The Nature of Geometry . . 13
3. Plane Surfaces ..... . . 14
5. Angles and their Measurement 16
8. Geometrical Theorems; Lines and Triangles . . 19
16. Quadrilaterals ..... . • 27
17. The Circle ...... . . 28
19. Solid Geometry ..... . . 32
24. Angles of Elevation and Depression . . 37

CHAPTER II
INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
26. , Laws of Indices ..... . . 38
28. Extension of Meaning of Indices . . . 40
32. A System of Logarithms- . . 42
36. To Read a Table of Logarithms . . 46
36. Rules for the Use of Logarithms . • 47
38. Logarithms of Numbers between 0 and 1 . . 49
39. Operations with Negative Logarithms . . . 61

CHAPTER III
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS
40. The Tangent . . 64
44. Changes of Tangents in the First Quadrant 57
46. Tables of Tangents .... . . 69
46. Uses of Tangents .... . . 60
47. The Sine and Cosine .... . . 63
49. Changes of Sines and Cosines in the First Quadrant 64
ix
 CONTENTS
»A1U. »AO»
52. Uses of Sines and Cosines . . . . .67
53. The Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent ... 76
58. Graphs of Trigonometrical Ratios .... 73
59. Logarithms of Trigonometrical Ratios . . .73
61. Solution of Right-angled Triangles ... 78
62. Slope and Gradient ...... 81
63. Projections . . . . . . .82

CHAPTER IV
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL
RATIOS
64. tan 0 = i ....... 84
cos fl
65. sin* fl + cos* fl = 1 . . . . . .85
66. tan* fl 4- 1 = sec* fl ...... 85
cot’ fl 4- 1 = cosec* fl . . . . . .85

CHAPTER V
RATIOS OF ANGLES IN THE SECOND
QUADRANT
68. Positive and Negative Lines ..... 87
69. Direction of Rotation of Angle .... 90
70. The sign convention for the Hypotenuse . . 91
71. To Find the Ratio of Angles in the Second Quadrant
from the .Tables ...... 92
73. To Find an Angle when a Ratio is Given . . 93
74. The Inverse Notation ...... 94
76. Graphs of the Sine, Cosine and Tangent between 0°
and 360°........................................................................ 95

CHAPTER VI
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF COMPOUND
ANGLES
78. sin (A 4- B) = sin A cos B 4- cos A sin B, etc. . 98
79. sin (A — B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B, etc. . 100
81. tan (A 4- B) and tan (A — B) . . . . 101
83. Multiple and Sub-multiple Formulae . . . 103
86. Product Formulae ...... 106
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER VII
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES
OF A TRIANGLE
PARA. PAGB
90. The Sine Rule . . 109
91. The Cosine Rule . . Ill
92. The Half-Angle Formulae . . 113
A
93. Formula for sin in terms of the sides • . . 113
A
A
94. » cos »» • . . 114
X A
95. tan 2 „ >» • . . 115

96. „ sin A ,, •• • . . 115

. B — C b —c
98. 2 “ b + c COt 2 . 117

98. o = & cos C + c cos B . • 4 • . . 120

CHAPTER VIII
THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
102. Case I. Three Sides known . . . . - 121
103. Case II. Two Sides and Contained Angle known . 124
104. Case III. Two Angles and a Side known . . 126
105. Case IV. The Ambiguous Case .... 127
106. The Area of a Triangle ..... 130

CHAPTER IX
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
108. Determination of the Height of a Distant Object . 134
109. Distance of an Inaccessible Object . . . 137
110. Distance between Two Visible but Inaccessible
Objects ........ 137
111. Triangulation ....... 138
112. Worked Examples- ...... 139
xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER X
CIRCULAR MEASURE
ran*. rxos
114. Ratio of Circumference of a Circle to its Diameter - 148
116. The Radian ...... • 149
118. To Find the Circular Measure of an Angle . • 150
120. The Length of an Arc . • . • • 151

CHAPTER XI
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES OF
ANY MAGNITUDE
123. Angles in the 3rd and 4th Quadrants . . • 153
124. Variations in the Sine between 0° and 360° . • 155
126. Variations in the Cosine between 0° and 360° . • 157
128. Variations in the Tangent between 0° and 360° • 158
130. Ratios of Angles greater than 360° . . • 161
131. Ratios of (— 0) . . . . . . • 162
132. Ratios of 6 and (180° + 9) . . . . • 162
133. Ratios of 6 and (360° — ff) . . . . • 163
136. Angles with given Trigonometrical Ratios • 165

CHAPTER XII
TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS
138. Types of Equations ..... • 169
139. The Form a cos 0 4- b sin 6 = c ... • 171

Summary of Trigonometrical Formulae . • . 174

Tables . . ........................................................ 176'
Answers .................................................................................... 108
 CHAPTER I

GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS

I. Trigonometry and Geometry.

The name Trigonometry is derived from the Greek words
meaning " triangle ’’ ana “ to measure ”. It was so called
because in its beginnings it was mainly concerned with the
problem of “ solving a triangle By this is meant the
problem of finding all the sides and angles of a triangle,
when some of these are known.
Before beginning the study of Trigonometry it is very
desirable, in order to reach an intelligent understanding of
it, to acquire some knowledge of the fundamental geo­
metrical ideas upon which the subject is largely built.
Indeed, Geometry itself is thought to have had its origins
in practical problems which are now solved by Trigono­
metry. This is indicated in certain fragments of Egyptian
mathematics which are available for our study. We learn
from them that from early times Egyptian mathematicians
were concerned with the solution of problems arising out of
certain geographical phenomena peculiar to that country.
Every year the Nile floods destroyed landmarks and boun­
daries of property. To re-establish them, methods of
surveying were developed, and these were dependent upon
principles which came to be studied under the name of
“ Geometry ”. The word " Geometry ", a Greek one,
means " Earth measurement ", and this serves as an indica­
tion of the origins of the subject.
We shall therefore begin by a brief consideration of
certain geometrical principles and theorems, the applica­
tions of which we shall subsequently employ. It will not
be possible, however, within this small book to attempt
mathematical proofs of the various theorems which will be
stated. The student who has not previously studied the
subject of Geometry, and who desires to possess a more
complete knowledge of it, should turn to any good modern
treatise on this branch of mathematics.
X The Nature of Geometry.
Geometry has been called " the science of space ”. It
deals with solids, their forms and sizes. By a " solid " we
13
M TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
mean a “ portion of space bounded by surfaces ", and in
Geometry we deal only with what are called " regular
solids As a simple example consider that familiar solid,
the cube. We are not concerned with the material of which
it is composed, but merely the shape of the portion of space
which it occupies. We note that it is bounded by six
surfaces, which are squares. Each square is said to be at
right angles to adjoining squares. Where two squares
intersect straight lines are formed; three adjoining squares
meet in a point. These are examples of some of the matters
that Geometry considers in connection with this particular
solid.
For the purpose of examining the geometrical properties
of the solid we employ a conventional representation of the
cube, such as is shown in Fig. 1. In this all the faces are
shown, as though the body were made of transparent
material, those edges which could not otherwise be seen
being indicated by dotted lines. The
__ student can follow from this figure the
~~—rl—=W1 properties mentioned above.
1 3. Plane surfaces.
The surfaces which form the boundaries
of the cube are level or flat surfaces, or
in geometrical terms “ plane surfaces
Fig. 1. It is important that the student should
have a clear idea of what is meant by a
plane surface. It may be described as a level surface, a
term that everybody understands although he may be unable
to give a mathematical definition of it. Perhaps the best
example in nature of a level surface or plane surface is that
of still water. A water surface is also a horizontal surface.
The following definition will present no difficulty to the
student.
A plane surface is such that the straight line which joins
any two points on it lies wholly in the surface.
It should further be noted that
A plane surface is determined uniquely, by
(1) Three points not in the same straight line.
(2) By two intersecting straight lines.
By this we mean that one plane, and one only, can include
(1) three given points, or (2) two given intersecting straight
lines.
It will be observed that we have spoken of surfaces, points
and straight lines without defining them. Every student
probably understands what the terms mean, and we shall
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS
not consider them further here, but those who would
desire more precise knowledge of them should consult a
geometrical treatise. We shall proceed to consider theorems
connected with points and lines on a plane surface. This is
the part of geometry called " plane geometry The study
of the shapes and geometrical properties of solids is the
function of “ solid geometry ”, which we will touch on later.
4. Angles are of the utmost importance in Trigonometry,
and the student must therefore have a clear understanding
of them from the outset. Everybody knows that an angle
is formed when two straight lines or two surfaces meet.
This has been assumed in § 2. But a precise mathematical
definition is desirable. Before proceeding to that, however,
we will consider some elementary notions and terms con­
nected with an angle.
In Fig. 2, (a), (6), (c) are shown three examples of angles.
(1) In Fig. 2 (a) two straight lines OA, OB, called the

arms of the angle, meet at O to form the angle denoted by

AOB.
0 is termed the vertex of the angle.
The arms may be of any length, and the size of the angle
is not altered by increasing or decreasing them.
The “ angle AOB ” can be denoted by /-AOB or AOB.
It should be noted that the middle letter, in this case, 0,
always indicates the vertex of the angle.
(2) In Fig. 2 (6) the straight line AO is said to meet
the straight line CB at O. Two angles are formed, AOB
and AOC, with a common vertex O.
(3) In Fig. 2 (c) two straight lines AB and CD cut one
another at 0. Thus there are formed four angles COB,
AOC. DOA.DOB.
The pair of angles COB,AOD are termed vertically opposite'
angles. The angles AOC, BOD are also vertically opposite.
Adjacent angles. Angles which have a common vertex
and also one common arm are called adjacent angles. Thus
in Fig. 2 (6) AOB, AOC are adjacent. In Fig. 2 (c) COB,
BOD are adjacent, etc.
16 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
5. Angles formed by rotation.
We must now consider a mathematical conception of an
angle.
Imagine a straight line, starting from a fixed position
on OA (Fig. 3), to rotate about a point 0 in the direction
indicated by an arrow.

Fig. 4.

■ Let it take up the position indicated by OB.

In rotating from OA to OB an angle AOB is described.
Thus we have the conception of an angle as formed by the
rotation of a straight line about a fixed point, the vertex of the
angle.
If any point C be taken on the rotating arm, it will
clearly mark out an arc of a circle, CD.

Fig. 5.
There is no limit to the amount of rotation of OA, and
consequently angles of any size can be formed by a straight
line rotating in this way.
A half rotation. Let us next suppose that the rota­
tion from OA to OB is continued until the position OA'
is reached (Fig. 4), in which OA' and OA are in the same
straight line. The point, C, will have marked out a semi­
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 17
circle and the angle formed AOA' is sometimes called a
straight angle
A complete rotation. Now let the rotating arm con­
tinue to rotate, in the same direction as before, until it
arrives back at its original position on OA. It has then
made a complete rotation. The point C, on the rotating arm,
will have marked out the circumference of a circle, as
indicated by the dotted line.
6. Measurement of angles.
(a) Sexagesimal measure.
The conception of formation of an angle by rotation leads
us to a convenient method of measuring angles. We

Fig. 6.
imagine the complete rotation to be divided into 360 equal
divisions; thus we get 360 small equal angles, each of these
is called a degree, and is denoted by 1°.
Since any point on the rotating arm marks out the cir­
cumference of a circle, there will be 360 equal divisions of
this circumference, corresponding to the 360 degrees (see
Theorem 17). If these divisions are marked on the circum­
ference we could, by joining the points of division to the
centre, show the 360 equal angles. These could be numbered,
and thus the figure could be used for measuring any given
angle. In practice the divisions apd the angles are very
small, and it would be difficult to draw them accurately.
This, however, is the principle of the " circular protractor ,
which is an instrument devised for the purpose of measuring
angles. Every student of Trigonometry should provide him­
self with a protractor for this purpose.
i8 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Right angles. Fig. 6 represents a complete rotation, such
as was shown in Fig. 5. Let the points D and F be taken
half-way between C and E in each semi-circle.
The circumference is thus divided into four equal parts.
The straight line DF will pass through 0.
The angles COD, DOE, EOF, FOC, each one-fourth of a
complete rotation, are termed right angles, and each con­
tains 90°.
The circle is divided into four equal parts called Quadrants,
and numbered the first, second, third and fourth quadrants
in the order of their formation.
Also when the rotating line has made a half rotation, the
angle formed—the straight angle—must contain 180°.
Each degree is divided into 6o minutes, shown by
Each minute is divided into 6o seconds, shown by ".
Thus 37° 15' 27" means an angle of
37 degrees, 15 minutes, 27 seconds.
This division into so many small parts is very important
in navigation, surveying, gunnery, etc., where great accuracy
is essential.
Historical note. The student may wonder why the
number 360 has been chosen for the division of a complete
rotation to obtain the degree. The selection of this number
was made in very early days in the history of the world, and
we know, for example, from inscriptions that it was em­
ployed in ancient Babylon. The number probably arose
from the division of the heavens by ancient astronomers into
360 parts, corresponding to what was reputed to be the
number of days in the year. The number 60 was possibly
used as having a large number of factors and so capable of
being used for easy fractions.
(6) Centesimal measure. When the French adopted the
Metric system they abandoned the method of dividing the
circle into 360 parts. To make the system of measuring
angles consistent with other metric measures, it was
decided to divide the right angle into 100 equal parts, and
consequently the whole circle into 400 parts. The angles
thus obtained were called grades.
Consequently 1 right angle = 100 grades.
1 grade = 100 minutes.
1 minute = 100 seconds.
(c) Circular measure. There is a third method of measur­
ing angles which is an absolute one, that is, it does not depend
upon dividing the right angle into any arbitrary number of
equal parts, such as 360 or 400.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS t9
The unit is obtained as follows:
In a circle, centre O (see Fig. 7), let a radius OA rotate to
a position OB, such that,
the length of the arc AB is equal to that of the radius.
In doing this an angle AOB is formed which is the unit
of measurement. It is called a radian. The size of this
angle will be the same whatever radius is taken. It is
absolute in magnitude.
In degrees 1 radian = 57° IT 44-8" (approx.). This
method of measuring angles will be dealt with more fully in
Chapter X. It is very Important and is always used in
the higher branches of mathematics.

7. Terms used to describe angles.

An Acute angle is an angle which is less than a right
angle.
An Obtuse angle is one which is greater than a right
angle.
Reflex or re-entrant angles are angles between 180° and
360°.
Complementary angles. When the sum of two angles is
equal to a right angle, each is called the complement of the
other. Thus the complement of 38° is 90° — 38° = 52°.
Supplementary angles. When the sum of two angles is
equal to 180°, each angle is called the supplement of the
other. Thus the supplement of 38° is 180° — 38° = 142°.

8. Geometrical Theorems.
We will now proceed to state, without proof, some of the
more important geometrical theorems.
20 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Theorem I. Intersecting straight lines.
If two straight lines intersect, the vertically opposite
angles are equal. (See § 4.)

In Fig. 8, AB and CD are two straight lines intersecting

at O.
Then AAOC = ZBOD
and /.COB = /.AOD.
The student will probably see the truth of this on noticing
that /.AOC and /£0D are each supplementary to the
same angle, COB.
9. Parallel straight lines.
Take a set square PRQ (Fig. 9) and slide it along the
edge of a ruler.
Let be a second position which it takes up.

Fig. 9.

It is evident that the inclination of PQ to A B is the same

as that of P1Q1 to AB', since there has been no change in
direction.
/.PQB = LP&Jl
If PQ and PXQ1 were produced to any distance they would
not meet.
The straight lines PQ and P ,0] are said to be parallel.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 21
Similarly PR and are parallel.
Hence the following definition.
Straight lines in the same plane which will not meet however
far they may be produced are said to be parallel.
Direction. Parallel straight lines in a plane have the same
direction. If a number of ships, all sailing North in a convoy
are ordered to change direction by turning through the
same angle, they will then follow parallel courses.
Terms connected with parallel lines.
In Fig. 10 AB, CD represent two parallel straight lines.
Transversal. A straight line such as PQ which cuts them
is called a transversal.

Corresponding angles. On each side of the transversal

are two pairs of angles, one pair of which is shaded in the
figure. These are called corresponding angles.
Alternate angles. Two angles such as AEF, EFD on
opposite sides of the transversal, are called alternate angles.
Theorem 2.
If a pair of parallel straight lines be cut by a transversal
fl) Alternate angles are equal.
(2) Corresponding angles on the same side of the trans­
versal are equal.
(3) The two interior angles on the same side of the
transversal are equal to two right angles.
Thus in Fig. 10.
Alternate angles. /AEF = /EFD; /BEF = /EFC.
Corresponding angles.
/PEB= /EFD; /BEF = /DFQ.
Similarly on the other side of the transversal.
Interior angles /BEF + /EFD = 2 right angles,
also /AEF -j- /EFC = 2 right angles.
22 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
10. Triangles.
Kinds of triangles.

A right-angled triangle has one of its angles

a right angle. The side opposite to the
right angle is called the hypotenuse.

An acute-angled triangle has all its angles

acute angles (see § 7).

An obtuse-angled triangle has one of its

angles obtuse (see § 7).

An isosceles triangle has two of its sides

A equal.

An equilateral triangle has all its sides

A
Fig. 11.
equal.

Lines connected with a triangle. The following terms are

used for certain lines connected with a triangle.

In A ABC, Fig. 12,

(1) AP is the perpendicular from A to BC. It is called
the altitude from the vertex A.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 23
(2) AQ is the bisector of the vertical angle at A.
(3) AR bisects BC. It is called a median. If each of the
points B and C be taken as a vertex, there are two other
corresponding medians. Thus a triangle may have three
medians.
II. Theorem 3. Isosceles and equilateral triangles.
In an isosceles triangle
(a) The sides opposite to the equal angles are equal.
(&) A straight line drawn from the vertex perpendicular
to the opposite side bisects that side and the vertical angle.

Fig. 13.

In Fig. 13, ABC is an isosceles A and AO is drawn perp,

to the base from the vertex A.
Then by the above /.ABC = A.ACB
BO =0C
ABAO = ACAO.
Equilateral triangle. The above is true for an equilateral
triangle, and since all its sides are equal, all its angles are
equal.
Note.—In an isosceles A the altitude, median and
bisector of the vertical angle (see § 10) coincide when the
point of intersection of the two equal sides is the vertex.
If the A is equilateral they coincide for all three vertices.

12. Angle properties of a triangle.

Theorem 4. If one side of a triangle be produced, the
exterior angle so formed is equal to the sum of the two
interior opposite angles.
Thus in Fig. 14 one side BC of the A ABC is produced
to D.
AACD is called an exterior angle.
24 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Then by the above
/.ACD = LABC + £BAC
Notes.—(1) Since the exterior angle is equal to the sum
of the opposite interior angles, it must be greater than
either of them.
(2) As each side of the triangle may be produced in turn,
there are three exterior angles.
Theorem 5. The sum of the angles of any triangle is
equal to two right angles.
Notes.—It follows:
(li Each of the angles of an equilateral triangle is 60°.
(2) In a right-angled triangle the two acute angles are
complementary (see § 7).
(3) The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360°, since
it can be divided into two triangles by joining two opposite
points.
13. Congruency of triangles.
Definition. Triangles which are equal in all respects are
taid to be congruent.
Such triangles have corresponding sides and angles equal,
and are exact copies of one another.
If two triangles ABC and DEF are congruent we may
express this by the notation A ABC => A DEF.

Conditions of congruency.
Two triangles are congruent when
(1) Theorem 6. Three sides of one are respectively
equal to the three sides of the other.
(2) Theorem 7. Two sides of one and the angle they
contain are equal to two sides and the contained angle of
the other.
(3) Theorem 8. Two angles and a side of one are equal
to two angles and the corresponding side of the other.
These conditions in which triangles are congruent are
very important. The student can test the truth of them
practically by constructing triangles which fulfil the con­
ditions stated above.
The ambiguous case.
The case of constructing a triangle when there are given
two sides and an angle opposite to one of them, not contained
by them as in Theorem 7, requires special consideration.
Example. Construct a triangle in which two sides are
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS
35 mm and 25 mm and the angle opposite the smaller of
these is 30®.
The construction is as follows:
Draw a straight line AX of indefinite length (Fig. 15).
At A construct AB AX = 30° and make AB = 35 mm.
With B as centre and radius 25 mm construct an arc of a
circle tb cut AX.
This it will do in. two points, C and C'.
Consequently if we join BC or BC' we shall complete
two triangles ABC, ABC' each of which will fulfil the given
conditions. There being thus two solutions the case is
called “ ambiguous ”.

14. Right-angled triangles.

Theorem of Pythagoras.
Theorem 9. In every right-angled triangle the square
on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the
sides containing the right angle.
In Fig. 16 ABC is a right-angled triangle, AB being the
hypotenuse. On the three sides squares have been con­
structed. Then the area of the square described on AB
is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other
two sides.
This we can write in the form
AB* = AC* + BC*.
If we represent the length of AB by c, AC by b and BC
by a, then c* = a* + b*.
It should be noted that by using this result, if any two
sides of a right-angled triangle are known, we can find the
other side, for
a* = c* -b*
b* =c* — a*.
26 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Note.—This theorem is named after Pythagoras, the Greek
mathematician and philosopher who was bom about 569 b.o.
It is one of the most important and most used of all geo­
metrical theorems. Two proofs are given in Vol. I of
National Certificate Mathematics, published by the English
Universities Press.

Fig. 16.
15. Similar triangles.
Definition. If the angles of one triangle are respectively
equal to the angles of another triangle the two triangles are said
to be similar.
The sides of similar triangles which are opposite to equal
angles in each are called corresponding sides.

Fig. 17.

In Fig. 17 the triangles ABC, DEF are equiangular

LABC = LDEF,
LBAC = LEDF,
LACB = LDFE.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 27
The sides AB, DE are two corresponding sides.
So also are A C and DF, BC and EF.
Fig. 18 shows another example of interest later.
AB, CD, EF are parallel.
Then by the properties of parallel lines (see § 9)
A.OAB = A.OCD = A.OEF
also A.OBA = A.ODC = AOFE.
the triangles OAB, OCD, OEF are similar.

Property of similar triangles.

Theorem 10. If two triangles are similar, the correspond­
ing sides are proportional.

Thus in Fig. 17 :
AB _DE AB _DE AC _DF
BC~EF' AC~ DF' CB~FE
Similarly in Fig. 18 :
AB CD EF
BO~ DO~ FO‘
AB _CD _EF
OA~OC~ OE‘ ‘
These results are of great importance in Trigonometry.
Note.—A similar relation holds between the sides of
quadrilaterals and other rectilinear figures which are
equiangular.

16. Quadrilaterals.
A quadrilateral is a plane figure with four sides, and a
straight line joining two opposite angles is called a diagonal.
28 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
The following are among the principal quadrilaterals,
with some of their properties :
(1) The square (a) has all its sides
equal and all its angles right angles;
(b) its diagonals are equal, bisect each
other at right angles and also bisect
the opposite angles.
(I)
(2) The rhombus (a) has all its sides
equal; (b) its angles are not right
angles; (c) its diagonals bisect each
other at right angles and bisect the
opposite angles.
(2)

(3) The rectangle («) has opposite

sides equal and all its angles are right
angles; (b) its diagonals are equal and
bisect each other.
(3)
(4) The parallelogram (a) has oppo­
site sides equal and parallel; (6) its
opposite angles are equal; (c) its
diagonals bisect each other.
(4)
(5) The trapezium has two opposite
sides parallel.

(S) 17, The Circle.

F_ Definitions. It has already been
r ' assumed that the student understands
what a circle is, but we now give a geometrical definition.
A circle is a plane figure bounded by one line which is called
the circumference and is such that all straight lines drawn
to the circumference from a point within the circle, called the
centre, are equal.
These straight lines are called radii.
An arc is a part of the circumference.
A chord is a straight line joining two points on the cir­
cumference and dividing the circle into two parts.
A diameter is a chord which passes through the centre of
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 29
the circle. It divides the circle into two equal parts called
semi-circles.
A segment is a part of a circle bounded by a chord and
the arc which it cuts off. Thus in Fig. 20 the chord PQ
divides the circle into two segments. The larger of these
PCQ is called a major segment and the smaller, PBQ, is
called a minor segment.
A sector of a circle is that part of the circle which is
bounded by two radii and the arc intercepted between
them.
Thus in Fig. 21 the figure 'OPBQ is a sector bounded by
the radii OP, OQ and the arc PBQ.
An angle in a segment is the angle formed by joining the
ends of a chord or arc to a point on the arc of the segment.

Fig. 20. Fig. 21.

Thus in Fig. 22, the ends of the chord AB are joined to D

a point on the arc of the segment. The angle ADB is the
angle in the segment A BCD.
If we join A and B to any point D' in the minor segment,
then /~AD'B is the angle in the minor segment.
If A and B are joined to the centre 0, the angle AOB is
called the angle at the centre.
The angle ADB is also said to subtend the arc AB and the
AAOB is said to be the angle subtended at the centre by the
arc AB or the chord AB.
Concentric Circles. Circles which have the same centre
are called concentric circles.
18. Theorems relating'to the circle.
Theorem 11. Ifa diameter bisects a chord, which Is not
a diameter, it is perpendicular to the chord.
Theorem 12. Equal chords in a circle are equidistant
from the centre.
Theorem 13. The angle which is subtended at the
3o TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
centre of a circle by an arc is double the angle subtended at
the circumference.
In Fig. 23 /.AOB is the angle subtended at O the centre
of the circle by the arc AB, and AADB is an angle at the
circumference (see § 17) as also is /.ACB.
Then /.AOB = 2/.ADB.
Also /.AOB = 2/.ACB.
Theorem 14. Angles in the same segment of a circle are
equal to one another.
In Fig. 23 /.ACB = /.ADB.
This follows at once from Theorem 13.
Theorem IS. The opposite angles of a quadrilateral
Inscribed in a circle are together equal to two right angles.

Fig. 23.
Fig. 22.
They are therefore supplementary (see § 7).
Note.—A quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is called a cyclic
or concyclic quadrilateral.
In Fig. 24, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
Then /.ABC + /.ADC = 2 right angles
/.BAD + /.BCD = 2 right angles.
Theorem 16. The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
In Fig. 25 AOB is a diameter.
The /.ACB is an angle in one of the semi-circles so formed.
/.ACB is a right angle.
Theorem 17. Angles at the centre of a circle are
proportional to the arcs on which they stand.
In Fig. 26,
/.POQ arc PQ
/.QOR “ arc QR.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 31
It follows from this that equal angles stand on equal arcs.
This is assumed in the method of measuring angles
described in § 6(a).

Tangent to a circle.
A tangent to a circle is a straight line which meets the
circumference of the circle but which when produced does not
cut it.
In Fig, 27 PQ represents a tangent to the circle at a
point A on the circumference.

Theorem 18. A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to

the radius drawn from the point of contact.
Thus in Fig. 27 PQ is at right angles to OA.
3* TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

SOLID GEOMETRY
19. We have so far confined ourselves to the consideration
of some of the properties of figures drawn on plane surfaces.
In many of the practical applications of Geometry we are
concerned also with “ solids ” to which we have referred in
§ 2. In addition to these, in surveying and navigation
problems, for example, we need to make observations and
calculations in different “ planes ”, which are not specifi­
cally the surfaces of solids. Examples of these, together
with a brief classification of the different kinds of regular
solids, will be given later.
20. Angle between two planes.
Take a piece of fairly stout paper and fold it in two.
Let AB, Fig. 28, be the line of the fold. Draw this straight

Fig. 28.
line. Let BCDA, BEFA represent the two parts of the
paper.
These can be regarded as two separate planes. Starting
with the two parts folded together, keeping one part fixed
the other part can be rotated about AB into the position
indicated by ABEF. In this process the one plane has
moved through an angle relative to the fixed plane. This is
analogous to that of the rotation of a line as described in
§ 5. We must now consider how this angle can be definitely
fixed and measured. Flattening out the whole paper again
take any point P on the line of the fold, ».«. AB, and draw
RPQ at right angles to AB. If you fold again PR will
coincide with PQ. Now rotate again and the line PR will
mark out an angle relative to PQ as we saw in § 5. The
angle RPQ is thus the angle which measures the amount of
rotation, and is called the angle between the planes.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 33
Definition. The angle between two planes is the angle
between two straight lines which are drawn, one in each plane,
at right angles to the line of intersection of the plane and from
the same point on it.
When this angle becomes a right angle the planes are
perpendicular to one dnother.
As a particular case a plane which is perpendicular to a
horizontal plane is called a vertical plane (see § 3).
If you examine a corner of the cube shown in Fig. 1 you
will see that it is formed by three planes at right angles to
one another. A similar instance may be observed in the
corner of a room which is rectangular in shape.

Fig. 29.
21. A straight line perpendicular to a plane.
Take a piece of cardboard AB (Fig. 29), and on it draw a
number of straight lines intersecting at a point O. At O
fix a pin OP so that it is perpendicular to all of these lines.
Then OP is said to be perpendicular to the plane AB.
Definition. ■ A straight line is said to be perpendicular to a
plane when it is perpendicular to any straight line which it
meets in the plane.
Plumb line and vertical. Builders use what is called a
plumb line to obtain a vertical line. It consists of a small
weight fixed to a fine line. This vertical line is perpendicular
to a horizontal plane.
22. Angle between a straight line and a plane.
Take a piece of cardboard A BCD, Fig. 30, and at a point
O in it fix a needle ON at any angle. At any point P on the
34 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
needle stick another needle PQ into the board, and per­
pendicular to the board.
Draw the line OQR on the board.
OQ is catted the projection of OP on the plane ABCD.

Fig. 30.
The angle POQ between OP and its projection on the
plane is called the angle between OP and the plane.
If you were to experiment by drawing ether lines from O
on the plane you will see that you will get angles of different
sizes between ON and such lines. But the angle POQ is
the smallest of all the angles which can be formed in this
way.
Definition. The angle between a straight line and a plane
is the angle between the straight line and its projection on
the plane.

23. Some regular solids.

(1) Prisms. In Fig. 31(a), (6), (c) are shown three
typical prisms.
(a) is rectangular, (6) is triangular and (c) is hexagonal.
They have two ends or bases, identically equal and a
rectangle, triangle and regular hexagon respectively.
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 35

The sides are rectangles in all three figures and their

planes are perpendicular to the bases.
Such prisms are called right prisms.
If sections are made parallel to the bases, all such sections
are identically equal to the bases. A prism is a solid with
a uniform cross section.
Similarly other prisms can be constructed with other
geometrical figures as bases.

W
Fig. 32.
(2) Pyramids. In Fig. 32 (a), (6), (c), are shown three
typical pyramids.
(а) is a square pyramid; 0
(б) is a triangular pyramid; A
jc) is a hexagonal pyramid. ZlNi
Pyramids have one base only, fi l\\
which, as was the case with prisms, // l\\
is some geometrical figure. /1 \ \
The sides, however, are isosceles / ' I\ \
triangles, and they meet at a point /Cl> I \ \
called the vertex. /\
The angle between each side and // \ l
the base can be determined as follows Z' . - -pVM-AZ
for a square pyramid. \|/^
In Fig. 33, let P be the inter-
section of the diagonals of the base. ,
Join P to the vertex O. i’IG-
When OP is perpendicular to the base the pyramid is a
right pyramid and OP is its axis.
Let Q be the mid-point of one of the sides of the base AB.
Join PQ and OQ.
Then PQ and OQ are perpendicular to AB (Theorem 11).
It will be noticed that OPQ represents a plane, imagined
within the pyramid but not necessarily the surface of a solid.
Then by the Definition in § 20, the angle OQP represents
the angle between the plane of the base and the plane of
the side OAB.
Clearly the angles between the other sides and the base
will be equal to this angle.
36 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Note.—This angle must not be confused with angle OBP
which students sometimestake to be the angle between a
side and the base.
Sections of right pyramids.
If sections are made parallel to the base, and therefore at
right angles to the axis, they are of the same shape as the
base, but of course smaller and similar.
(3) Solids with curved surfaces.
The surfaces of all the solids considered above are plane
surfaces. There are many solids whose surfaces are either
entirely curved or partly plane and partly curved. Three
well-known ones can be mentioned here, the cylinder, the
cone and the sphere. Sketches of two of these are shown
below in Fig. 34(a) and (6).

Fig. 34.
(а) The cylinder (Fig. 34(a)). This has two bases which
are equal circles and a curved surface at right angles to these.
A cylinder can be easily made by taking a rectangular piece
of paper and rolling it round until two ends meet. This is
sometimes called a circular prism.
(б) The cone (Fig. 34(6)). This is in reality a pyramid
with a circular base.
(c) The sphere. A sphere is a solid such that any point
on its surface is the same distance from a point within,
called the centre. Any section of a sphere is a circle.
24. Angles of elevation and depression.
The following terms are used in practical applications of
Geometry and Trigonometry.
(a) Angle of elevation.
Suppose that a surveyor, standing at O (Fig. 35) wishes to
determine the height of a distant tower and spire. His first
step would be to place a telescope (in a theodolite) hori­
zontally at 0. He would then rotate it in a vertical plane
 GEOMETRICAL FOUNDATIONS 37

until it pointed to the top of the spire. The angle through

which he rotates it, the angle POQ, in Fig. 36 is called the
of elevation or the attitude of P.
Sometimes this is said to be the angle subtended by the
building at 0.

Arglc <rf II,,'

Depm*ionx<y

\ Ans1* °f
-g ^-Ehvation

Fig. 35.
Altitude of the sun. The attitude of the sun is in reality
the angle of elevation of the sun. It is the angle made by
the sun's rays, considered parallel, with the horizontal at
any given spot at a given time.
(6) Angle of depression.
If at the top of the tower shown in Fig. 35, a telescope
were to be rotated from the horizontal till it points to an
object at 0, the angle so formed is called the angle of de­
pression.
 CHAPTER II

LOGARITHMS

25. Logarithms axe of the utmost importance in Trigono­

metry. Without them many calculations would be ex­
tremely tedious and in some cases impossible. Lest the
student should not have a working knowledge of them we
give a brief summary of their nature, properties and uses.
Logarithms are Indices viewed from a special standpoint.
We must therefore begin by a brief consideration of the
laws of Indices.
It will be learnt from Teach Yourself Mathematics that
a* represents a x a x a x a, where a is any number.
The Index " 4 " indicates the number of factors.
Generally, if “ n ” stands for any whole number
a* means a x a x a x . . . to n factors and
a" Is called the nth power of a.
26. Laws of Indices.
We now proceed to the laws which govern the use of
Indices.
(1) Law of multiplication.
Sincea* =axaxaxa (i.e. the product of " 4 a’s ”)
and a* = a x a x a (the product of " 3 a’s ").
then a* x a* = the product of (4 + 3)a’s.
i.e. a* x as = at+t
= a7.
And generally if m and n are any positive integers we can
prove
a« x a* = a”+',.
This law is obviously true for any number of factors, e.g.
a” x a* x a* = a"+,,+>.
(2) Law of division.
Since a1 = axaxaxaxa
and a* = a x a x a
on division the three factors of as cancel three of the five
factors of a*.
Thus (5 — 3) i.e. 2 factors are left.
38
 LOGARITHMS 39
». a» 4- a® = «»-»
and in general we can prove
a- 4- a* = a"-*.
(3) Law of powers.
Suppose we require the value of («•)’, the third power
of a1. This by the meaning of an index is
a‘ x a‘ x a*
and by the first law of Indices, above,
a® x a’ X a® = a®+4+®
»>. (a*)* = a,x*
= a11.
In general (a")" = a"*.
27. Summary of the Laws of Indices.
(1) Multiplication. a“ x a“ = a“+*.
(2) Division. a” 4 «“ = a“-“.
(3) Powers. (a-)” = a"*.

Exercise I.

1. Write down the values of :

(1) a4 x a*. (4) jx X }x’ X lx*.
(2) V x 6®. (5) 2s X 2‘.
(3) x* X x4 X x*. (6) 3 X 3* X 34.

2. Write down the values of :

(1) a’ 4- a*. (3) x14 4- x4.
(2) ci® 4- c». (4) 2“ 4- 2*.

3. Find the values of:

(3)£x£.
(1) x' X x* 4- x*.

(2) a4 x a’ 4- a®. («
4. Find the values of .*
(1) tan®. (5) (104)®.
(2) M*. (6) (3a4)®.
(3) 264)4. 7) (i*4)’-
(4) (24)’. (8) (3»)».
40 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
28. Extension of the meaning of an index.
The student will readily understand how useful and im­
portant indices are in Algebra. He will note that so far
they have been restricted to positive whole numbers only,
and the meaning, given to such a quantity as a" is un­
intelligible except on the supposition that n is a positive
integer. But we will now consider the possibility of
extending the uses of indices so that they can have any
value.
The student may already have noticed one instance
which will be among those we shall consider in detail later.
If we divide a* by a* and write this down in the form
a X a x a ... ... 1 1
------------------------------ , we obtain on cancelling,--------- or -s.
axaxaxax a’ ° a x a a*
If a’ be divided by a* according to rule we have
a* -s- a* = a*~*
= ar*
We are thus left with a negative index. But the working
above shows that the result of the division of a* by a1 is
Consequently it appears that ar* means the same thing
as or the reciprocal of a*. <
Thus it seems that a meaning can be given to ar* which
is, of course, quite different from the meaning when the
index is a positive whole number. We are therefore led to
consider what meanings can be given in all those cases in
which the index is not a pbsitive integer. In seeking these
meanings of an index there is one fundamental principle
which will always guide us, viz. : Every index must obey the
laws of indices as discovered for positive integers. In other
words, we will assume that the laws of indices, as stated
above, are true in all cases.
29. Fractional Indices.
We will begin with the simple case of ai. Since, by the
above principle, it must conform to the laws of Indices, then,
applying the law of multiplication
at x ai — ai+i
= a1 or a
ai must be such a quantity that, on being multiplied
by itself, the result is a.
ai must be defined as the square root of a
or ai = Va
 LOGARITHMS 4*
Similarly
X a* X «i= ai+i+i
= a
(First law of indices)
al must be defined as the cube root of a.
The same argument may be applied in other cases, and
so generally

a" = \7a
To find a meaning for a*
Applying the first law of indices
a* X al x al — a>+*+*
= a*
al must be the cube root of a*
or al = tya*
Similarly a* —
m
and generally a" =
The student will note that decimal indices can be reduced
to vulgar fractions and defined accordingly.
Thus a0-1* = al

30. To find a meaning for a°

a" 4- a” — 1
But, using the law of division for Indices,
a*a* = an~*
— a°
a<> = 1
It should be noted that a represents any number. This
result therefore is independent of the value of a.
31. Negative indices.
To find a meaning for a-"
ar' x a' = a_"+“ (First law of indices)
= 4°
= 1 (shown above)
Dividing by a"
42 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
We may therefore define cr" as the reciprocal of a".
Examples
a-1 = -
a
2a-’ = 4
a6*8
«-* = J=
Va
-4 = a*
a-*
4, = a*.
or generally
ar*

Exercise 2
Where necessary in the following take V2 = 1-414,
V3"= 1-732, V10 = 3-162, each correct to three places of
decimals.
1. Write down the meanings of :
3*, 4-1, 3a-», 1000», 2-*, i, 4*, 10-’.

2. Find the values of :

(1) 2* X 2*.
(2) 3 X 3* X 3’.
W a* X a*.
(5) 2*.
(3) 10* 4- 10*. (6) 10*.
3. Find the values of :
(1) 8*.
_2_
(2) 25*. (5) 2-3-
(3) (10*)’. (6) (1000)*.
4. Find the values of :
® r< (4) (36)-°-’.
(5) (4)”
(3) (16)°-». (6) (£)*•’.
5. Find the value of a4 X ar* x a* when a = 2.
6. Write down the simplest form of :
(1) a* X a*. (2) 10’ X 10~*.
32. A system of logarithms.
These extensions of the meanings of indices to all kinds
of numbers are of great practical importance. They enable
us to carry out, easily and accurately, calculations which
 LOGARITHMS 43
without them would be almost impossible or very laborious.
We will choose a very simple example to explain how they
can be used.
We have seen that
IO0-1 = 10* = V10 = 3'162 approx. (by calculation)
Now 101B = 101+* = 101 x 10* (First law of Indices)
= 10 X 3162 = 31-62
Also 10* = (10*1* (Third law of Indices)
= VTO* = V3462
= 1-78 approx.
Again 10* = 10*+* = 10* x 10* (First law of Indices)
= 3-162 X 1-78
= 5-62 approx.
Also 10* = (10*)* = V10*
= Vl-78 = 1-33 approx.
Similarly we might calculate a number of powers of 10.
Let us now make a table showing (1) the numbers above,
(2) the indices showing what powers they are of 10.

Number. Index.

1-33 0-126
1-78 0-25
3-162 0-6
6-62 0-75
31-62 1-5

Now suppose we want to find the value of

3-162 x 1-78
From the table we see that 3-162 = IO0-’
1-78 = 100'2’
A 3-162 x 1-78 = 10™ x 10MS
= 10™+™’ (First law of Indices)
= IO™5
Now the table shows us that IO0-75 = 5-62
A 3-162 x 1-78 = 5-62
[Note.—All the numbers calculated are approximate.)
You will see instead of the process of multiplication of the
numbers, we use that of an addition of the indices.
Much more difficult calculations can be similarly per­
formed.
It is evident that if we are to make an extended use of
this method, one thing is essential.
44 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
We must have a table of the indices which indicate the
power any given number is of a selected number such as
10 which we have used for the above example.
Such a table is called a table of logarithms and the number,
such as 10 used above, with respect to which the logarithms
are calculated, is called the base of the system.
We can therefore define a logarithm as follows.
Definition. A logarithm of a number to a given base is
the index of the power to which the base must be raised to
produce the number.
For example, we know that
341 = IO”3” (1)
Then by the above definition
2*5328 is the logarithm of 341 to the base 10
This we abbreviate into
2*5328 = log10 341 (2)
the base 10 being indicated by the suffix, as shown. The
student should carefully note that equations (1) and (2) are
two ways of expressing the same relation between the
numbers employed.
33. Characteristic of a logarithm.
The integral or whole number part of a logarithm Is
called the characteristic. This can always be determined
by inspection when logarithms are calculated to base 10,
as will be seen from the following considerations;
Since 10° = 1, log101 = 0
101 = 10, log10 10 = 1
10« = 100, log10 100 =2
10’ = 1000, logi0 1000 = 3
10‘ = 10,000, log10 10,000 = 4
and so on.
From these results we see that, .
for numbers between 1 and 10 the characteristic is 0
„ 10 ,, 100 „ „ „1
„ „ „ 100 „ 1000 „ „ „ 2
„ .. „ 1000 „ 10,000 ,, „ „ 3
and so on.
It is evident that the characteristic is always one less than
the number of digits in the whole number part of the
number.
Thus in log10 3758*7 the characteristic is 3
log10 375*87 „ ,, ,, 2
log1# 37*587 ,, ,, „ 1
 LOGARITHMS 45
Thus the characteristic may always be determined by
inspection, and consequently is not given in the tables.
This is one advantage of having 10 for a base.

34. Mantissa of a logarithm.

The decimal part of a logarithm is called the mantissa.
In general the mantissa can be calculated to any required
number of figures, by the use of higher mathematics. In
most tables, such as those given in this volume, the mantissa
is calculated to four places of decimals approximately. In
Chamber's " Book of Tables " they are calculated to seven
places of decimals.
The mantissa alone is given in the tables, and the following
example will show the reason why:
logl# 168-3 = 2-2261
.-. 168-3 =
168-3 4- 10 = IO’ ’"1 4- 10*
16-83 — IO2’”*1-1 (second law of indices)
= i0i-2s«i
A logl0 16-83 = 1-2261
Similarly logw 1-683 = 0-2261
and log1# 1683 = 3-2261
Thus, if a number is multiplied or divided by a power of
10, the characteristic of the logarithm of the result is
changed, but the mantissa remains unaltered. This may
be expressed as follows:
Numbers having the same set of significant figures have
the same mantissa in their logarithms.

35. TO read a tablq.of logarithms.

With the use of the above rules relating to the character­
istic and mantissa of logarithms, the student should have
no difficulty in reading a table of logarithms.
Below is a portion of such a table, giving the logarithms
of numbers between 31 and 35.

No. Log. 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Si 4314 4938 4943 4965 4969 4983 4997 6011 5034 5038 1 8 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
S3 6051 6065 6079 6093 5105 5119 5133 5145 5159 5173 1 8 4 5 7 8 9 11 13
S3 5135 6198 5311 6334 5387 5350 5368 5376 6389 KOS 1 3 4 6 6 8 9 10 13
34 6816 6338 5340 6358 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5438 1 8 4 5 6 8 9 10 11

33 5441 5463 5466 6478 5490 5603 5514 5537 5539 5551 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11

0) cn
46 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

The figures in column 1 in the complete table are the

numbers from 1 to 99. The corresponding number in
column 2 is the mantissa of the logarithm. As previously
stated, the characteristic is not given, but can be written
down by inspection. Thus logle 31 = 1-4914, log1#310 =
2-4914, etc. If the number has a third significant figure, the
mantissa Will be found in the appropriate column of the
next nine columns.
Thus loglt 31-1 = 1-4928,
logj, 31-2 = 1-4942, and so on.
If the number has a fourth significant figure space does not
allow us to give the whole of the mantissa. But the next
nine columns of what are called “ mean differences " give
us for every fourth significant figure a number which must
be added to the mantissa already found for the first three
significant figures. Thus if we want logie 31-67, the man­
tissa for the first three significant figures 316 is 0-4997. For
the fourth significant figure 7 we find in the appropriate
column of mean differences the number 10. This is added
to 0-4997 and so we obtain for the mantissa 5007.
.*. logw 31-67 = 1-5007
Anti-logarithms.
The student is usually provided with a table of anti­
logarithms which contains the numbers corresponding to
given logarithms. These could be found from a table of
logarithms but it is quicker and easier to use the anti­
logarithms.
The tables are similar in their use to those for logarithms,
but we must remember:
(1) That the mantissa of the log only is used in the
table.
(2) When the significant figures of the number have been
obtained, the student must proceed to fix the decimal point
in them by using the rules which we have considered for the
characteristic.
Example. Find the number whose logarithm is 2-3714.
First using the mantissa—viz., 0-3714—we find from the
anti-logarithm table that the number corresponding is
given as 2352. These are the first four significant figures
of the number required.
Since the characteristic is 2, the number must lie between
100 and 1000 (see § 33) and therefore it must have 3
significant figures in the integral part.
The number is 235*2.
 LOGARITHMS 47

Note.—As the log tables which will be usually employed

by the beginner are all calculated to base 10, the base in
further work will be omitted when writing down logarithms.
Thus we shall write log 235-2 = 2-3714, the base 10 being
understood.

Exercise 3.
1. Write down the characteristics of the logarithms of
the following numbers:
15, 1500, 31,672, 597, 8, 800,000
51-63, 3874-5, 2-615, 325-4
2. Read from the tables the logarithms of the following
numbers:
(1) 5, 50, 500, 50,000.
(2) 4-7, 470, 47,000.
(3) 52-8, 5-28, 528.
(4) 947-8, 9-478, 94,780.
(5) 5-738, 96-42, 6972.
3. Find, from the tables, the numbers of which the
following are the logarithms:
(1) 2-65, 4-65, 1-65.
(2) 1-943, 3-943, 0-943.
(3) 0-6734, 2-6734, 5-6734.
(4) 3-4196, 0-7184, 2-0568.
36. Rules for the use of logarithms.
In using logarithms for calculations we must be guided
by the laws which govern operations with them. Since
logarithms are indices, these laws must be the same in
principle as those of indices. These rules are given below;
formal proofs are omitted.
(1) Logarithm of a product.
The logarithm of the product of two or more numbers
is equal to the sum of the logarithms of these numbers
(see first law of indices).
Thus if p and q be any numbers
log (p x q) = log p + log q
(2) Logarithm of a quotient.
The logarithm ofp divided by q Is equal to the logarithm
of p diminished by the logarithm of q (see second law of
indices).
<8 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Thus log (p q) = log p — log q
(3) Logarithm of a power.
The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the
logarithm of the number multiplied by the index of the
power (see third law of indices).
Thus log a" = n log a
(4) Logarithm of a root.
This is a special case of the above (3).
1
Thus log “'a = log aS
1 ,

37. Examples of the use of logarithms.

Example I. Find the value of 57-86 x 4-385.
Let x = 57-86 X 4-385
Then log x = log 57-86 + log 4-385 No. log.
= 1-7624 + 0-6420 57-86 1-7624
=. 2-4044 4-385 0-6420
log 253-'
253- 253-7 2-4044
Notes.—(1) The student should remember that the logs
in the tables are correct to four significant figures only.
Consequently he cannot be sure of four significant figures m
the answer. It would be more correct to give the above
answer as 254, correct to three significant figures.
(2) The student is advised to adopt some systematic way
of arranging the actual operations with logarithms. Such a
method is shown above.
Example 2. Find the value of
5-672 x 18-94
758
1-
T . 5-672 X 18-94 No. log.
Let *= 1-758 5-672 0-7538
log x = log 5-672 + log 18-94 — log 1-758 18-94 1-2774
= 0-7538 + 1-2774 - 0-2450
= 1-7862
2-0312
1-758 0-2450
= log 61-12
*=61-12 61-12 1-7862
or x = 61 • I (to three significant figures)
 LOGARITHMS 49
Example 3. Find the fifth root of 721-8.
Let x = 7?2b8
= (721-8)1
Then log x = J log 721-8 (see § 36(4))
- i (2-8584)
= 0-5717
x = 3-730

Exercise 4.
Use logarithms to find the values of the following:
1. 23-4 X 14-73. 14. (15-23)* X 3-142.
2. 43-97 X 6-284. 15. (5-98)’ 4- 16-47.
3. 987-4 X 1-415. 16 (M-P’ .
4. 42-7 X 9-746 X 14-36. 4-73 X 16-92
5. 28-63 4- 11-95.
6. 43-97 6-284. (8-97)’ X (1-059) •
7. 23-4 4- 14-73. 57’7
8. 927-8 4- 4-165. 18 *798
9. 94-76 X 4-195 4- 27-94. (56-2)* 4- (9-814)*'
15-36 X 9-47 X 11-48 19. -^3417.
5-632 X 21-85 ' 20. -^4-872.
11. (9-478)». 21. -^1-625’ X 4-738.
12. 51-47)*.
13. 1-257)*. 22. 761-5 X 2-73.
23. If itr* = 78-6 find r when n = 3-142.
24. If = 15-5, find r when it = 3-142.

38. Logarithms of numbers between 0 and I.

In § 33 we gave examples of powers of 10 when the
index is a positive integer. We will now consider cases in
which the indices are negative.
Thus 101 = 10 log1010 = 1
10° = 1 log1# 1 = 0
10-i _ A _ o-l logu 0-1 = -1

i°-‘ = = o-oi :. iog10 o-oi = — 2

10” = 16* = 0-0()1 .’. logio 0’001 = —3
etc.
From these results we may deduce that:
The logarithms of numbers be/ieesw 0 and 1 are always
negative.
jo TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

We have seen (§ 34) that if a number be divided by 10,

we obtain the log of the result by subtracting 1.
Thus if log 49-8 - 1-6972
log 4-98 = 0-6972
log 0-498 = 0-6972 - 1
log 0-0498 = 0-6972 - 2
log 0-00498 = 0-6972 - 3
From the above log 0-498 = 0-6972 — 1
= - 0-3028
Now, in the logs of numbers greater than unity, the
mantissa remains the same when the numbers are multiplied
or divided by powers of 10 (see § 34), i.e. with the same
significant figures we have the same mantissa.
It would clearly be a great advantage if we Could find a
system which would enable us to use this rule for numbers
less than unity, and so avoid, for example, having to write
log 0-498 as r- 0-3028
This can be done by not carrying out the subtraction as
shown above, and writing down the characteristic as nega­
tive. But to write log 0-498 as 0-6972 — 1 would be
awkward. Accordingly we adopt the notation 1-6972
writing the minus sign above the characteristic.
It is very important to remember that
1-6972 — — 1 + 0-6972
Thus in logarithms written in this way the characteristic
Is negative and the mantissa is positive.
With this notation log 0-0498 = 2-6972
log 0-00498 = 5-6972
log 0-000498 = 3-6972 etc.
Note. —The student should note that the negative char­
acteristic is numerically one more than the number of zeros after
the decimal point.
Example I. From the tables find the logs of 0'3185,
0-03185 and 0-003185.
Using the portion of the tables in § 35, we see that
the mantissa for 0-3185 will be 0-5031.
Also the characteristic is — 1.
log 0-3185 = 1-5031
Similarly log 0-03185 = 2-5031
and log 0-003185 = 2-5031
Example 2. Find the number whose log. is 3-5416.
From the anti-log tables we find that the significant figures
of the number whose mantissa is 5416 are 3480. As the
 LOGARITHMS 51

characteristic is — 3, there will be two zeros after the decimal

point
the number is 0-003480
Exercise S.
1. Write down the logarithms of:
(1) 2-798, 0-2798, 0-02798.
. (2) 4-264, 0-4264, 0-004264.
(3) 0 009783, 0-0009783, 0-9783.
(4) 0-06461, 0-6451, 0-0006451.
2. Write down the logarithms of:
(1) 0-05986. (4) 0-00009275.
(2) 0-000473. (5) 0-5673.
(3) 0-007963. (6) 0-07986.
3. Find the numbers whose logarithms arei
(1) 1-3342. (4) 4-6437.
(2) 3-8724. (5) 1-7738.
(3) 2-4871. (6) 8-3948.
■39. Operations with logarithms which are negative.
Care is needed in dealing with the logarithms of numbers
which lie between 0 and 1, since they are negative and, as
shown above, are written with the characteristic negative
and tiie mantissa positive.
A few examples will show the methods of working.
Example I. Find the sum of the logarithms:
1-6173, 2-3415, 1-6493, 0-7374
Arranging thus 1-6173
3415
2-
1-6493
0-7374

2- 3455
The point to be specially remembered is that the 2 which
is earned forward from the addition of the mantissae is
positive, since they are positive. Consequently the addition
of the characteristics becomes
-1-2—1+0 + 2 = — 2
Example 2. From the logarithm 1-6175 subtract the
log 3-8463.
1-6175
3- 8463
1-7712
52 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Here in " borrowing ’’ to subtract the 8 from the 6, the

— 1 in the top line becomes — 2, consequently on subtract­
ing the characteristics we have
— 2 — (— 3) = —24-3=4-1
Example 3. Multiply 2-8763 by 3.
2-8763
3

6289
4-
From the multiplication of the mantissa, 2 is carried
forward. But this is positive and as (— 2) X 3 = — 6,
the characteristic becomes — 6 4- 2 = — 4.
Example 4. Multiply 1-8738 by 1-3.
In a case of this kind it is better to multiply the char­
acteristic and mantissa separately and add the results.
Thus 0-8738 X 1-3 = 1-13594
-1X1-3=- 1-3
— 1-3 is wholly negative and so we change it to 2-7, to
make the mantissa positive.
Then the product is the sum of
1-13594
'2-7

1-83594
or 1-8359 approx.

Example 5. Divide 5-3716 by 3.

Here the difficulty is that on dividing 5 by 3 there is a
remainder 2 which is negative, and cannot therefore be
carried on to the positive mantissa. To get over the
difficulty we write:
— 5 = — 6 4- 1
or the log as — 6 4- 1-3716
Then the division of the — 6 gives us — 2 and the division
of the positive part 1-3716 gives 0-4572, which is positive.
Thus the complete quotient is 2-4572. The work might be
arranged thus:
3)6 4- 1-3716
24- 0-4572

2-4572
 LOGARITHMS 53

Exercise 6.
1. Add together the following logarithms:
(1) 2-5178 + 1-9438 + 0-6138 + 5-5283.
(2) 3-2165 4- 3-5189 + 1-3297 + 2-6475.
2. Find the values of:
(1) 4-2183 - 5-6257. (3) 1-6472 - 1-9875.
(2) 0-3987 — 1-5724. (4) 2-1085 - 5-6271.
3. Find the values of:
(1) 1-8732 x 2. (4) 1-5782 X 1-5.
(2) 2-9456 X 3. (5) 2-9947 X 0-8.
(3) 1-5782 X 5. (6) 2-7165 x 2-5.
4. Find the values of:
(1) 3-9778 X 0-65. (4) 2-1342 x - 0-4.
(2) 2-8947 x 0-84. (5) 1-3164 x - 1-5.
(3) 1-6257 X 0-6. (6) 1-2976 X - 0-8.
5. Find the values of:
(1) 1-4798 4- 2. (4) 3-1195 4- 2.
(2) 2-5637 4- 5. (5) 1-6173 4- 1-4.
(3) 1-3178 4- 3. (6) 2-3178 4- 0-8.
Use logarithms to find the values of the following:
6. 15-62 X 0-987. 17. -^1-715.
7. 0-4732 x 0-694. 18. * 647-2 4- (3-715)’.
8. 0-513 X 0-0298. 19. j (48-62)1.
9. 75-94 X 0-0916 X 0-8194.
10. 9-463 4- 15-47. 20. v 3-142
11. 0-9635 4- 29-74.
12. 27-91 4- 569-4. 21. (l-697)«
13. 0-0917 4- 0-5732. 22. (19-72)««.
14. 5-672 X 14-83 4- 0-9873. 23. (0-478)’-1.
15. (0-9173)’. 24. (5-684)-1'1*.
16. (0-4967)’. 25. 0-5173)-’*.
 CHAPTER III

THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS

THE TANGENT
40. One of the earliest examples that we know in history
of the practical applications of Geometry was the problem
of finding the height of one of the Egyptian pyramids. This
was solved by Thales, the Greek philosopher and mathemati­
cian who lived about 640 B.c. to 550 b.c. For this purpose
he used the property of similar triangles which is stated
in § 15 and he did it in this way.

He observed the length of the shadow of the pyramid and,

at the same time, that of a stick, AB, placed vertically into
the ground at the end of the shadow of the pyramid (Fig. 36).
QB represents the length of the shadow of the pyramid, and
BC that of the stick. Then he said “ The height of the
pyramid is to the length of the stick, as the length of the shadow
of the pyramid is to the length of the shadow of the stick."
i.e. in Fig. 36, jS =

Then QB, AB, and BC being known we can find PQ.

We are told that the king, Amasis, was amazed at this
application of an abstract geometrical principle to the
solution of such a problem.
54
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 53

The principle involved is practically the same as that

employed in modern methods of solving the same problem.
It will be well, therefore, to examine it more closely.
We note first that it is assumed that the sun’s rays are
parallel over the limited area involved; this assumption is
justified by the great distance of the sun.
In Fig. 36 it follows that the straight lines RC and PB
which represent the rays falling on the tops of the objects
are parallel.
Consequently, from Theorem 2(1), § 9,
APBQ = A.ACB
These angles each represent the altitude of the sun (§ 24).
As As PQB and ABC are right angles
As PQB, ABC are similar.
. . PQ _AB
• • QB ~ BC
J^O OR
or as written above ~
Ab
The solution is independent of the length of the stick AB
because if this be changed the length of its shadow will be
changed proportionally.
We therefore can make this important general deduction.
AB
For the given angle ACB the ratio remains constant
whatever the length oj AB.
This ratio can therefore be calculated beforehand whatever
the si ze of the angle A CB. If this be done there is no necessity
to use the stick, because knowing the angle and the value
of the ratio, when we have measured the length of QB,
we can easily calculate PQ. Thus if the altitude were
found to be 64° and the value of the ratio for this angle
had been previously calculated to be 2-05, then we have

and PQ = QB x 2 05.
41. Tangent of an angle.
The idea of a constant ratio for every angle is so
important that we must examine it in greater detail.
Let POQ (Fig. 37) be any acute angle. From points
A, B, C on one arm draw perpendiculars A D, BE, CF to the
other arm. These being parallel,
As OAD, OBE, OCF are equal (Theorem 2 (1))
and As ODA, OEB, OFC are right- As.
As AOD, BOE, COF are similar.
56 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

AD BE CF
•• OD~OE = OF (Theorem 10, § 15)
Similar results follow, no matter how many points are
taken on OQ.
;. for the angle POQ the ratio of the perpendicular
drawn from a point on one arm of the angle to the distance
Intercepted on the other arm is constant.

This is true for any angle; each angle has its own parti­
cular ratio and can be identified by it.
This constant ratio is called the tangent of the angle.
The name is abbreviated in use to tan.
Thus for /-POQ above we can write
a r>
tan POQ
42. Right-angled triangles.
Before proceeding further we will consider formally by
means of the tangent, the relations
which exist between the sides and
- angles of a right-angled triangle.
i Let ABC (Fig. 38) be a right-
0 angled triangle.
_ Let the sides opposite the angles
» a L be denoted by
Fig. 38. a (opp. A), b (opp. B), c (opp. C).
(This is a general method of denoting sides of a right-
angled A.)
Then, as shown in § 41:
. o AC b
tanB = -^<=-
a tan B = b
b
and
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 57

Thus any one of the three quantities a, b, tan B can

be determined when the other two are known.
43. Notation for angles.
(1) As indicated above we sometimes, for brevity, refer
to an angle by using only the middle letter of the three
which define the angle.
Thus we use tanB for tan ABC.
This must not be used when there is any ambiguity, as,
for example, when there is more than one angle with its
vertex at the same point.
(2) When we refer to angles in general we frequently use
a Greek letter, usually 6 (pronounced " theta ’’) or <f> (pro­
nounced " phi ") or a, p, or y (alpha, beta, gamma).

44. Changes in the tangent in the first quadrant.

In Fig. 39 let OA a straight line of unit length rotate from
a fixed position on OX until it reaches OY, a straight line
perpendicular to OX.
From O draw radiating lines to mark 10°, 20°, 30°, etc.
From A draw a straight line AM perpendicular to OX
and let the radiating lines be produced to meet this.
Let OB be any one of these lines.

Then tan BOA

OA
Since OA is of unit length, then the length of BA, on the
scale selected, will give the actual value of tan BOA.
Similarly the tangents of other angles 10°, 20°, etc., can
be read off by measuring the corresponding intercept on
AM.
If the line OC corresponding to 45° be drawn then A.ACO
is also 45° and AC equals OA (Theorem 3, § 11).
/. AC =. 1
tan 45° = 1.
At the initial position, when OA is on OX the angle is 0°,
the length of the perpendicular from A is zero, and the
tangent is also zero.
From examination of the values of the tangents as
marked on AM, we may conclude:
(1) tan 0° is 0.
(2) As the angle increases, tan 0 increases.
(3) tan 45° = 1.
(4) For angles greater than 45°, the tangent is greater
than 1.
58 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

(5) As the angle approaches 90° the tangent increases

very rapidly. When it is almost 90° it is clear that the
radiating line will meet A M at a very great distance, and
when it coincides with OY and 90° is reached, we say that

This can be expressed by saying that

As 0 approaches 90°, tan 6 approaches infinity.
This may be expressed formally by the notation
when 0 —> 90°, tan 6 —> co .
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 59

The symbol 00, commonly called infinity, means a number

greater than any conceivable number.
45. A table of tangents.
Before use can be made of tangents in practical applica­
tions and calculations, it is necessary to have a table which
will give with great accuracy the tangents of all angles which
may be required. It must also be possible from it to obtain
the angle corresponding to a known tangent.
A rough table could be constructed by such a practical
method as is indicated in the previous paragraph. But
results obtained in this way would not be very accurate.
By the methods of more advanced mathematics, however,
these values can be calculated to any required degree of
accuracy. For elementary work it is customary to use
tangents calculated correctly to four places of decimals.
Such a table will be found at the end of this book.
A small portion of this table, giving the tangents of angles
from 25° to 29° inclusive is given below, and this will serve
for an explanation as to how to use it.
Natural Tangents.
|*saaifca

Mean Differences.
0' 6' 12' 18* 24' 30' 36' 42' 48* 54'
1 2 3 4 6
|

26 0*4668 4684 4706 4727 4748 4770 4791 4813 4834 4856 4 7 11 14 18
26 0*4877 4899 4921 4942 4964 4986 5008 5029 5051 5078 4 7 11 15 18
27 0*6096 6117 6189 5161 5184 5206 5228 5250 5272 5295 4 7 11 16 18
28 0*6317 6340 5362 6384 6407 5430 5452 5475 5498 5520 4 8 11 16 19
22 0*6643 6566 5689 5612 *5635 6658 5681 6704 6727 5750 4 8 12 16 19

(1) The first column indicates the angle in degrees.

(2) The second column states the corresponding tangent.
Thus tan 27° = 0-5095.
(3) If the angle includes minutes we must use the remain­
ing columns.
(а) If the number of minutes is a multiple of “ 6 ”, the
figures in the corresponding column gives the decimal part
of the tangent. Thus tan 25° 24' will be found under the
column marked 24'. From this we see
tan 25° 24' = 0-4748.
(б) If the number of minutes is not an exact multiple of
6, we use the columns headed " mean differences ” for angles
which are 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 minutes more than the multiple
of " fl."
60 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Thus if we want tan 26° 38', this being 2' more than 26° 36',
we look under the column headed 2 in the line of 26°. The
difference is 7. This is added to tan 26° 36', i.e. 0-5008.
Thus tan 26° 38' = 0-5008 + -0007
= 0-5015.
An examination of the first column in the table of tan­
gents will show you that as the angles increase and approach
90° the tangents increase very rapidly. Consequently for
angles greater than 45° the whole number part is given as well
as the decimal part. For angles greater than 74° the mean
differences become so large and increase so rapidly that they
cannot be given with any degree of accuracy. If the
tangents of these angles are required, the student must
consult such a book as Chambers’ Mathematical Tables, where
seven significant figures are given. This book should be
found in the library of everybody who is studying Trigono­
metry and its applications.
46. Examples of the uses of tangents.
We will now consider a few examples illustrating practical
applications of tangents. The first is suggested by the
problem mentioned in § 24.
Example I. At a point 168 m horizontally distant from the
foot of a church tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the
tower is 38° 15'.
Find the height above the ground of the top of the tower.
In Fig. 40 PQ represents the height of P above the
ground.
We will assume that the distance from O is represented
by 00.
Then /.POQ is the angle of elevation and equals 38° 15'.
= tan 38° 15'
PQ — OQ X tan 38° 15'
— 168 X tan 38° 15'
= 168 X 0-7883
Taking logarithms of both sides
log (PQ) - log 168 + log (0-7883)
-= 2-2253 + 1-8967
-= 2-1220
- log 132-4
.•. PQ — 132 m approx.
Example 2. A man, who is 168 cm in height, noticed that
the length of his shadow in the sun was 154 cm. What was
the altitude of the sun ?
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 61
In Fig. 41 let PQ represent the man and QR represent the
shadow.
Then PR represents the sun’s ray and A.PRQ represents
the sun’s altitude.

R Q

Fig. 41.
PQ = 168 cm
Now tan PRQ QR = 154 cm
1-0909 (approx.)
tan 47’ 29*
the sun’s altitude Is 47’ 29'.
Example 3. Fig. 42 re-presents a section of a symmetrical
roof in which AB is the span, and OP the rise. (P is the mid­
point of AB.) If the span is 22 m and the rise 7 m find the
slope of the roof (i.e. the angle OBA).

OAB is an isosceles triangle, since the roof is symmetrical.

OP is perpendicular to AB (Theorem 3, § 11).
tanOBP^^ OP

= A = 0-6364 (approx.)
= tan 32° 28’ (approx.)
A.0BP = 32° 28'.
62 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Exercise 7.
I. In Fig, 43 ABC is a right-angled triangle with C the
right angle.
A Draw CD perpendicular to AB and DQ
perpendicular to CB.
\ Write down the tangents of ABC and
\ CAB in as many ways as possible, using
\q lines of the figure.
2. In Fig. 43, if AB is 15 cm and AC
IX 12 cm in length, find the values of
I V tan ABC and tan CAB.
Q ° 3. From the tables write down the
Fig. 43. tangents of the following angles:
(1) 18°. (2) 43°. (3) 56°.
(4) 73°. (5) 14° 18'. (6) 34° 48*.
4. Write down the tangents of:
(1) 9° 17'. (2) 31° 45'. (3) 39° 5'.
(4) 52° 27'. (5) 64° 40'.
5. From the tables find the angles whose tangents are:
(1) 0-5452. (2) 1-8265. (3) 2-8239.
(4) 1-3001. (5) 0-6707. (6) 0-2542.
6. When the altitude>of the sun is 48° 24', find the height
of a flagstaff whose shadow is 7-42 m long.
7. The base of an isosceles triangle is 10 mm and each of
the equal sides is 13 mm. Find the angles of the triangle.
8. A ladder rests against the top of the wall of a house and
makes an angle of 69° with the ground. If the foot is
7-5 m from the wall, what is the height of the house?
9. From the top window of a house which is 1-5 km
away from a tower it is observed that the angle of elevation
of the top of the tower is 36° and the angle of depression of
the bottom is 12°. What is the height of the tower?
10. From the top of a cliff 32 m high it is noted that
the angles of depression of two boats lying in the line due
east of the cliff are 21° and 17°. How far are the boats
apart?
II. Two adjacent sides of a rectangle are 15-8 cms and
11-9 cms. Find the angles which a diagonal of the rectangle
makes with the sides.
12. Pand Q are two points directly opposite to one another
on the banks of a river. A distance of 80 m is measured
along one bank at right angles to PQ. From the end of this
line the angle subtended by PQ is 61°. Find the width of
the river.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 63

SINES AND COSINES

47. In Fig. 44 from a point A on one arm of the angle
ABC, a perpendicular is drawn to the other arm.
We have seen that the ratio c — tanABC.
Now let us consider the ratios of each of the lines AC and
BC to the hypotenuse AB.

(1) The ratio i.e. the ratio of the side opposite to the
angle to the hypotenuse.
This ratio is also constant, as was the tangent, for the
angle ABC, i.e. wherever the point A is taken, the ratio
of AC to AB remains constant.
This ratio is called the sine of the angle and is denoted by
sin ABC.

Fig. 45.
BC
(2) The ratio i.e. the ratio of the intercept to the
hypotenuse.
This ratio is also constant for the angle and is called the
cosine. It is denoted by cos ABC.
The beginner is sometimes apt to confuse these two
64 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

ratios. The way in which they are depicted by the use of

thick lines in Fig. 45 may assist the memory. If the sides
of the LABC are denoted by a, b, c in the usual way and the
angle ABC by 6 (pronounced theta).

Then in 45(a) sin 0 = (1)

45(6) cos 6 = - (2)

c
From (1) we get b = c sin 0
>> (2) ,, ,, a = c cos 0

Since in the fractions representing sin 0 and cos 0 above,

the denominator is the hypotenuse, which is the greatest
side of the triangle, then

sin 0 and cos 0 cannot be greater than unity.

48. Ratios of complementary angles.

In Fig. 45, since ZC is a right angle.
.-. LA + ZB = 90°
/. LA and ■ LB axe complementary (see § 7).

Also sin A = -
c
j
and cos Br, = -a
c
sin A — cos B
The sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of Its
complement, and vice versa.
This may be expressed in the form:
sin 0 = cos (90° — 0)
cos 0 = sin (90° — 0)

49. Changes in the sines of angles in the first quadrant.

Let a line, OA, a unit in length, rotate from a fixed position
(Fig. 46) until it describes a quadrant, that is the LDOA
is a right angle.
From 0 draw a series of radii to the circumference
corresponding to the angles 10°, 20°, 30°, . . .
From the points where they meet the circumference draw
lines perpendicular to OA.
Considering any one of these, say BC, corresponding to
40°.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 63

BC
Then sin BOC =
OB
But OB is of unit length.
BC represents the value of sin BOC, in the scale in
which OA represents unity.
Consequently the various perpendiculars which have been
drawn represent the sines of the corresponding angles.
Examining these perpendiculars we see that as the angles
increase from 0° to 90° the sines continually increase.

At 90° the perpendicular coincides with the radius

sin 90° = I.
At 0° the perpendicular vanishes.
sin 0° = 0.
Summarising these results:
In the first quadrant
(1) sin 0° = 0.
(2) As 0 increases from 0° to 90°, sin 6 Increases.
(3) sin 90° = I.
66 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
50. Changes in the cosines of angles in the first quadrant.
Referring again to Fig. 46 and considering the cosines of
the angles formed as OA rotates, we have as an example

cos BOC

As before, OB is of unit length.

.". OC represents in the scale taken, cos BOC.
Consequently the lengths of these intercept? on OA
represent the cosines of the corresponding angles.
These decrease as the angle increases.
When 90° is reached this intercept becomes zero and at
V it coincides with OA and is unity.
Hence in the first quadrant
(1) cosO°=l.
(2) As 6 increases from 0° to 90°, cos 6 decreases.
(3) cos 90° = 0.

51. Tables of sines and cosines.

As in the case of the tangent ratio, it is necessary in order
to make use of sines and cosines for practical purposes to
compile tables giving the values of these ratios for all
angles. These have been calculated and arranged by
methods similar to the tangent tables and the genera]
directions given in § 45 for their use will apply also to those
for sines and cosines.
The table for cosines is not really essential when we
have the tables of sines, for since cos 9 — sin (90° — 9)
(see § 48) we can find cosines of angles from the sine table.
For example, if we require cos 47°, we know that
cos 47° = sin (90° - 47°)
= sin 43°.
to find cos 47° we read the value of sin 43° in the sine
table.
In practice this process takes longer and is more likely
to lead to inaccuracies than finding the cosine direct from
a table. Consequently separate tables for cosines are
included at the end of this book.
There is one difference between the sine and cosine tables
which the student must remember when using them.
As we have seen in § 50, as angles in the first quadrant
increase, sines increase but cosines decrease. Therefore when
using the columns of mean differences for cosines these
differences must be subtracted.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 67

52. Examples of the use of sines and cosines.

Example I. The length of each of the legs of a pair of
ladders is 2-5 m. The legs are opened out so that the distance
between the feet is 2 m. What is the angle between the legs ?
In Fig. 47, let AB, AC represent the legs of the ladders.
These being equal, BA C is an isosceles triangle.
AO the perpendicular to the base BC, from the vertex
bisects the vertical angle BAC, and also the base.
.-. BO = OC = 1 m
We require to find the angle BA C.

Fig. 47. Fig. 48.

. BO
Now sin BAO —
BA
= 2^5 = 0-4
= sin 23° 35' (from the tables)
ABAO = 23° 35'
But /.BAC = 2 x Z.BAO
/.BAC = 2 x 23° 35'
= 47° 10'.
Example 2. A 30 m ladder on a fire engine has to reach a
window 26 m from the ground which is horizontal and level.
What angle, to the nearest degree, must it make with the ground
and how far from the building must it be placed ?
Let AB (Fig. 48) represent the height of the window at A
above the ground.
Let AP represent the ladder.
To find /_APB we may use its sine for
„. . AB 26
Sm^PB = ^ = ro
= 0-8667
= sin 60° 5' (from the tables)
.’. APB = 60° 5'
= 60° (to nearest degree).
68 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

To find PB we use the cosine of APB

for cos APB 1=1 aP

PB - AP cos APB
= 30 X cos 60° 5'
- 30 X 0-5013
= 15-04
;. PB »=» 15 m approx.
Example 3. The height of a cone is 18 cm and the angle
at the vertex is 88°. Find the slant height.
Let OABC (Fig. 49) represent
the cone, the vertex being O and
ABC the base.
Let the AOAC represent a
section through the vertex 0 and
perpendicular to the base.
It will be an isosceles triangle
and P the centre of its base will
be the foot of the perpendicular
from O to the base.
OP will also bisect the vertical
angle AOC (Theorem 3).
OP represents the height of the
cone and is equal to 18 cm.
OC represents the slant height.
OP
Now cos POC =
OP = OC cos POC
;. OC = OP -r cos POC
= 18 cos 44°
= 18 4- 0-7193
Taking logs: log (OC) = log 18 — log 0-7193
= 1-2553 - 1-8569
= 1-3984
= log 25-02
;. OC = 25 cm approx.
Exam pie 4. Fig. 50 represents a section of a symmetrical roof
frame. PA &28m,AB**6m, Z.OPA 21° ; findOPandOA.
(1) We can get OP if we find /.OPB. To do this we
must first find /.APB.

sin APB = = 0-2143 = sin 12° 23'.

/OPB = /OPA + /APB
= 21° + 12° 23' = 33° 23'.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 69

Next find PB, which divided by OP gives cos OPB.

PB = AP cos APB = 28 cos 12° 23'
= 28 x 0-9768
= 27-35 approx.
Note.—We could also use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

Now cos OPB

OP = PB 4- cos OPB
OP = 27-35 4- cos 33° 23'
= 27-35 4- 0-8350
A log OP = log 27-35 - log 0-8350
= 1-4370 - 1-9217 = 1-5153
= log 32-75
/. OP = 32-75 m.
(2) To find OA. This is equal to OB —AB.
We must therefore find OB.
Now = sin OPB
OB = OP sin OPB
= 32-75 X sin 33° 23'
— 32-75 X 0-5503
log OB = log 32-75 4- 1-7406 = 1-2559
= log 18-03
OB - 18-03
and OA = OB — AB
= 18-03 - 6
= 12-03 m.
Exercise 8.
1. Using the triangle of Fig. 43 write down in as many
ways as possible (1) the sines, (2) the cosines, of Z.ABC and
Z.CAB, using the lines of the figure.
7o TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

2. Draw a circle with radius 45 mm. Draw a chord of

length 60 mm. Find the sine and cosine of the angle sub­
tended by this chord at the centre.
3. In a circle of 4 cm radius a chord is drawn subtending
an angle of 80° at the centre. Find the length of the chord
and its distance from the centre.
4. The sides of a triangle are 135 mm, 180 mm, and
225 mm. Draw the triangle, and find the sines and cosines
of the angles.
5. From the tables write down the sines of the following
angles:
(1) 14° 36'. (2) 47° 44'. (3) 69° 17'.
6. From the tables write down the angles whose sines are:
(1) 0-4970. (2) 0-5115. (3) 0-7906.
7. From the tables write down the cosines of the following
angles:
(1) 20° 46'. (2) 44° 22'. (3) 62° 39'.
(4) 38° 50'. (5) 79° 16'. (6) 57° 23'.
8. From the tables write down the angles whose cosines
are:
(1) 0-5332. (2) 0-9358. (3) 0-3546.
(4) 0-2172. (5) 0-7910. . (6) 0-5140.
9. A certain uniform incline rises 10-5 km in a length
of 60 km along the incline. Find the angle between the
incline and the horizontal.
10. In a right-angled triangle the sides containing the
right angle are 4-5 m and 5-8 m. Find the angles and
the length of the hypotenuse.
11. In the diagram of a roof frame shown in Fig. 42, find
the angle at which the roof is sloped to the horizontal when
OP = 1-3 m and OB = 5-4 m.
12. A rope 65 m long is stretched out from the top of a
flagstaff 48 m high to a point on the ground which is level.
What angle does it make with the ground and how far is
this point from the foot of the flagstaff?

53. Cosecant, secant and cotangent.

From the reciprocals of the sine, cosine and tangent we
can obtain three other ratios connected with an angle, and
problems frequently arise where it is more convenient to
employ these instead of using the reciprocals of the original
ratios.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 71

These reciprocals are called the cosecant, secant, and

cotangent respectively, abbreviated to cosec, sec and cot.

Thus cosec 0 =

sec 0 = c~bs~0

These can be expressed in terms of the sides of a right-

angled triangle with the usual construction (Fig. 51) as
follows:
AB
AB = sin = cosec 0
AC
BC a AB
AB = cos = sec 6
BC
dS = tan 0, BC
= cot 0
AC
Ratios of complementary angles.
In continuation of § 48 we note that:

since tan ABC =

nAC
and cot BAC =

.'. tan 0 = cot (90° — 0)

or the tangent of an angle is equal to the cotangent of its
complement.
54. Changes In the reciprocal ratios of angles in the first
quadrant.
The changes in the values of these ratios can best be
examined by reference to the corresponding changes in the
72 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

values of their reciprocals (see §§ 44, 49 and 50 in this

chapter).
The tollowing general relations between a ratio and its
reciprocal should be noted:
(a) When the ratio is increasing its reciprocal is decreasing,
ana vice versa.
(&) When a ratio is a maximum its reciprocal will be a
minimum, and vice versa.
Consequently since the maximum value of the sine and
cosine in the first quadrant is unity, the minimum value of
the cosecant and secant must be unity.
(c) The case when a ratio is zero needs special examina­
tion.
If a number is very large, its reciprocal is very small.
Conversely if it is very small its reciprocal is very large.
Thus the reciprocal of y ooo is 1,000,000.
When a ratio such as a cosine is decreasing until it finally
becomes zero, as it does when the angle reaches 90°, the
secant approaches infinity. With the notation employed
in § 44 this can be expressed as follows.
As 0 —> 90°, sec 0 —>■ oo.

55. Changes In the cosecant.

Bearing in mind the above, and remembering the changes
in the sine in the first quadrant as given in § 49.
(1) Cosec 0° is'infinitely large.
(2) As 0 increases from 0° to 90°, cosec 0 decreases.
(3) cosec 90° = 1.

56. Changes In the secant.

Comparing with the corresponding changes in the cosine
we see:
(D sec 0° = 1.
(2) As 0 increases from 0 to 90°, sec 0 increases.
(3) As 0 —> 90°, sec 0 —> oo.

57. Changes In the cotangent.

Comparing the corresponding changes of the tan 0 as
given in § 44 we conclude:
(1) As 0 —> 0°, cot 0 —> oo.
(2) As 0 increases, cot 0 decreases.
(3) cot 45° = 1.
(4) As 0 —> 90°, cot 0 —> 0.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 73
58. Graphs of the trigonometrical ratios.
In Figs. 52, 53, 54 are shown the graphs of sin 0, cos 0
and tan 0 respectively for angles in the first quadrant. The
student should draw them himself, if possible, on squared
paper, obtaining the values either by the graphical methods
suggested in Figs. 39 and 46 or from the tables.

Fig. 52. Fig. 53.

Graph of sin 9. Graph of cos 9.

59. Logarithms of trigonometrical ratios.

Calculations in trigonometry are shortened and obtained
more accurately by the use of tables giving the logarithms
of sines, cosines and tangents. The advantage of their
use can be illustrated by the following examples.
Find the value of sin 57° X tan 24°.
(1) We might proceed as follows.
Let # = sin 57° X tan 24°
= 0-8387 X 0-4452.
Taking logs, log x = log (0-8387) + log (0-4452)
= 1-9236 + 1-6486
and then we proceed as usual.
This method involves the use of two sets of tables.
(а) Tables of trigonometrical ratios.
(б) Logarithms.
Instead of thus using two sets of tables we can use the
tables which give directly the logarithms of the trigono­
metrical ratios.
 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

These are the tables at the end of the book, headed,

Graph of lqn 9.
(2) The following is the solution of the above problem,
using these tables.
Let * = sin 57° x tan 24°
log x = log sin 57° + log tan 24®
— 1-9236 + 1-6486.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 75

and so we reach the same conclusion as above in one step

instead of two.
60. Characteristics of " logarithms of sines ”, etc.
The student may find some difficulty at first in using
these tables of logarithmic sines, etc., on account of the
characteristics. As we have seen, all sines and cosines and
tangents of angles less than 45° are less than unity. Conse­
quently the characteristics of their logarithms are always
negative (see § 38).
They can be dealt with in two ways:
(1) The characteristic may be printed in the first column,
as m the tables in this book.
Thus log (sin 20°) is written 1-5341.
In other columns the mantissa only is printed, as with
ordinary tables of logs, and the negative characteristic must
be supplied by the student.
(2) To avoid printing these negative characteristics.it has
been a custom in most tables to add 10 to the characteristic
so that log (sin 20°) would be printed as 9-5341. If such
tables are used by the student his easiest plan is to subtract
10 from the characteristic when writing down the logarithm.
The logarithms of cosecants, secants and tangents are not
included in the tables given in this book. The student may
use instead the logarithms of their reciprocals, the sines,
cosines and tangents.
For example, since

log sec 0 = log 1 — log cos 0

= 0 — log cos 0 (see § 33)
= — log cos 0
It should be noted- that the logarithm of a number is
equal to — (log of its reciprocal).
Note.—Before proceeding to work examples on these
tables the student is advised to revise § 39 in the chapter
on logarithms.
Worked Examples.
Example I. From a certain point the angle of elevation of
the top of a church spire is found to be 11°. The guide book
tells me that the height of the spire is 260 m. If I am on the
same horizontal level as the bottom of the tower, how far am I
away from it ?
In Fig. 55 let AB represent the tower and spire,
AB *= 260 m.
76 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Let 0 be the point of observation.

We require to find OB.
Let OB = x
Then = cot 11’
X = 260 cot 11’ (1)
A x = 260 X 5-1446
A log x = log 260 + log 5'1446
= 2-4150 4-0-7113
= 31263
= log 1338
x = 1338 m approx.

Fig. 55.
If logarithmic cotangents are used, then from (1) we get
log x = log 260 + log cot 11’ (or — log tan 11°)
= 2-4150 + 0-7113
= 31263
- log 1338
x = 1338 m.
Example 2. Find the value of 2 sin 6 cos 0 when
6 = 38° 42'.
Let x = 2 sin 0 cos 0
Then log x = log 2 + log sin 6 + log cos 0
= 0-3010 + 1-7960 + 1-8923
= 1-9893
x = 09757.

Examples.Find the value o/c cot when b = 25-6.

o +c 2 ’
c = 11-2, A =57°.
Since b = 25-6
and c = 11*2
A b + c = 36-8
b - c = 14-4
and 4 = 57’ + 2 = 28° 30*.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 77

. . b — c , A
Let x = t—;— cot
b +c 2
14-4
Then x — =5-5 cot 28° 30.
OO’O
Taking logs, log x = log 14-4 + log cot 28° 30' — log 36-8
= 1-8578 No. Log.

x = 0-7206 14-4 1-1584

cot 28° 30' 0-2652

1-4236
36-8 1-5658
1-8578

Exercise 9
1. From the tables find the following:
(1) cosec 35° 24'. (4) sec. 53° 5'.
(2) cosec 59° 45'. (5) cot 39°42'.
(3) sec 42° 37'. (6) cot 70°34'.
2. From the tables find the angle:
(1) When the cosecant is 1-1476.
(2) When the secant is 2-3443.
(3) When the cotangent is 0-3779.
3. The height of an isosceles triangle is 38 mm and each
of the equal angles is 52°. Find the lengths of the equal sides.
4. Construct a triangle with sides 5 cm, 12 cm and
13 cm in length. Find the cosecant, secant and tangent
of each of the acute angles. Hence find the angles from the
tables.
5. A chord of a circle is 3 m long and it subtends an
angle of 63° at the centre. Find the radius of the circle.
6. A man walks up a steep road the slope of which is 8°.
What distance must he walk so as to rise 1 km?
7. Find the values of:
Q.70
ssia23’-
(6) cos A<sin B when A = 40°, B — 35®.
8. Find the values of:
(a) sin* 0 when 9 = 28°.
(&) 2 sec 6 cot 6 when 0 = 42°.
Note.—sin* 6 is the usual way of writing (sin 9)’.
78 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
9. Find the values of:
(a) tan A tan B, when A = 53°, B =■ 29®.
(fc) when a = 50, b = 21,B = 66°.
10. Find the values of:
(a) sec* 43°. (6) 2 cos* 28°.
ii j xv i / /sin 53° 27'
11. Find the value of:
12. Find the value of cos* 0 — sin’ 0.
(1) When 0 = 37° 25'. (2) When 0 = 59°.
T. . 0 / 239 X 25 „ . „ >
13. If tan x 133 find 0.

14. Find the value of 2 sin ——cos ~ when

A = 57° 14' and B = 22° 29'.
15. If n = find M when 0 = 10° 25' and a = 28° 7'.
cot a
16. If A = lab sin 0, find A when a = 28-5, b => 46-7
and 0 = 56° 17’.
Some applications of trigonometrical ratios.
61. Solution-of right-angled triangles.
By solving a right-angled triangle we mean, if certain
sides or angles are given we require to find the remaining
sides and angles.
Right-angled triangles can be solved:
(1) By using the appropriate trigonometrical ratios.
(2) By using the Theorem of Pythagoras (see Theorem 9,
114). •
We give a few examples.
(a) Given the two sides which contain the right angle.
To solve this:
(1) The other angles can be found by the tangent ratios.
(2) The hypotenuse can be found by using secants and
cosecants, or the Theorem of Pythagoras.
Example I. Solve the right-angled triangle where the sides
containing the right angle are 15-8 m and 8-9 tn.
Fig. 56 illustrates the problem.
To find C, tan C = = 0-5633 = tan 29° 24*.
lO’O

To find A, tan A = *= 1-7753 « tan 60° 36*.

o-y
"These should be checked by seeing if their sum is 90*.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 79
To find AC. ____________
(1) AC = V15-81 + 8-9a = 18-1 m approx., or
(2) 4^ =• cosec C

AC = 8-9 cosec C
log AC = log 8-9 + log cosec C
~ 0-9494 + 0-3090
- = 1-2584
= log 18-13
AC =18-1 m approx.
(f>) Given one angle and the hypotenuse.
Example 2. Solve the right-angled triangle in which one
angle is 27° 43' and the hypotenuse is 6-85 cm.

A A

l5-8m C B C
Fig. 56. Fig. 57.
In Fig. 57 C = 27° 43'
A = 90° - C = 90 - 27° 43'
= 62° 17'.
To find AB and BC
AB = AC sin ACB
= 6-85 X sin 27° 43'
= 3-19 cm.
BC — AC cos ACB
= 6-85 X cos 27° 43'
= 6-06 cm.
These examples will serve to indicate the methods to be
adopted in other cases.
(c) Special cases.
(1) The equilateral triangle.
In Fig. 58 ABC is an equilateral triangle, AD is the
perpendicular bisector of the base.
It also bisects A.CAB (Theorem 3, § 11).
ADAB = 30°
and LABD = 60°
Let each side of the A be a units of length.
8o TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Then PB = f

(Theorem 9)
_ aa
~7

sin 60° = 45 =
/1D
.AO BD a . I
cos 60 = = -2 T- a = -2

zao
tan 60° = AD -g- 4- 2 rx
a = V3

Similarly
sln 30° =

cos 30° = 2>

tan 30° =

Note.—The ratios for 30° can be found from those for 60’
by using the results of §§ 48 and 63.
(2) The right-angled isosceles triangle.
Fig. 69 represents an isosceles triangle with AC = BC
and LACB = 90°.
Let each of the equal sides be a units of length.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 81
Then + BC* /Theorem 9)

= 2a*
/. AB = aV2
, iro AC a
$,n45 ~ AB
VI
BC a
COS 45° = -rg = ---- T= = -7=
AB aV2 V2
. AC a |
tan 45 = go = „ = 1

It should be noted that A ABC represents half a square

of which AB is the diagonal.

62. Slope and gradient.

Fig. 60 represents a side view of the section of a path AC
in which AB represents the horizontal level and BC the
vertical rise.

Fig. 60.

/CAB, denoted by 6, is the angle between the plane of the

path and the horizontal.
Then /CAB is called the angle of slope of the path or more
briefly /CAB is the slope of the path.
CB
Now tan 0 =■ -j-g

This tangent is called the gradient of the path.

Generally, If 6 be the slope of a path, tan 6 is the gradient.
A gradient is frequently given in the form 1 in 65, and in
this form can be seen by the side of railways to denote the
gradient of the rails. This means that the tangent of the
angle of slope is A.
When the angle of slope is very small, as happens in the
case pf a railway and most roads, it makes little practical
difference if instead of the tangent fjjg in Fig. 60^ we take

CB
5^, i.e. the sine of the angle instead of the tangent. In
82 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
practice also it is easier to measure A C, and the difference
between this and AB is relatively small, provided the angle
is small.
If the student refers to the tables of tangents and sines
he will see how small is the differences between them for
small angles.

63. Projections.
In Chapter I, § 22, we referred to the projection of a
straight line on a plane. We will now examine this further.
Projection of a straight line on a fixed line.
In Fig. 61, let PQ be a straight line of unlimited length,
and AB another straight line which, when produced to meet
PQ at 0, makes an angle 6 with it.

Fig. 61.

From A and B draw perpendiculars to meet PQ at E

andF.
Draw AC parallel to EF.
EF is called the projection of AB on PQ (§ 22).
Now ABAC = ABOF = 6 (Theorem 2)
and EF = AC
Also AC •= AB cos 0 (§ 47)
EF = AB cos 0.
.’. If a straight line AB, produced if necessary, makes an
angle 6 with another straight line, the length of its projection
on that straight line is AB cos 6.
It should be noted in Fig. 61 that
. BC = AB sin 0
From which it is evident that if we draw a straight line
at right angles to PQ, the projection of AB upon such a
straight line is AB sin 0.
 THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS 83

Exercise 10
General questions on the trigonometrical ratios.
1. In a right-angled triangle the two sides containing the
right angle are 2-34 m and 1-64 m. Find the angles and
the hypotenuse.
2. In a triangle ABC, C being a right angle, AC is 122 cm,
AB is 175 cm. Compute the angle B.
3. In a triangle ABC, C = 90°. If A = 37° 21' and
c = 91-4, find a andft.
4. ABC is a triangle, the angle C being a right angle.
AC is 21-32 m, BC is 12-56 m. Find the angles A and B.
5. In a triangle ABC, AD is the perpendicular on BC:
AB is 3-25 cm, B is 55°, BC is 4-68 cm. Find the length of
AD. Find also BD, DC and AC.
6. ABC is a right-angled triangle, C being the right angle.
If a = 378 mm and c = 543 mm, find A and b.
7. A ladder 20 m long rests against a vertical wall. By
means of trigonometrical tables find the inclination of the
ladder to the horizontal when the foot of the ladder is:
(1) 7 m from the wall.
(2) 10 m from the wall.
8. A ship starts from a point O and travels 18 km h-1 in
a direction 35° north of east. How far will it be north and
east of O after an hour?
9. A pendulum of length 20 cm swings on either side of
the vertical through an angle of 15°. Through what height
does the bob rise?
10. If the side of an equilateral triangle is x m, find the
altitude of the triangle. Hence find sin 60° and sin 30°.
11. Two straight lines OX and OY are at right angles to
one another. A straight line 3-5 cm long makes an angle of
42° with OX. Find the lengths of its projections on OX
and OY.
12. A man walking 1-5 km up the line of greatest slope
of a hill rises 94 m. Find the gradient of the hill.
13. A ship starts from a given point and sails 15-5 km
in a direction 41° 15' west of north. How far has it gone
west and north respectively?
14. A point P is 14-5 km north of Q and Q is 9 km west
of R. Find the bearing of P from R and its distance
from R.
 CHAPTER IV
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL
RATIOS

64. Sincb each of the trigonometrical ratios involves two

of the three sides of a right-angled triangle, it is to be
expected that definite relations exist between them. These
relations are very important and will constantly be used in
further work. The most important of them will be proved
in this chapter.

Let ABC (Fig. 62) be any acute, angle (6). From a point
A on one arm draw AC perpendicular to the other arm.
Then sin 6 —

sin 6 AC BC
" cos®~ ZB
AC „ AB
“ABXBC
AC

*= tan 0

Similarly wt may prow that cot 6 =■

 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RATIOS 85
65. sin’ 0 4- cos* 6=1.
From Fig. 62
AC* 4- BC* =■ AB* (Theorem of Pythagoras, § 14)
Dividing throughout by AB*
. AC* , BC*
7B*'*'ZBi=1
(sin 6)* 4- (cos 0)’ = 1
or as usually written
sin* 9 4- cos* 0 = I (2)
This very important result may be transformed and used
to find either of the ratios when the other is given.
Thus sin’ 0=1 — cos’ 0
sin 6 = Vl — cos* 0
Similarly cos 0 = V1 — sin’ 0
Combining formulae (1) and (2)
. „ sin 0
tan 0 =------
cos 0
. o • sin 0
becomes tan 0 = , =
Vl — sin* 6
This form expresses the tangent in terms of the sine only.
It may similarly be expressed in terms of the cosine
. „ VI — cos4 6
thus tan 0 =---------- -x-----
cos 0

66. I 4- tan’ 0 = sec* 6

I 4- cot’ 0 = cosec* 0
Using the formula sin* 0 4- cos* 0=1
and dividing throughout by cos’ 0
. sin’O 1
we ® cos* 6 cos* 0
/. tan* 0 4-1= sec* 0
Again, dividing throughout by sin *0
. , , cos’ 0 1
we + sin’ 0 ~ sin *0
I 4- cot* 0 = cosec* 0.
We may also write these formulae in the forms
tan* 6 = sec’ 6—1
and cot* 0 = cosec* 0—1.
86 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Using these forms we can change tangents into secants
and cotangents into cosecants and vice versa when it is
necessary in a given problem.

Exercise II
1. Find tan 0 when sin 0 — 0-5736 and cos 0 = 0-8192.
2. If sin 6 = J, find cos 0 and tan 6.
3. Find sin 0 when cos 0 = 0-47.
4. Find sec 0 when tan 6 = 1-2799.
5. If sec 9 = 1-2062 find tan 0, cos 0 and sin 0.
6. Find cosec 6 when cot 0 = 0-5774.
7. If cot 0 = 1-63, find cosec 0, sin 0 and cos 0.
8. If tan 0 = t, find expressions for sec 0, cos 0 and sin 0
in terms of i.
9.1 If cos a = 0-4695, find sin a and tan a.
10- Prove that tan 0 + cot 0 = sec 0 cosec 0.
 CHAPTER V

TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES IN THE

SECOND QUADRANT

67. In Chapter III we dealt with the trigonometrical ratios

of acute angles, or angles in the first quadrant. It will be
remembered that in ‘Chapter I, § 5, when considering the
meaning of an angle as being formed by the rotation of a
straight line from a fixed position, we saw that there was no
limit to the amount of rotation and consequently angles
could be of any magnitude.
We must now consider the extension of trigonometrical
ratios to angles greater than a right angle. At the present,
however, we shall not examine the general question of
angles of any magnitude, but confine ourselves to obtuse
angles, or angles in the second quadrant, as these are
necessary in many practical applications of trigonometry.
68. Positive and negative lines.
Before proceeding to deal with the trigonometrical ratios
of obtuse angles it is necessary to consider the methods by
which we distinguish between measurements made on a
straight line in opposite directions. These will be familiar
to those who have studied co-ordinates and graphs. It is
desirable, however, to revise the principles involved before
applying them to trigonometry.

Fig. 63.

Let Fig. 63 represent a straight road XOX'.

If now a man travels 4 miles from O to P in the direction
OX and then turns and travels 6 miles in the opposite
direction to P', lie net result is that he has travelled
(4 _ 6) miles, i.e. — 2 miles from O. The significance of
the negative sign is that the man is now 2 miles in the opposite
direction from that in which he started.
87
88 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

In such a way as this we arrive at the convention by

which we agree to use + and — signs to indicate opposite
directions.
If now we consider two straight lines at right angles to one
another, as X'OX, Y'OY, in Fig. 64, such as are used for
co-ordinates and graphs, we can extend to these the con-
ventions used for
Y
one straight line as
indicated above.
The lines OX, OY
are called the axes
of co-ordinates. OX
measures the ^-co­
ordinate, called the
X'____________ O abscissa, and O Y
measures the y-co-
ordinate, called the
ordinate. Any point
P (Fig. 64), has a
pair of co-ordinates
(x, y). Each pair
v' determines a unique
Fio. 64. point.
The area of the
diagram. Fig. 65, is be divided into four
quadrants as shown. Values of x measured to the right are

Fia. 65.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND QUADRANT 89

+ ve, and to the left are — ve. Values of y measured up­

wards are 4- ve, and downwards are — ve. This is a uni­
versally accepted convention.
j?! lies in the first quadrant and N3 is the foot of the

perpendicular from Pt to OX. Ot\\ is in the direction of

OX and is + ve; ApPj is in the direction of OY and is ve.
Thus the co-ordinates of any point P2 in the first quadrant
are (+, +).
P2 lies in the second quadrant and A’2 is the foot of the
perpendicular from P2 to OX. 0Nt is in the direction of
XO and is — ve; N2P2 is in the direction of OY and is + ve.
Thus the co-ordinates of any point P2 in the second quadrant
are (—, +).
Similarly the co-ordinates of P3 in the third quadrant are
(—, —), and of Pt in the fourth quadrant are ( + , —).
At present we shall content ourselves with considering .
points in the first two quadrants. The general problem for
all four quadrants is discussed later (Chapter XI).

69. Direction of Rotation of Angle.

The direction in which the rotating line turns must be taken
into account when considering the angle itself.
Thus in Fig. 66 the angle A OB may be formed by rotation

Fro. 66.
in an anti-clockwise direction or by rotation in a clockwise
direction.
By convention an anti-clockwise rotation is positive and a
clockwise rotation is negative.
go TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Negative angles will be considered further in Chapter XI.

In the meantime, we shall use positive angles formed by
anti-clockwise rotation.
70. The Sign Convention for the Hypotenuse.
Consider a point A in the first quadrant. Draw AD
perpendicular to X'OX meeting it at D (Fig. 67).

OD is 4- ve and DA is -f- ve. The angle XOA = angle

DOA, which is acute.
Also OA* = OD* A-DA*
— (ve) * + (-f- ve) * = 4- ve quantity
= a* (say where a is -f- »«)
Now the equation OAs = a* has two roots OA = a or
OA = — a, so we must decide on a sign convention. We
take OA as the 4- ve root.
Now consider a point B in the second quadrant. Draw
BE perpendicular to X'OX meeting it at E (Fig. 68).

0E is — ve and EB is 4- tie. The angle XOB (= 180° —

angle EOB) is obtuse.
Also OB* = OE* 4- EB*
= (— vei* 4- (4- ve)*
= {4- ve) 4- (4- tie) = A-ve quantity.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND QUADRANT 91

We have already decided on a sign convention for the

root, so OB is + ve.
Now the sides required to give the ratios of Z.XOB are the
same as those needed for its supplement AEOB. The only
change which may have taken place is in the sign prefixed to
the length of a side. OD (+ ve in Fig. 67) has become OE
(— ve in Fig. 68).
Thus we have the following rules:

RATIO ACUTE ANGLE OBTUSE ANGLE

SIN + +
—
COS . +
TAN + —•

Fig. 69.

eos XOA _ _ +

co,XOB-g =+=7-----------

- +
tan XOB = ± = -
OE —
Note.—We use here the abbreviations + and — to stand
for a positive quantity and a negative quantity respectively.
93 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Further, by making AOBE = AOAD in Fig. 70 and

using the rules we see that
sine of an angle - = sine of its supplement
cosine of an angle = — cosine of its supplement
tangent of an angle = — tangent of its supplement.
These ^ults may alternatively be expressed thus:
sin 0 = sin (180° — 0)
cos 0 = — cos (180° — 0)
tan 0 =• — tan (1.80° — 0).

f-S- sin 100° = sin 80° 1

cos 117° = — cos 63° ,
tan 147° = — tan 33° J
The reciprocal ratios, cosecant, secant and cotangent will
have the same signs as the ratios from which they are
derived.
.•. cosecant has same sign as sine
secant has same sign as cosine
cotangent has same sign as tangent.
e.g. cosec 108° = cosec 72°
sec 121° = — sec 59°
cot 154° = — cot 36°

71. To find the ratios of angles in the second quadrant from

the tables.
As will have been seen, the tables of trigonometrical ratios
give the ratios of angles in the first quadrant only. But
each of these is supplementary to an angle in the second
quadrant. Consequently if a ratio of an angle in the second
quadrant is required, we find its supplement which is an
angle in the first quadrant, and then, by using the relations
between the two angles as shown in the previous paragraph
we can write down the required ratio from the tables.
Example I. Find from , the tables sin 137° and cos 137°.
We first find the supplement of 137° which is
180° - 137° = 43°.
by § 70 sin 137° = sin 43°.
From the tables sin 43° = 0-6820
sin |37° = 0-6820.
Again cos 0 = — cos (180° — 0)
cos 137° = - cos (180° - 137°)
= — cos 43°
= -0-7314.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND QUADRANT 93
Example 2. Find the values of tan 162° and sec 162°.
From the above tan 6 = — tan (180° — 6)
tan 162° = — tan (180° — 162°)
= — tan 18°
= - 0 3249.
Also sec 0 = — sec (180° — 0)
f. sec 162° = - sec (180° - 162°)
= — sec 18°
= - I 051S.
72. Ratios for 180°.
These can be found either by using the same arguments as
were employed in the cases of 0° and 90° or by applying the
above relation between an angle and its supplement.
From these we conclude
sin 180° = 0
'cos 180° = - I
tan 180° = 0.
73. To find an angle when a ratio is given.
When this converse problem has to be solved in cases
where the angle may be in the second quadrant, difficulties
arise which did not occur when dealing with angles in the
first quadrant only. The following examples will illustrate
these.
Example I. Find the angle whose cosine is — 0 5577.
The negative sign for a cosine shows that the angle is in
the second quadrant, since cos 0 = — cos (180° — 0).
From the tables we find that
cos 56° 6' = + 0-5577.
the angle required is the supplement of this
e. 180° - 56° 6'
i.
= 123° 54'.
Example 2. Find the angles whose sine + 0-9483.
We know that since an angle and its supplement have
the same sine, there are two angles with the sine + 0-9483,
and they are supplementary.
From the tables sin 71° 30' = 4- 0-9483.
Since gin 0 = sin (180° — 0)
sin 71° 30' = sin (180° - 71° 307)
= sin 108° 30'.
There are therefore two answers, 71° 30' and 108° 30',
and there are always two angles having a given sine, one in
the first and one in the second quadrant. Which of these
94 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

is the angle required when solving some problem must be

determined by the special conditions of the problem.
Example 3. Find the angle whose tangent is — 1-3764.
Since the tangent is negative, the angle required must lie
in the second quadrant.
From the tables
tan 54° = + 1-3764
and since tan 0 = — tan (180° — 6)
— 1-3764 = tan (180° — 54°)
= tan 126°.
74. Inverse notation.
The sign " tan'1 — 1-3674 ” is employed to signify " the
angle whose tangent is — 1-3674 "
And, in general
sin'1 x means " the angle whose sine is x”
cos'1 x means “ the angle whose cosine is x ”,
etc.
Three points should be noted.
fl) sin-1 x stands for an angle : thus sin-11 = 30°.
(2) The " — 1 " is not an index, but merely a sign to
denote inverse notation.
(3) (sin x)'1 is not used, because by § 31 it would mean
the reciprocal of sin x and this is cosec x.
75. Ratios of some important angles.
We are now able to tabulate the values of the sine, cosine
and tangents of certain angles between 0° and 180°. The
table will also state in a convenient form the ratios of a few
important angles. They should be memorised.

°°- 30°. 45°. 60°. 90°. 120°. 135°. 150°. 180°.

zncrsas!mg am1 Posit VS. Dareusing and Positis e.

1 1 V3 V3 1 1
Sine 0 1 0
2 <2 2 2 V2 2

£ areas Mg am Posit vs. Decteasing sd Negatiiis.

Cosine . 1
V3 1 1
0
1 1 V3 -1
2 V2 §■ 2 4/2 2
ZncreasiMg OfU Posit!iw. Incteasing atid Negatis<s.
1 1
Tangent 0
V3 1 V3 00 -V3 -1 0
V3
 RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND QUADRANT 95
76. Graphs of sine, cosine and tangent between 0° and
180s.

The changes in the ratios of angles in the first and second

quadrants are made clear by drawing their graphs. This

may be done by using the values given in the above table

or, more accurately, by taking values from the tables.
An inspection of these graphs will illustrate the results
reached in § 73 (second example).

It is evident from Fig. 71, that there are two angles, one
in each quadrant with a given sine.
From Figs. 72 and 73, it will be seen that there is only one
96 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

angle between 0° and 180° corresponding^ to a given cosine

oi tangent.

Exercise 12
1 Write down from the tables the sines, cosines and
tangents of the following angles:
(a) 102°. (6) 149° 33'. (c) 109° 28'.
(dj 145° 16'. (e) 154° 36'.
2. Find 6 when:
(a) sin 0 — 0-6508. (&) sin 6 = (1-9126.
(c) sin 6 » 0-3469. (d) sin 6 = 0-7122.
RATIOS OF ANGLES IN SECOND QUADRANT 97
3. Find the angles whose cosines are:
(a). — 0-4540. (6) — 0 8131. (c) — 0 1788.
(4) — 0-9354. (e) — 0-7917. (f) — 0-9154.

4. Find 6 when:
(a) tan 8 = — 0-5543. (&) tan 6 = — 1-4938.
(c) tan 6 = — 2-4383. (d) tan 6 = — 1 7603.
(e) tan 6 = — 0-7142. (/) tan 0 = — 1-1757.
5. Find the values of:
(a) cosec 15£°. (&) sec 162° 30'.
(c) cot 163° 12'.
6. Find 8 when:'
(a) sec 8 = — 1-6514. (6) sec 8 = - 2-1301.
(c) cosec 8 = 1 7305. (d) cosec 6 = 2-4586.
(e) cotS = — 1-6643. (/) cot 8 = — 0-3819.
7. Find the value of tanj| when A = 150°, B = 163° 17'.
secB
8. Find the values of:
(a) sin'1 0-9336. (6) cos-1 0-4226.
(d) tan'1 1-3764. (dj cos'1 - 0-3907.
 CHAPTER VI
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF COMPOUND
ANGLES

77. We often need to use the trigonometrical ratios of the

sum or difference of two angles. If A and B are any two
angles, (A + B) and (A — B) are usually called com­
pound angles, and it is convenient to be able to express
their trigonometrical ratios in terms of the ratios of A and B.
The beginner must beware of thinking that sin (A + B)
is equal to (sin A + sinB). He should test this by taking
the values of sin A, sin B, and sin (A + B) for some
particular values of A and B from the tables and comparing
them.
78. We will first show that:
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
and cos (A + B) = cos A cos B — sin A sin B
To simplify the proof at this stage we will assume that
A, B, and (A + B) are all acute angles.
The student is advised to make his own diagram step by
step with the following construction.
Construction.
Let a staight line rotating from a position on a fixed
line OX trace out (1) the angle XOY, equal to A and YOZ
equal to B (Fig. 74). "
Then AXOZ = (A + B)
In OZ take any point P.
Draw PQ perpendicular to OX and PM perpendicular to
OY.
From M draw MN perpendicular to OX and MR parallel
to OX.
Then MR = QN
Proof
ARPM = 90° — APMR
= ARMO
But ARMO — AMOX (Theorem 2, § 9)
=A
ARPM = A
98
 RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES 99

Again sin (A + B) = sin XOZ

_PQ
~ OP
RQ + PR
~ OP
_RQ,PR
~ OP OP
_ MN PR
~ OP + OP
/MN 0M\ /PR PM\
~ \OM X OP ) + \PM X OP)
= sin A cos B 4- cos A sin B.

Fig. 74.
-T . ' . J • , . . J OM , PM , .
Note the device of introducing and each of
OM PM
which is unity, into the last line but one.
Again
cos (A + B) = cos XOZ
_0Q
~ OP
ON - NQ
OP
ON NQ
= OP OP
ON RM
= OP OP
(ON 0M\ (RM PM\
= \0M X OP) \PM X OP)
= cos A cos B — sin A sin B.
100 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

79. We will next prove the corresponding formulae

for (A — B), viz.:
sin IA — B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B
cos (A — B) = cos A cos B 4- sin A sin B
Construction.
Let a straight line rotating from a fixed position on OX
describe an angle XOY, equal to A, and then, rotating in an
opposite direction, describe an angle YOZ, equal to B
(Fig. 75).

Then XOZ = A - B.
Take a point P on OZ.
Draw PQ perpendicular to OX andPAf perpendicular to OY.
From M draw MN perpendicular to OX and MR parallel
to OX to meet PQ produced in R.
Pro°1 /_RPM = 90° - YPMR
= Y.RMY (since PM is perp, to OY)
— LYOX (Theorem 2, § 9)
Now =* A.
sin (A — B) — sin XOZ

RQ — RP
= ~ OP ~
RQ RP
^OP~OP
MN RP
“ OF~oP
(MN 0M\ (RP PM\
"°\0MX0p) \PMX~0p)
sin A cos B — cos A sin B.
 RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES ioi

Again
cos (A — B) = cos XOZ

OP
ON +QN
= OP
ON QN
“ OP + OP
ON , RM
OP + OP
/ON 0M\ (RM PM\
“ \0M X OP) + \PM X OP)
= cos A cos B 4- sin A sin B.
80. These formulae have been proved for acute angles
only, but they can be shown to be true for angles of any
size. They are of great importance. We collect them for
reference:
sin (.4 + B)= sin A cos B + cos A sin B fl)
cos (4 + B)= cos A cos B — sin A sin B (2)
sin (.4 — B)= sin A cos B — cos A sin B (3)
cos (A — B)= cos A cos B 4- sin A sin B (4)
81. From the above we may find similar formulae for
tan (A 4- B) and tan (A — B) as follows:
. ,. , sin (A 4- B)
tan (A 4- B) =----- y-j—
' ' cos (A 4- B)
_ sin A cos B 4- cos A sin B
~ cos A cos B — sin 4 sin B
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos A cos B
sin 4 cosB cos 4 sinB
cos 4 cos B ' cos 4 cos B
we get tan (4 4- B) = CQS/j ----- slA'"sTTg
cos4 cosB cos4 cosB
sin 4 sin B
cos 4 *** cos B
= J sin sin B
cos 4 ' cos B
. tan A 4- tan B
.. tan (41 4- B) = iI — tan A tan B
Similarly we may show
.. tan 41 — tan B
un (A - B) - x + tan A unB
with similar formulae for cotangents.
102 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
82. Worked Examples.
Example I. Using the values of the sines and cosines of
30° and 45° as given in the table in § 75, find sin 75°.
Using
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
and substituting
A = 45°, B = 30°
we have sin 75° = sin 45° cos 30° + cos 45° sin 30°

= 2V2 +
+ JL
2V2

= Y£±_!
2V2 '

Example 2. If cos a = 0-6 and cos 0 = 0-8, find the

values of sin (a + fl) and cos (a 4- /?), without using the
tables.
We must first find sin a and sin 0. For these we use the
results given in § 65.
sin a = Vl — cos’ a
Substituting the given value of cos a
sin a = Vl - (0-6)’
= Vl — 0-36
= VO-64
= 0-8.
Similarly we find sin /? = 0-6.
Using sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
and substituting we have
Sin (o + 0) = (0-8 X 0-8) + (0-6 X 0-6)
= 0-64 + 0-36
= I
Also cos (a + fl) — cos a cos fl — sin a sin fl
= ^0-6 X 0-8) - (0-8 X 0-6)

Obviously a + fl = 90°, since cos 90° = 0.

.*. a and fl are complementary.
 RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES 103
Exercise 13
1. If cos A = 0-2 and cosB = 0-5, find the values of
sin (A + B) and cos (A —B).
2. Use the ratios of 45° and 30° from the table in § 75
to find the values of sin 15° and cos 75°.
3. By using the formula for sin (A — B) prove that:
sin (90° — 0) = cos 0.
4. By means of the formulae of § 80, find sin (A — B) when
sin B = 0-23 and cos A = 0-309.
5. Find sin (A 4- B) and tan (A + B) when sin 4 = 0-71
and cos B = 0-32.
6. Use the formula of tan (A 4- B) to find tan 75°.
7. Find tan (A 4- B) and tan (A — B) when tan J = 1-2
and tan B = 0-4.
8. By using the formula for tan (A — B) prove that
tan (180° — A) = — tan A.
9. Find the values of:
(1) sin 52° cos 18° — cos 52° sin 18°.
(2) cos 73° cos 12° 4- sin 73° sin 12°.
_. , .. . , , . tan 52° 4- tan 16°.
10. Fmd the values of: (a) x °
_ tan 52 tan 16°‘
... tan 64° — tan 25°
'“J 1 4- tan 64° tan 25°’
11. Prove that sin (0 4- 45°) = -±= (sin 0 4- cos 8).

12. Prove that tan (0 4- 45°) = !an6k+ L

1 — tan u
83. Multiple and sub-multiple angle formulae.
From the preceding formulae we may deduce others of
great practical importance.
From § 78 sin (A 4- B) = sin A cos B 4- cos A sin B.
There have been no limitations of the angles.
/. let B = A.
Substituting
sin 2A = sin A cos A 4- cos A sin A
or sin 24 = 2 sin A cos A (1)
If 2A be replaced by 0
A A
then sin 0 = 2 sin cos (2)

We may use whichever of these formulae is more con­

venient in a given problem.
104 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Again cos (4 + B) = cos/4 cosB — sinAsinB

Let B — A,
then cos 2A = cos* A — sin* A (4)
This may be transformed into formulae giving cos A or
sin *4 in terms of *A.
Since sin* A + cos’ 4 = 1 (§65)
then sin* A = 1 — cos* A
and cos* A = 1 — sin* A
Substituting for cos’ A in (4)
cos 2A = I — 2 sin* A (5)
Substituting for sin* A
cos 2A = 2 cos* A — I (6)
No. 5 may be written in the form:
1 — cos 2A = 2 sin* A (7)
and No. 6 as 1 4- cos 2A = 2 cos* A (8)
These alternative forms are very useful.
Again, if (7) be divided by (8)
1 — cos 2A _ sin* A
1 + cos 24 "’ cos’ A
. , . 1 — cos 24
or tan’ A = =—:-------- j-r (9)
1 4- cos 24 ' '
If 24 be replaced by 6, formulae (4), (5) and (6) may be
written in the forms
cos 6 = cos’ g — sin* g (10)
0
cos 0=1-2 sin’ = (11)
A
Q
cos 0=2 cos* g — 1 (12)

84. Similar formulae may be found for tangents.

„. . tan J 4-tanB
Since tan (A + B) = ,----- z—L_—
' ' 1 — tan 4 tanB
Let B = A
Then tan 2A ~ f (13)
or replacing 24 by 6
2 tan |

tan 6 =--------------- - (14)

1-tan‘g
 RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES i°5
Formula (11) above may be written in the form:
A
sin* g = if1 ~ cos

It is frequently used in Navigation.

(1 — cos 0) is called the versed sine of 0
ana (1 — sin 0) is called the coversed sine of 0.
|(1 — cos 0) is called the “haversine”, i.e. half the
versed sine.
85. The preceding formulae are so important that they are
collected here for future reference.
(1) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B 4- cos A sin B
(2) sin (A - B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B
(3) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B — sin A sin B
(4) cos (A — B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
_ tan A + tan B
(5) tan (A + B)
— 1 — tan A tan B’
_ tan A — tan B
(6) tan (A - B)
~ 1 + tan A tan B‘
(7) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
(8) cos 2A = cos* .<4 — sin* A.
= 1—2 sin* A
— 2 cos* A — 1
— tan
(9) tan 2,4
1 — tan* A'
These formulae should be carefully memorised. Varia-
Q
tions of (7), (8), (9) in the form 0 and 5 should also be
remembered.
Exercise 14
1. If sin A = J, find sin 2,4, cos 2A and tan 2A.
2. Find sin 20, cos 20, tan 20, when sin 0 = 0-25.
3. Given the values of sin 45° and cos 45° deduce the
values of sin 90° and cos 90° by using the above formulae.
4. If cos B = 0-66, find sin 2B and cos 2B.
5. Find the values of (1) 2 sin 36° cos 36°.
(2) 2 cos’ 36° - 1.
6. If cos 2.4 = f, find tan A.
(Hint.—Use formulae of § 83.) _________
7. Prove that sin | = ± ~cosj
, V^
COS02=± 11 + -------
cos 0*
io6 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

0 0
8. If cos 0 = 4, find sin and cos
z z
(Hint.—Use the results of the previous question.)
9. If 1 — cos 20 = 0-72, find sin 0 and check by using
the tables.
10. Prove that cos* 0 — sin* 0 = cos 20.
(Hint.—Factorise the left-hand side.)

(
0 + cos 0\^
sin g g) — 1 — sin 0.
w r- J «. 1 « J1 _ cos
12. Find the value of V ■=—;----- =7^.
’ 1 *4“ cos oU
(Hint.—See formula of § 83.)
86. Product formulae.
The formulae of § 80 give rise to another set of results
involving the product of trigonometrical ratios.
We have seen that:
sin (A +B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (1)
sin (A —B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B (2)
cos (A +B) — cos A cos B — sin A sin B (31
cos (A —B) = cos.4 cosB + sin A sinB (4)
Adding (1) and (2)
sin (A + B) + sin (A — B) = 2 sin A cos B
Subtracting
sin (A + B) — sin {A — B) = 2 cosA sin B
Adding (3) and (4)
cos (A -|- B) + cos (A — B) = 2 cos A cosB
Subtracting
cos (J + B) — cos (A — B) = — 2 sin A sin B
These can be written in the forms
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A — B) (5)
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) — sin (A — B) (6)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A — B) (7)
2 sin A sin B = cos (A — B) — cos (A + B) (8)
Note.—The order on the right-hand side of (8) must be
carefully noted.
87.
Let A +B = P
and A — B =Q
Adding 2A =P +Q
Subtracting 2B = P-Q
• A P+g

B=^.
A
 RATIOS OF COMPOUND ANGLES 107
Substituting in (5), (6), (7) and (8)
sin P + sin Q =2 sin P cos —(9)

sin P — sin Q = 2 cos P sin —~(10)

cos P + cos Q = 2 cos P cos P C11)

cos Q - cos P = 2 sin sin.P ~ & (12)

The formulae (5), (6), (7), (8) enable us to change the

product of two ratios into a sum.
Formulae (9), (10), (11), (12) enable us to change the sum
of two ratios into a product.
Again note carefully the order in (12).
88. Worked examples.
Example I. Express as the sum of two trigonometrical
ratios sin 50 cos 30.
Using 2 sin A cos B = sin (4 + B) + sin (A — B)
on substitution
sin 50 cos 30 = 1 {sin (50 + 30) 4- sin (50 — 30)}
= i {sin 80 4- sin 20}

Example 2. Change into a sum sin 70° ein 20°.

Using
2 sin A sin B = cos (A — B) — cos (A 4- B)
on substitution
sin 70° sin 20° = J {cos (70° - 20°) - cos (70° + 20°)}
= | {cos 50° — cos 90°}
= | cos 50° since cos 90° — 0.

Example 3. Transform into a product sin 25° + sin 18°.

Using
sm P 4- sin Q = 2 sin P
— + O cos P ——5-^O
A A
• OW . • 100 O • 25° + 18° 25° — 18°
sin 25° + sm 18 = 2 sm------ =------ cos-------- s-----
— 2 sin 21° 30' cos 3° 30'.
Example 4. Change into a product cos 30 — cos 70.
Using
p 4. q P— O
cos Q — cos P = 2 sin —sin —
io8- TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

on substitution
cos 36 — cos 76 = 2 sin ®L±_Z& sin ZLrJg
* Z 2
= 2 sin 56 sin 26.

Exercise 15
Express as the sum or difference of two ratios:
1. sin 36 cos 6.
2. sin 35° cos 45°.
3. cos 50° cos 30°.
4. cos 56 sin 36.
5. cos (C + 2P) cos (2C + P).
6. cos 60° sin 30°.
7. 2 sin 3A sin A., .
8. cos (3C + 5P) sin (3C — 5P).
Express as the product of two ratios:
9. sin iA + sin 2.4.
10. sin 5.4 — sin A.
JI. cos 46 — cos 26.
12. cos A — cos 5A.
13. cos 47° + cos 35°.
14. sin 49° — sin 23°.
sin 30° 4~ sin 60°
cos 30° — cos 60°’
16 sin a + sin fl
cos a + cos fl‘
 CHAPTER VII

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES

OF A TRIANGLE

89. In § 61 we considered the relations which exist between

the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle. In this
Chapter we proceed to deal similarly with any triangle.
In accordance with the usual practice, the angles of a
triangle will be denoted by A, B, and C, and the sides opposite
to these by a, b, and c, respectively.
Note.—In working examples in this and the following
chapters, the student will constantly be using logarithms and
trigonometrical ratios taken from the tables. It should be

remembered that the numbers in these tables are given

correct to four significant figures only. When they are used
in a number of successive operations there will sometimes
be an accumulation of small errors which will result in small
differences in the answers. In general a three-figure accuracy
is all that can be relied upon.
For a general treatment of these errors of approximations
the student should consult a good modern arithmetic or
a special chapter on them in National Certificate Mathe­
matics, Vol. I, published by the English Universities Press.
90. The sine rule.
In every triangle the sides are proportional to the sines
of the opposite angles.
There are two cases to be considered:
(1) Acute-angled triangle (Fig. 76(a)).
(2) Obtuse-angled triangle (Fig. 76(6)).
log
no TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
In each figure draw AD perpendicular to BC, or to BC
produced (Fig. 76(6)).
In A ABD, AD = c sinB (1)
In A ACD, AD = 6 sin C (2)
In Fig. 76(6), since ACB and ACD are supplementary
angles
sin ,4 CD = sin ACB = sinC.
Equating (1) and (2):
c sin 13 = 6 sin C
b _ sinB
c ~ sin C
a _ sin
Similarly
6 sin B
a — sin^
and
c ~ sin C
These results may be combined in the one formula
sin .4 _ sin 13 _ sin C
a ~ b ~
These formulae are suitable for logarithmic calculations.
Worked example. If in a triangle ABC, A = 52° 15’,
B = 70° 26' and a = 9-8, find 6 and c.
Using the sine rule:
6 _ sinB
a — sin .4
, a sin B
.. b = —s—j—
siM
log 6 = log a + log sin B — log sin A
= log 9-8 + log sin 70° 26' — log sin 52° 15'
= 0-9912 + 1-9742 - 1-8980
= 1-0674
= log 11-68
.*. 6=11-7 (approx.)
Similarly c may be found by using

Exercise 16
Solve the following problems connected with a triangle

1. When A = 54°, B = 67°, a = 13-9 m, find 6 and c.

2. When A = 38° 15', B = 29° 38', 6 = 16-2 m, find
a and c.
 THE SIDES ANDANGLES OF A TRIANGLE m

3. When A = 70°, C=58° 16', 6 = 6 mm, find a and c.

4. When A = 88°, B— 36°, a = 9-5 m, find 6 and c.
5. When B = 75°, C— 42°, 6 = 25 cm, find a and c.

91. The cosine rule.

As in the case of the sine rule, there are two cases to be
considered. These are shown in Figs. 77 (a) and 77 (6).

Let BD =x
Then CD =a — x in Fig. 77 (a)
and CD =x — a in Fig. 77 (6)
In A ABD, AD* =AB* - BD*
c* - x* (1)
In AACD, AD* - AC* — CD*
= b* — (a — a-)2 in Fig. 77(a) (2)
or = 6s - (x — a)* in Fig. 77(6)
Also ((a — x)* = (x — a)*
equating (1) and (2)
62 — (a — x)* = c* — x*
b* — a* + Zax — x* = c* — x*
Zax = a* + c* — b*.
But x = c cos B
Zac cos B = a* + c* — b*
_ a* + c2 - b*
cos B —----- 1--------------
2ac
Similarly cos JI =
b2 + c2 — a2
2bc
a2 + b2 — c»
cos C =
2ab
The formulae may also be written in the forms:
c* = a2 4- b* — lab cos C.
a2 = b* + c* — 2bc cos A.
b* = a* + c* — 2ac cos B.
tia TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

These formulae enable us to find the angles of a triangle

when all the sides are known. In the second form it enables
us to find the third side when two sides and the enclosed
angle are known.

Worked example.
Find the angles of the triangle whose sides are
a = 8m, b = 9m, c = 12 m.
a* + b’ - c*
Using cos c =
8* + 9* - 12’
2x8x9
64 + 81 - 144
“ 2x8x9

144
= 00069
whence C = 89° 36'.
4- c* - a*
Again, COS A = ----- -------------
2bc
9’ + 12* - 8*
-2 x 9 x 12
& 81 + 144 - 64
“ 2 x 9 X 12

216
= 0-7454
whence A = 41° 48'.
Similarly, using
D a1 4- c’ — b’
cos B = ----- -------------
2ac
we get B = 48° 36'.
Check
A +B + C
«= 41° 48' + 48° 36' + 89° 36'
«= 180°.

Exercise 17
Find the angles of the triangles in which:
1. a = 2 km, b = 3 km, c = 4 km.
2. a = 54 mm, b = 71 mm, c = 83 mm.
3. a — 24 m, b = 19 m, c — 26 m.
4. a = 2-6 km, b = 2-85 km, c = 4-7 km.
 THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE 113
5. If a =14 m, b *= 8-5 m, c = 9 m, find the greatest
angle of the triangle.
6. When a = 64 mm, b = 57 mm, and c = 82 mm, find
the smallest angle of the triangle.
92. The half-angle formulae.
The cosine formula is not suitable for use with logarithms
and is tedious when the numbers involved are large: it is
the basis, however, of a series of other formulae which are
easier to manipulate.
93. To express the sines of half the angles in terms of the
sides.
As proved in § 91
b» 4. c’ - a*
cos A —
2bc
A
but cos A = 1 — 2 sin*
2
(§83)
, „ . -A bs +c*~ a»
1 — 2 sm* ■=- = ------------------
2bc
A b1 + c* — a*
2 sin* = 1----------- 5=--------
2 2bc
2bc — (b* 4- c* — a*)
2b~c
2bc — b* — c* 4- <**
2bc
a* — (6s — 2bc + c*)
26c
a* — (b — c)*
2bc
Factorising the numerator
A _ (a 4- b — c) (a — b 4- c)
2 sin’ (A)
2 ~ 2bc
The “ s ” notation. To simplify this further we use
the “ s " notation, as follows:
Let 2s = a 4- b 4- c, i.e. the perimeter of the triangle.
Then 2s — 2a = a4-b4-c — 2a
— b 4- c — a
Again 2s — 2b = a-i-b4-c — 2b
= a — b 4- c
Similarly 2s — 2c = a + b — c.
114 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
These may be written
2s =a + b + c (1)
2(s — a) =b + c — a (2)
2(s — b) =a — b + c (3)
2(s — c) =a + & — c (4)
From (A) above
2 sin’ A - (a+b~ ~b+c)
2 2 26c
Replacing the factors of the numerator by their equi­
valents in formulae (3) and (4)
we ,have „ . ,A
2 sin’ -^ = -1 — c) X 2(s — 6)
2(s--------

Cancelling the " 2’s.”

sin«d - (s ~ c) (s ~ 6)
Sin 2 “ 6c

or Sin^ = ./EE^5E«)
2 V oc
Similarly, sin ®

sin? = J(8~ ah~~

2 V ab
94. To express the cosines of half the angles of a triangle
In terms of the sides.
6’ + c’ - a’
Since COS A = ----- -------------
26c
, . 6’ + c’ - a*
1 + cos/l = 1 +------- 267

but 1 + cos A = 2 cos’ (Chapter VI, § 83)

„ -A , , 6’ +c« -a’
2COS22 = 1 + -T-------
(6’ + 26c + c») — a*
26c
_ (6 + c)’ — a*
~ 2bc
_ (6 + c — «) (& + c + «)
~ 2bc
(on factorising the numerator)
but b a — a = 2(s — a)
and a +b +c = 2s
 THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE 115
Substituting
n -A 2(s - a) x 2s
COS 2 2&c
,A s(s — a)
and cos’ 77 = -s-r-----
2 be

Similarly f - a/*1*J

C ‘ /s(s - cj
cos 2 ~ \/ ab

95. To express the tangents of half the angles of a triangle

in terms of the sides.
. A
+ A Sm2
Since tan2= —
cos g
A A
we can substitute for sin— and cos— the expressions
found above.
- o)
* A
Then tang =

Simplifying and cancelling

tan — /(»-&)(«-«)
tan 2 ~ V s(s - a)
tan — — /~a)(s ~c)
Similarly ” 2 ~V 8(8 - b)
tan - - /(S ~ a)<s ~
and tan 2 ~ V s(s - c)
96. To express the sine of an angle of a triangle in terms of
the sides.
Since
A A
sin 4 = 2 sin cos -=
J &
A A
substituting for sin and cos -5 the values found above
4 A
- a)
sin/I = 2. ~x
be
n6 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
,2 __________ _________ _
sin A = gjVs(s — a)(s — &)(« — c), on simplifying.

Similarly
2 ________ _________ ______
sin B — —
and
2
sin C = —Vs (s — a) (s — b) (s — c)

97. Worked example.

The -working involved in the use of all these formulae is
very similar. We will give one example only; others will
be found in the next chapter.
The sides of a triangle are a = 264, b = 435, c = 473. Find
the greatest angle.
The greatest angle is opposite to the greatest side and is
therefore C.
In questions of this type it is very important to employ
a clear and methodical arrangement of the working. Unless
this is done loss of time and inaccurate results will follow.
Checks should be employed at suitable stages.
The following arrangement is suggested.
Begin by calculating values of the " s" factors and
setting out their logarithms.
logs.
a = 264
b = 435
c = 473

2s = 1172

and 586 2-7679

s —a— 322 2-5079
s — b = 151 2-1790
s —c — 113 2-0531

Check 2s = 1172
Tiote- + (s - a) + (s - 6) + (s - c) =
4s — (a + b 4- c) = 2s.
Any of the half angle formulae may be used, but the
tangent formulae involves only the “ s ’’ factors, all the logs
of which are set out above.
 THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE 117

Using
, C
ten2 =
C / 322 x 151
2 = V 586 X 113

log tan 5 = J(log 322 + log 151 — log 586 — log 113)
= 1-9329 (see working) No. Log.
A | = 40°36' 322
2-5079
and C = 81° 12' 151 2-1790
4-6869

586 2-7679
112 2-0531

4-8210
-?2 1-8659
1-9329
Exercise 18
1. Using the formula for tan g, find the largest angle in
the triangle whose sides are 113 mm, 141 mm, 214 mm.
2. Using the formula for sin find the smallest angle in
£t
the triangle whose sides are 483 mm, 316 mm, and 624 mm.
B
3. Using the formula for cos find B when a = 115 m,
6 = 221 m, c = 286 m.
4. Using the half-angle formulae find the angles of the
triangle when a = 160, b — 220, c = 340.
5. Using the half-angle formulae find the angles of the
triangle whose sides are 73-5, 65-5 and 75.
6. Using the formula for the sine in § 96 find the smallest
angle of the triangle whose sides are 172 km, 208 km, and
274 km.
98. To prove that In any triangle
B - C b —c A
ten 2 ~b+ccotl
sin B _ sin C
From § 90
b “ c
Let each of these ratios equal k.
xi8 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Then sin B = bk (1)

and sin C = ck (2)
Adding (1) and (2)
sin B + sin C = k (b + c) (3)
Subtracting (2) from (1)
sin B — sin C = k(b — c) (4)
Dividing (4) by (3)
sin B — sin C _ b — c
sin B + sin C ~ b + c
b — c _ sin B — sin C
Or b + c ~ sin B 4~ sin C
Applying to the numerator and denominator of the right
hand side the formulae, 9 and 10 of § 87.
2cos^-^ . sinS-C
2
We get b+~c = „ . B +C B^C
2 sin . cos—g—
. B -C . B +C
sin sin—2~
2
B -C ‘ b +d
COS 5— COS
2
. B -C
tan-2—
. B +C
tan —J—
Since (B + C) = 180° - A
= 90° - 4

. B-C
tan
b — c 2
b 4*

. B-C
tan —g—
7a~~ (see § 53)
cot 2
. (B-C)
tan >----------
2 _ b — c
~ b +c
COt-g
or tan*L=C b-c „ A
~ b +ccot 2
 THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE ng
Similarly
. A-C a — c B
tan —— = ----- :----- COt
a +c 2
a-b C
tan — ~ a + b Cot 2
This formula is well adapted for use with logarithms,
and although at first sight it may look a complicated one it
is not difficult to manipulate.
On the right-hand side we have quantities which are
known when we are given two sides of a triangle and the
contained angle.
, B_ Q
Consequently we can find — and so B — C.
Since J is known we can find B + C forB + C = 180 — A
Let B -f- C = a
,, B —C = p (note a and p are now
known)
Adding 2B = a + p
Subtracting 2C = a — p
B = ct-+PandC = ^J

Hence we know all the angles of the triangle.

Worked example.
In a triangle A — 75° 12', b = 43, a = 35.
Find B and C.
TT. . B — C b — c ,A
Using tan —s— = r—— cot
° 2 b 4- c 2
and substituting
. B — C 43 — 35 , „_o
tan —=— = , or cot 37° 36'
2 43 + 35
Q
= cot 37° 36'

log tan —= log 8 + log cot 37° 36' — log 78

= I 1245 No. Log.
whence ~ = 7° 35'
8 0-9031
and B — C = 15° 10' cot 37° 36' 0-1135
Also B + C = 180° - 75° 12'
= 104° 48' 1-0166
78 1-8921
(1) Adding 2B=119°58'
and B = 59° 59' log tan 7° 35' 1-1245
B = 60° approx.
120 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
'(2) Subtracting 2C = 89° 38'
and C = 44° 49'.
99. To prove that In any triangle
a = ft cos C + c cos B
As in § 90 there are two cases/
In Fig. 78(a) BC = BD + DC
But BD = c cos B
and DC — b cos C
a = BD + DC ■
= c cos B 4- b cos C

In Fig. 78 (b) BC = BD — DC
a = c cos B — b cos A CD
= c cos B — b cos (180° — C)
= c cos B + b cos C
since
cos (180° — B) = — cos B (see § 70)
in each case
a = ft cos C + c cos B
Similarly ft = a cos C + c cos A
and c = a cos B + b cos A
Referring to § 63 we see that BD is the projection of AB
on BC, and DC is the projection of AC on BC; in the second
case BC is produced and the projection must be regarded
as negative. Hence we may state the Theorem thus:
Any side of a triangle is equal to the projection on it
of the other two sides.
Exercise 19.
Use the formula proved in § 9(8 to find the remaining
angles of the following triangles:
1. a = 171, c = 288, B = 108°.
2. a = 786, b = 854, C = 37° 25'.
3. c - 175, b = 602, A = 63° 40'.
4. a = 185, b = 111, C = 60°.
5. a « 431, b = 387, C = 29° 14'.
6. a -■ 759, c = 567, B = 72° 14'.
 CHAPTER VIII

THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

100. The formulae which have been proved in the previous

chapter are those which are used for the purpose of solving
a triangle. By this is meant that, given certain of the sides
and angles of a triangle, we proceed to find the others. The
parts given must be such as to make it possible to determine
the triangle uniquely. If, for example, all the angles are
given, there is no one triangle which has these angles, but
an infinite number of such triangles, with different lengths
of corresponding sides. Such triangles are similar, but not
congruent (see § 15).
The conditions under which the solution of a triangle is
possible must be the same as those which determine when
triangles are congruent. The student, before proceeding
further, should revise these conditions (see Chapter I,
§ 13).
It should be understood, of course, that we are not dealing
now with right-angled triangles, which have already been
considered (see Chapter III, § 62).
101. From the Theorems enumerated in § 13, it is clear
that a triangle can be " solved ” when the following parts
are given:
Case I. Three sides.
Case II. Two sides and an included angle.
Case III. Two angles and a side.
Case IV. Two sides and an angle opposite to one of
them.
This last case, however, is the Ambiguous Case (see § 13)
and under certain conditions, which will be dealt with later,
there may be two solutions.
In .the previous chapter, after proving the various
formulae, examples were considered which were, in effect,
concerned with the solution of a triangle, but we must now
proceed to a systematic consideration of the whole problem.
102. Case I. To solve a triangle when three sides are
known.
The problem is that of finding at least two of the angles,
121
ms TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
because since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°,
when two are known the third can be found by subtraction.
It is better, however, to calculate all three angles separately
and check the result by seeing if their sum is 180°.
Formulae employed.
(1) The cosine rule. The formula
4- - «*
cos A =----- --------------
2bc
will give A, and B and C can be similarly determined. As
previously stated, however, this should only be used if the
numbers are small, since it is not suitable for logarithmic
calculations.
(2) The half angle formulae. The best of these, as pre­
viously pointed out, is the tan formula, viz.

tanJ - /EHWHZI
2 “ s(s — a)
A A
However, the formulae for sin and cos may be used.
(3) The sine formula

sin^4 = Vs(s — a)(s — 6)(s — c)

OC
This is longer than the half-angle formulae, though suitable
for logarithmic calculations.

Worked example.
Solve the triangle in which a = 269-8, b — 235-9, c = 264-7.

Data and logs. a = 26Q-8

b = 235-9
c = 264-7

2s = 770-4
Logs.
s = 385-2 2-5857
s — a = 115-4 2-0622
s — b = 149-3 2-1741
s — c = 120-5 2-0809

Check 2s = 770-4
 THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 123
To find A
Formula to be used tan ~ = / ~ ^) (s ~ c)
2 \J s(s - a)
Taking logs
log tan^ = |[{log(s — b}+ log(s — c)J — {logs + log(s - a)}]

= 1-8035 (from working) Logs.

= log tan 32° 28'
s — b 2-1741
= 32° 28' s — c 2-0809
and A= 64° 56'. 4-2550
s 2-5857
s — a 2-0622

4-6479

2 1-6071

F8035

To find B.
Formula used
tan-- ~ a)(S ~ C)
tan 2 ~ A/ s(s - b)
Taking logs
log tan f = a[{log(s — a) + log(s — c)J — {log s + log(s — 6)}]
Z a
= 1-6916 Logs.
— log tan zo 11
5 s — a 2-0622
A — 26° 11 s-c 2-0809
z
and B = 52° 22'. 4-1431
s 2-5857
s — b 2-1741

4-7598
-r- 2 1-3833

T-6916
124 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

To find C.
Formula used
tan - = /<* ~ a^s ~~ty
2 V s(s-c)
Taking logs
Cl
log tan = 5[{log(s — a) + log(s — ft)}— {logs + k>g(s — c)}]
= 1-7848 Logs.

).-. j = 31° 21' 1 - b 2-0622

2-1741
C = 62° 42'.
4-2363

A — 64° 56' s 2-5857

B = 52° 22' » ~ c 2-0809
C = 62° 42'
4-6666
4 + B + C= I8O°OO'
1-5697

1’7846
Exercise 20.
Solve the following triangles:
1. a =x 252, b = 342, c = 486.
2. a = 10, b = 11, c = 12.
3. a = 206-5, b = 177, c - 295.
4. a = 402-5, b = 773-5, c = 1001.
5. a = 95-2, b = 162-4, c = 117-6.

103. Case II. Given two sides and the contained angle.
(1) The cosine rule may be used. If, for example, the
given sides are b and c and the angle A, then
- a* — b1 + c* — 2bc cos A
will give a.
Hence, since all sides are now known we can proceed as
in Case I. The drawbacks to the use of this formula were
given in the previous case.
(2) Use the formula
. B - C b - c A
tan-^- = b+■e'otj
which is suitable for use with logarithms.
Solve the triangle when
b = 294, c = 406, A •= 35° 24'
 THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 125
Data and logs :
b = 294, 2-4683
c = 406 2-6085
c +b = 700 2-8451
•c - b = 112 2-0492
A - 35° 24'
= 17° 42' 0-4960
C + B = 144° 36'
• This form is used since c > b, and therefore C > B.
Formula used :
C — B c —b A
' ^-2-- r+6cot2
1 . C - B
log tan —g— = log(c — b) + log cot — log(c 4- &)
= 1-7001
= log tan 26° 38' Logs.
C -B
= 26° 38' 112 2-0492
2
C — B = 53° 16' cot 17° 42' 0-4960
Also C +B = 144° 36' 2-5452
2C = 197° 52' 700 2-8451
C = 98° 56'
Also 2B = 91° 20' tan 26° 38' 1-7001
B = 45° 40'.
To-find a.
Formula used:
a _ b
sin A ~ sin B
log a = log b + log sin A log sin B
= 2-3767 Logs.
= log 238-1
a = 238 approx. 294 2-4683
sin 35° 24' 1-7629
The solution is:
B = 45° 40' 2-2312
C = 98° 56' sin 45° 40' 1-8545
a = 238.
238 2-3767
Exercise 21
Solve the following triangles:
1. b ‘ = 189. ----- A’ = 60°
•" c = 117-7, -------36'.
2. a = 94, b = 159-4, C = 80° 58'.
3. a = 39-6, c = 71-1, B = 65° 10*.
a = 266, b - 175, C = 78°.
6. = 230-1, c — 269-5, B = 30° 28'
126 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
104. Case III. Given two angles and a side.
If two angles are known the third is also known, since
the sum of all three angles is 180°. This case may therefore
be stated as
Given the angles and one side.
The best formula to use is the Sine rule.
Note.—It has previously been stated that if greater
accuracy is required than can be obtained by the use of four-
figure tables, a book giving seven-figure tables is necessary.
In order that the student may have some idea of these
tables and their use, they will be employed in the following
worked example. Many students will certainly need these
more exact tables when they apply their trigonometry to
practical problems; they are therefore advised to obtain a
copy of Chambers’ “ Tables ". The use of them differs in
some respects from those employed in four-figure tables,
but a full explanation is given in an introduction to the
book itself.

Worked example.
Solve the triangle in which B = 71° 19' 5', C = 67° 27' 33'
and b = 79 063.
Note.~-It will be observed that the angles are given to
the " nearest second " and the length of the side to 5
significant figures.
Required to find, A, a and c.
Now A = 180° — (71° 19' 5' + 67° 27' 33*)
= 41° 13'22'.
To find c.
c _ sin C
Formula used
b ~ sin B
b sin c
whence c = — —5-
smB
log c = log b + log sin c — log sin B
= 1-8869718 Logs.
= log 77-085
C = 77-085. 79-063 1-8979775
sin 67° 27' 33" 1-9654810

1-8634645
sin 71° 19' 5" 1-9764927

77-085 1*8869718
 THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 127

To find a.
. a sin A
Usm? b = sinB
log a — log b + log sin A — log sin B
= 1-7403627 Logs.
= log 55
a = 55. 79063 1-8979775
sin 41° 13' 22" 1-8188779

1-7168554
sin 71° 19' 5" 1-9764927

The solution is 55 1-7403627

= 41° 13' 22'
a = 55
c = 77085.
Exercise 22
Solve the triangles:
1. a = 141-4, A = 74° 18', C = 24° 14'.
2. b = 208-5, A = 95° 41', B = 41° 38'.
3. A = 29° 56', C = 108°, a = 112-8.
4. B = 32° 41', C = 49° 38', c = 117-6.
5. b = 11-74, A = 27° 45', B = 41° 22'.
105. Case IV. Given two sides and an angle opposite to
one of them.
This is the ambiguous case and the student is advised to
revise Chapter I, § 13, before proceeding further.
As we have seen if two sides and an angle opposite to one
of them be given, then the triangle is not always uniquely
determined as in the previous cases, but there may be two
solutions.
We will now consider from a trigonometrical point of
view how this ambiguity may arise.

In the A ABC (Fig. 79), let c, b, B be known.

128 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

As previously shown in § 13 the side b may be drawn in

two positions AC and AC.
Both the triangles ABC and ABC satisfy the given con­
ditions. Consequently there are:
(1) Two values for a, viz. BC and BC.
(2) Two values for ZC, viz. ACB or AC'B.
(3) Two values for /.A, viz. BAC or BAC.
Now the A ACC is isosceles, since AC = AC
:. A.ACC = ACC.
But ACC is the supplement of ACB.
.'. also ACC is the supplement of ACB.
.’. the two possible values oj £.C, viz. ACB and AC'B are
supplementary.
Solution.
Since c, b, B are known, C can be found by the sine rule,
sin C sin B
t.e. we use ------- = —s—
c b
, . - a sin B
whence sin C — -——
b
Let us suppose that c = 8-7, b = 7-6, B = 25.
. - 8-7 sin 25° Logs.
Then sin C = ----- y-g----- 8-7 0-9395
/. log sin C = log 8-7 4- log sin 25° sin 25° 1-6259
- log 7-6
0-5654
log sin C = 1-6846.
log 7-6 0-8808'

I-6846
We have seen in § 73 that when the value of a sine is given,
there are two angles less than 180° which have that sine,
and the angles are supplementary. Now from the tables
the acute angle whose log sine is 1-6846 is 28° 56'.
/. I -6846 is also the log sine of 180° — 28° 36', i.e. 151° 4.
Consequently there are two values for C, viz.
28° 56' and 151° 4'.
Let us examine the question further by considering the
consequences of variations relative to c in the value of b,
the side opposite to the given angle B.
As before draw BA making the given angle B meet BX,
of indefinite length. Then with centre A and radius = b
draw an arc of a circle.
 THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 129
(1) If this arc touches BX in C, we have the minimum
length of b to make a triangle at all (Fig. 80(a)). The
triangle is then right-angled, there is no ambiguity and
b = c sin B.

There are two As ABC, ABC' and the case is ambiguous.

(3) If b > c, BX is cut at two points C and C' (Fig. 80(c)),

but one of these C lies on BX produced in the other direc-
«tion and in the A so formed, there is no angle B, but only
its supplement. There is one solution and no ambiguity.
There are two solutions only when b, the side opposite to
the given angle B, is less than c, the side adjacent, and greater
: than c sin B.
Ambiguity can therefore be ascertained by inspection.

Exercise 23.
In the following cases ascertain if there is more than one
solution. Then solve the triangles:
1. b = 30-4, c = 34-8, B = 25°.
2. b = 70-25, c = 85-3, B = 40°.
3. a = 96, c = 100, C = 66°.
4. a = 91, c = 78, C = 29° 27'.
130 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

106. Area of a triangle.

From many practical points of view, e.g. surveying, the
calculation of the area oi a triangle is an essential part of
solving the triangle. This can be done more readily when
the sides and angles are known. This will be apparent in
the following formulae.
(1) The base and altitude formula.
The student is probably ac­
quainted with this formula which
is easily obtained from elementary
B geometry.
Fig. 80(d). Considering the triangle ABC in
Fig. 80(d).
From A, a vertex of the
he triangle,
triangle, draw AD perpendicular
draw AD perpendicular
to the opposite side.
Let A D = A and let A = the area of the triangle.
Then A = 1BC x AD

If perpendiculars be drawn from the other vertices B Mid ,

C, similar formulae may be obtained.
It will be noticed that A is not calculated directly in any
of the formulae for the solution of a triangle. It is generally
more convenient that it should be expressed in terms of the
sides and angle. Accordingly we modify this formula in (2).
(2) The sine formula.
Referring to Fig. 80(d):
AD . ~
7C = s,nC
.•. h = b sin C
Substituting for A in formula above,
A = |ab sin C
Similarly using other sides as bases
A = {be sin A
= jafe sin B.
This is a useful formula and adapted to logarithmic
calculation. It may be expressed as follows:
The area of a triangle is equal to half the product of two
sides and the sine of the angle contained by them.
(3) Area in terms of the sides.
We have seen in § 96, Chapter VII, that
2 _________ :_____________
sin A = Vs(s — a)(s — d)(s — c)
 THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

Substituting this for sin A in the formula

A — ibc sin A
A = jbc x Vs (s — a) (s — bj (s — c)

A = V»(s — a)(8 — b)(s — c)

In using this formula with logs the student should revise'
the hints given in the worked example in § 97, Chapter VII.
Worked examples.
. (1) Find the area of the triangle solved in § 103, viz. b = 294,
c = 406, A = 35° 24'.
Using the formula:
A = %bc sin A
A = | X 294 X 406 X sin 35° 24'
tog A = log (0-5) + log 294 + log 406 + log sin 35° 24'
= 4-5387 Logs.
A = 34570 sq. units.
0-5 1-6990
294 2-4683
406 2-6085
sin 35° 24' 1-7629
34570 4-5387
(2) Find the area of the triangle solved in § 102, viz.
a = 269-8, b = 235-9, c = 264-7.
Using the formula and taking values of s, s — a, etc., as
in § 102: ■__________________
A = Vs(s — a)(s — b)(s — c)
log A = 4{log s 4-log (s - a) + log(s — b) + log(s — c)
= 4-4515 Log.
— log 28280
A = 28280 sq. units. $ = 385-2 2-5857
s - a = 115-4 2-0622
s - b - 149-3 2-1741
s - c = 120-5 2-0809

-i- 2 8-9029
28280 4-4515
Exercise 24
1. Find the area of the triangle when a = 6-2 m
6 = 7-8 m, C = 52°.
2. Find the area of the triangle ABC when AB = 14 km,
BC =11 km and Z.ABC = 70°.
i32 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

3. If the area of a triangle is 100 m2 and two of its sides

are 21 m and 15 m, find the angle between these sides.
4. Find the area of the triangle when a = 98-2 cm,
c = 73-5 cm and B = 135° 20'.
5. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 28-7 cm,
35-4 cm and 51-8 cm.
6. The sides of a triangle are 10 mm, 13 mm and 17 mm.
Find its area.
7. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 23-22,
31-18 and 40-04 Mm.
8. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 325 m,
256 m and 189 m.
9. A triangle whose sides are 135 (xm, 324 iim and 351 (xm
is made of material whose density is 2-3 kg [xm-2. Find the
mass of the triangle in Mg.
10. Find the area of a quadrilateral ABCD, in which
AB = 14-7 cm, BC = 9-8 cm, CD = 21-7 cm, AD =
18-9 cm and Z_ABC = 137°.
11. ABC is a triangle with sides BC = 36 cm, CA = 25
cm, AB — 29 cm. A point O lies inside the triangle and
is distant 5 cm from BC and 10 cm from CA. Find its
distance from AB.
Exercise 25

Miscellaneous Examples

1. The least side of a triangle is 3-6 km long. Two of the

angles are 37° 15' and 48° 24'. Find the greatest side.
2. The sides of a triangle are 123 m, 79 m and 97 m.
Find its angles as accurately as you can.
3. Given b = 532-4, c = 647-1, A = 75° 14', find B,
C and a.
4. In a triangle ABC find the angle ACB when AB =
92 mm, BC = 50 mm and CA = 110 mm.
5. The length of the side BC of a triangle ABC is 14-5 m
/ ABC = 71°, ABAC = 57°. Calculate the lengths of
the sides AC and AB.
6. In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 3 m, BC = 4 m,
CD = 7-4 m, DA = 4-4 m and the Z_ABC is 90°. Deter­
mine the angle ADC.
7. When a = 25, b — 30, A = 50° determine how many
such triangles exist and complete their solution.
8. The length of the shortest side of a triangle is 162 m.
If two angles are 37° 15' and 48° 24' find the greatest side.
9. In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 4-3 m, BC = 3-4 m,
CD = 3-8 m, AABC = 95°, ABCD = 115°. Find the
lengths of the diagonals.
 THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 133

10. From a point O on a straight line OX, OP and OQ

of lengths 5 mm and 7 mm are drawn on the same side of
OX so that Z.X0P = 32° and /_X0Q = 55°. Find the
length of PQ.
11. Two hooks P and Q on a horizontal beam are 30 cm
apart. From P and Q strings PR and QR, 18 cm and 16 cm
long respectively, support a weight at R. Find the distance
of R from the beam and the angles which PR and QR make
with the beam.
12. Construct a triangle ABC whose base is 5 cm long, the
angle BAC = 55° and the angle ABC = 48°. Calculate the
lengths of the sides AC and BC and the area of the triangle.
13. Two ships leave port at the same time. The first
steams S.E. at 18 km h-1, and the second 25° W. of S. at
15 km h-1. Calculate the time that will have elapsed when
they are 86 km apart.
14. AB is a base line of length 3 km, and C, D are
points such that /.BAC = 32° 15', /.ABC = 119° 5',
/.DBC = 60° 10', /.BCD = 78° 45', A and D being on the
same side of BC. Prove that the length of CD is 4405 m
approximately.
15. ABCD is a quadrilateral. If AB = 0-38 m,
BC = 0-69 m, AD = 0-42 m, /.ABC = 109°, /.BAD =
123°, find the area of the quadrilateral.
16. A weight was hung from a horizontal beam by two
chains 8 m and 9 m long respectively, the ends of the chains
being fastened to the same point of the weight, their other
ends being fastened to the beam at points 10 m apart.
Determine the angles which the chains make with the beam.
 CHAPTER IX
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE SOLUTION
OF TRIANGLES

107. It is not possible within the limits of this book to

deal with the many practical applications of Trigonometry.
For adequate treatment of these the student must consult
the technical treatises specially written for those professions
in which the subject is necessary. All that is attempted in
this chapter is the consideration of a few types of problems
which embody those principles which are common to most
of the technical applications. Exercises are provided
which will provide a training in the use of the rules and
formulae which have been studied in previous chapters. In
other words, the student must learn to use his tools efficiently
and accurately.

108. Determination of the height of a distant object.

This problem has occupied the attention of mankind
throughout the ages and is not less important in these days
of aeroplanes and balloons. Three simple forms of the
problem may be considered here.
(a) When the point vertically beneath the top of the
object is accessible.
In Fig. 81 AB represents a lofty object whose height is
required, and B is the foot of it, on the same horizontal
level as O. This being accessible a horizontal distance
represented by OB can be measured. By the aid of a
J34
 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS r$S

theodolite the angle of elevation of AB, viz. /.AOB, can

be found.
Then A B = OB tan A OB.
The case of the pyramid considered in Chapter III,
§ 40, is an example of this. It was assumed that distance
from the point vertically below the top of the pyramid could
be found.
(b) When the point on the ground vertically beneath
the top of the object is not accessible;
In Fig. 82 A B represents the height to be determined and
B is not accessible. To determine AB we can proceed as
follows:
From a suitable point Q, /.AQB is measured by means of
a theodolite.

Then a distance PQ is measured so that P and Q are on

the same horizontal plane as B and the A APQ and AB are
in the same vertical plane.
Then Z APQ is measured.
in &APQ.
PQ is known.
/.APQ is known.
A.AQP is known, being the supplement of Z.AQB.
The A APQ can therefore be solved as in Case III,
$ 104.
When AP is known.
Then AB = AP sin APB
As a check AB = AQ sin AQB
(c) By measuring a horizontal distance In any direction.
It is not always easy to obtain a distance PQ as in the
previous example, so that A APQ and AB are in the same
vertical plane.
i36 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
The following method can then be employed.
In Fig. 83 let AB represent the height to be measured.
Taking a point P, measure a horizontal distance PQ in
any suitable direction.

At P measure
(1) /APB, the angle of elevation of A.
(2) /APQ, the bearing of Q from A taken at P.
At Q measure /A QP, the bearing of P from Q, taken at Q.
Then in A APQ.
PQ is known.
/APQ is known.
/AQP is known.
A APQ can be solved as in Case III, of § 104.
Thus AP is found and /APB is known.
.-. AB = AP sin APB
As a check /AQB can be observed and^Q found as above.
Then AB = AQ sin AQB.
It should be noted that the distances PB and QB can be
determined if required.
Alternative method.
Instead of measuring the angles APQ, AQB, we may, by
using a theodolite, measure
/BPQ at P
and /PQB at Q
Then in A PQB.
PQ is known.
Z.s BPQ, BQP are known.
A PQB can be solved as in Case III, § 104.
Thus PB is determined.
Then /APB being known
AB = PB tan APB
As a check, AB can be found by using BQ and /AQB.
 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 137

109. Distance of an Inaccessible object.

Suppose A (Fig. 84) to be an inaccessible object whose
distance is required from an observer at P.
A distance PQ is measured in any suitable direction.
/.APQ, the bearing of A with regard to PQ at P is
measured.

Also AAQP, the bearing of A with regard to PQ at Q

is measured.
Thus in A APQ.
PQ is known.
Zs APQ, AQP are known.
A APQ can be solved as in Case III, § 104.
Thus AP may be found and, if required, AQ.

110. Distance between two visible but inaccessible objects.

Let A and B (Fig. 85) be two distant inaccessible objects.
Measure any convenient base line PQ.
tj8 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

At P observe Z.s APB, BPQ.

At Q observe /.sAQP, AQB.
In &APQ.
PQ is known.
APQ, AQP are known.
:. A can be solved as in Case III, § 104, and AQ can be
found.
Similarly A BPQ can be solved and QB can be found.
Then in & AQB.
AQ is known.
QB is known.
■ Z.AQB is known.
A AQB can be solved as in Case II, § 103.
Hence AB is found.
A check can be found by solving in a similar manner
the A APB.

III. Triangulation.
The methods employed in the last two examples are, fa
principle, those which are used in Triangulation. This is
the name given to the method employed in surveying a
district, obtaining its area, etc. In practice there are com­
plications such as corrections for sea level and, over large
districts, the fact that the earth is approximately a sphere
necessitates the use of spherical trigonometry.
Over small areas, however, the error due to considering
the surface as a plane, instead of part of a sphere, is, in
general, very small, and approximations are obtained more

A measured distance PQ (Fig. 86), called a base line, is

 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 139

marked out with very great accuracy on suitable ground.

Then a point A is selected and its bearings from P and Q,
i.e. As, APQ, AQP, are observed. PQ being known, the
A APQ can now be solved as in Case III and its area
determined.
Next, another point B is selected and the angles BPA,
BAP measured.
Hence, as PA has been found' from A APQ, A APB can
be solved (Case III) and its area found.
Thus the area of the quadrilateral PQAB can be found.
This can be checked by joining BQ.
The As BPQ, ABQ can now be solved and their areas
determined.
Hence we get once more the area of the quadrilateral
PQAB.
A new point C can now be chosen.
Using the same methods as before:
A ABC can be solved.
By repeating this process with other points and a network
of triangles a whole district can be covered.
Not only is it essential that the base line should be
measured with minute accuracy, but an extremely accurate
measurement of the angles is necessary. Checks are used
at every stage, such as adding the angles of a triangle to
■see if their sum is 180°, etc.
The instruments used, especially the theodolite, are
provided with verniers and microscopic attachments to
secure accurate readings.
As a further check at the end of the work, or at any
convenient stage, one of the lines whose length has been
found by calculation, founded on previous calculations, can
be used as a base line, and the whole survey worked back­
wards, culminating with the calculation of the original
measured base line.

112. Worked examples.

We will now consider some worked examples illustrating
some of the above methods, as well as other problems solved
by similar methods.
Example I. Two points lie due W. of a stationary balloon
and are 1000 m apart. The angles of elevation at the two
points are 21° 15' and 18°. Find the height of the balloon.
This is an example of the problem discussed under (&)
in § 108
140 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

In Fig. 87
Z.AQB = 21° 15'
A.AQP = 158° 45'
Z.APQ = 18°
.-. Z.PAQ = 3° 15'
A APQ is solved as in Case III.
^P _ .Pg
sin AQP sin PAQ

Fig. 87.
log AP = log 1000 + log sin 158° 45' — log sin 3° 15'
and sin 158° 45' = sin 21° 15' (§ 70)
whence AP = 6395 (see working) Logs.
also AB = PA sin 18°
= 6395 sin 18° 1000 3
whence log AB = 3-2958 (see working) sin 21° 15' 1-5593
AB = 1976 m
2-5593

sin 3° 15' 2-7535

6395 3-8058

sin 18° 1-4900

1976 3-2958

Example 2. A balloon is observed from two stations A and

B at the same horizontal level, A being 1000 m north of B,
At a given instant the balloon appears from A to be In a
direction N. 33° 12' E., and to have an elevation 53° 25',
while from B it appears in a direction N. 21” 27' E. Find the
height of the balloon.
This is an example of (c) above.
 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 141
In Fig. 88 PQ represents the height of the balloon at P
above the ground.
ANAQ = 33° 12'
AABQ = 21° 27'
A.PAQ = 53° 25'
We first solve the A ABQ and so find AQ.
A.BAQ = 180° — 33° 12' = 146° 48
LAQB = 180° - (BAQ + ABQ)
= 180° - 168° 15'
= 11* 45'

The A ABQ can now be solved as in Case III.

AQ = AB
Then
sin A BQ ~~ sin A QB
AQ 1000
sin 21° 27' sin 11° 45'
log AQ = log 1000 + log sin 21° 27' — log sin 11° 45'
whence AQ = 1796 (see working) Logs.
Now PQ = AQ tan PAQ
PQ = 1796 tan 53° 25' 1000 3
log PQ = log 1796 + log tan 53' 25‘ sin 21° 27' 1-5631
whence PQ = 2419 m (see working)
2-5631
sin 11° 45' 1-3089

1796 3-2542

tan 53° 25' 0-1295

2419 3-3837
142 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Example 3. A man who wishes to find the width of a

river measures along a level stretch on one bank, a line AB,
150 m long. From A he observes that a post P on the
opposite bank is placed so that /_PAB «= 51° 20', and
/_ PBA = 62° 12'. What was the breadth of the riverl
In Fig. 89, AB represents the measured distance, 150 m
long.
P is the post on the other side of the river.
PQ, drawn perpendicular to.^B, represents the width of
the river.

To find PQ we must first solve the A APB.

Then knowing PA or PB we can readily find PQ.
£s APB is solved as in Case III,
Z.PAB = 51° 20', Z.PBA = 62° 12'
Z.APB = 180° — (51° 20' 4- 62° 12') = 66° 28
PB _ sin 51° 20'
AB sin 66° 28'
150 x sin 51° 20'
PB =
sin 66° 28'
log PB = log 150 4- log sin 51° 20' -- log sin 66 ’28'
PB = 127-7 (see working) Logs.
Again PQ = PB sin 62° 12'
.-. log PQ - log 127-7 4- log sin 62° 12'' 150 2-1761
whence PQ = 113 m (see working) sin 51° 20' 1-8925
This mAy be checked by finding PA in 2-0686
A PAB and then finding PQ as above. sin 66° 28' 1-9623

127-7 2-1063

sin 62° 12' 1-9467

1130 2 0530
 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 143

Example 4. A and B are two ships at sea. P and Q are

two stations, 1100 m apart, and approximately on the same
horizontal level as A and B. At P, AB subtends an angle of
49° and BQ an angle of 31°. At Q, AB subtends an angle of
60° and AP an angle of 62°. Calculate the distance between
the ships.
Fig. 90 represents the given angles and the length PQ
(not drawn to scale).
AB can be found by solving either A PAB or A QAB.
To solve A PAB we must obtain AP and BP.
' AP can be found by solving A APQ.
BP can be found by solving A PBQ.
In both As we know one side and two angles.
/. the A can be solved as in Case III.

To solve A APQ and find AP.

S
TT .
CS.APQ

..
A APQ= A APB+ ABPQ

,
= 49° + 31° = 80°
LPAQ<= 180° — (80° + 62°) =. 38’.

Using the sine rule

AP sin 62°
^ = ^30

/. log AP = log 1100 + log sin 62’ — log sin 38’

= 3-1080
Logs.
AP = 1578 m (see working).
1100 3 0414
sin 62’ 1-9459

2 9873
sin 38’ 1-7893

1578 31980
144 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

(2) To solve A BPQ and find BP.

/.PQB = /AQB + /AQB
= 60° + 62° = 122°.
.'. /PBQ = 180° - (31° + 122°) = 27’
TT . . . BP sin 122°
Using sine rule
log BP = log 1100 + log sin 122° — log sin 27’
= 3-3128 Logs.
BP = 2055 m (see working)
1100 3-0414
sin 122’ 1-9284

2-9698
sin 27’ 1-6570

2055 3-3128
(3) To solve A APB and find AB.
We know AP = 1578 (= c say) b = 2055
BP = 2055 (=6) c = 1578
/APB = 49° (= A) —-------------------------
Solve as in Case II, § 103. b —c = 4773
B + C - 180° - 49°
= 131’
Formula used.
, B —C b — c A
tan-^- = rr^C0t2
Substituting

tan cot 24’ 30'

£ Q
.'. log tan —g— = log 477 + log cot 24' 30' — lo(J 3633
= 1-4595
= log tan 16° 4' (see working)
V = 16°4' Logs.
B -C = 32° 8' 477 2-6785
Also B + C = 131° cot 24’ 30' 0-3413
;. 2B = 163° 8'
B = 81° 34' 3-0198
2C = 98° 52' 3633 3-5603
C = 49° 26'
/PAB = 81° 34' 16’4' 1-4595
/PBA = 49° 26'
 PRACTICAL PROBLEM S M5
(4) To find AB use the sine rule.
AB = sin 49°
AP sin 49° 26'
. . R _ 1578 x sin 49° Logs.
•• A sin 49° 26'
log^B = log 1578 4- log sin 49° 1578 31980
— log sin 49° 26' sin 49° 1-8778
= 31952 3-0758
.’. AB = 1568 m (see working). sin 49° 26' 1-8806
This can be checked by solving
A AQB and so obtaining AQ and QB. 1568 31952

Exercise 26.
1. A man observes that the angle of elevation of a tree
is 32°. He walks 8 m in a direct line towards the tree and
then finds that the angle of elevation is 43°. What is the
height of the tree?
2. From a point Q on a horizontal plane the angle of
elevation of the top of a distant mountain is 22° 18'. At a
point P, 500 m further away in a direct horizontal line, the
angle of elevation of the mountain is 16° 36'. Find the
height of the mountain.
3. Two men stand on opposite sides of a church steeple and
in the same straight line with it. They are 1-5 km apart.
From one the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is
15° 30' and the other 28° 40'. Find the height of the
steeple in metres.
4. A man wishes to find the breadth of a river. From a
point on one bank he observes the angle of elevation of a
high building on the edge of the opposite bank to be 31°.
He then walks 110 m away from the river to a point in the
same plane as the previous position and the building he has
observed. He finds that the angle of elevation of the
building is now 20° 55'. What was the breadth of the
river?
5. A and B are two points on opposite sides of swampy
ground. From a point P outside the swamp it is found that
PA is 882 metres and PB is 1008 metres. The angle sub­
tended at P by AB is 55° 40'. What was the distance
between A and B?
6. A and B are two points 1-8 km apart on a level piece
of ground along the bank of a river. P is a post on the
opposite bank. It is found that A.PAB = 62° and
Z_PBA = 48°. Find the width of the river.
7. The angle of elevation of the top of a mountain from
146 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

the bottom of a tower 180 m high is 26° 25'. From the top
of the tower the angle of elevation is 25° 18'. Find the
height of the mountain.
8. Two observers 5 km apart take the bearing and
elevation of a balloon at the same instant. One finds that
the bearing is N. 41° E. and the elevation 24°. The other
finds that the bearing is N. 32° E. and the elevation 26° 37'.
Calculate the height of the balloon.
9. Two landmarks A and B are observed by a man to be
at the same instant in a line due east. After he has walked
4- 5 km in a direction 30° north of east, A is observed to
be due south while B is 38° south of east. Find the
distance between A and B.
10. At a point P in a straight road PQ it is observed that
two distant objects A and B are in a straight line making
an angle of 35° at P with PQ. At a point C 2 km along
the road from P it is observed that /LACP is 50° and angle
BCQ is 64°. What is the distance between A and B?
11. An object P is situated 345 m above a level plane.
Two persons, A and B, are standing on the plane, A in a
direction south-west of P and B due south of P. The angles
of elevation of P as observed at A and B are 34° and 26°
respectively. Find the distance between A and B.
12. P and Q are points on a straight coast line, Q being
5- 3 km east of P. A ship starting from P steams 4 km in
a direction 65|° N. of E.
Calculate:
(1) The distance the ship is now from the coast-line.
(2) The ship’s bearing from Q.
(3) The distance of the ship from Q.
13. At a point A due south of a chimney stack, the angle
of elevation of the stack is 55°. From B due west of A,
such that AB <= 100 m, the elevation of the stack is 33°.
Find the height of the stack and its horizontal distance
from A.
14. AB is a base line 0-5 km long and B is due west of
A. At B a point P bears 65° 42' north of west. The
bearing of P from AB at A is 44° 15' N. of W. How far is
P from A ?
15. A horizontal bridge over a river is 380 m long. From
one end, A, it is observed that the angle of depression of an
object, P vertically beneath the bridge, on the surface of
the water is 34°. From the other end, B, the angle
of depression of the object is 62°. What is the height of
the bridge above the water?
16. A straight line AB, 115 m long, lies in the same
 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 147
horizontal plane as the foot of a church tower PQ. The
angle of elevation of the top of the tower at ri is 35°. Z.QAB
is 62° and AQBA is 48°. What is the height of the tower?
17. A and B are two points 1500 metres apart on a road
' running due west. A soldier at A observes that the bearing
s of an enemy’s battery is 25° 48' north of west, and at B,
31° 30' north of west. The range of the guns in the battery
is 5 km. How far can the soldier go along the road before
he is within range, and what length of the road is within
range?
 CHAPTER X

CIRCULAR MEASURE

113. In Chapter I, when methods of measuring angles were

considered, a brief reference was made to " circular measure ”
(§ 6 (c)), in which the unit of measurement is an angle of
fixed magnitude, and not dependent upon any arbitrary
division of a right angle. We now proceed to examine this
in more detail.
114. Ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
The subject of " circular measure ” frequently presents
difficulties to the young student. In order to make it as
simple as possible we shall assume, without mathematical
proof, the following theorem.
The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter
Is a fixed one for all circles.
This may be expressed in the form:
Circumference
= a constant.
diameter
It should, of course, be noted that the ratio of the cir­
cumference of a circle to its radius is also constant and the
value of the constant must be twice that of the circum­
ference to the diameter.
115. The value of the constant ratio of circumference to
diameter.
The student who is interested may obtain a fair approxi­
mation to the value of the constant by various simple
experiments. For example, he may wrap a thread round
a cylinder—a glass bottle will do—and so obtain the length
of the circumference. He can measure the outside dia­
meter by callipers. The ratio of circumference to diameter
thus found wifi probably give a result somewhere about 3-14.
He can obtain a much more accurate result by the
method devised by Archimedes. The perimeter of a regular
polygon inscribed in a circle can readily be calculated. The
perimeter of a corresponding escribed polygon can also
be obtained. The mean of these two results will give an
approximation to the ratio. By increasing the number of
sides a still more accurate value can be obtained.
148
 CIRCULAR MEASURE 149
This constant is denoted by the Greek letter re (pro-
nounced “ pie ”).
circumference
Hence since
diameter
circumference = re x diameter
or c = 2rer
where c = circumference and r = radius.
By methods of advanced mathematics re can be cal­
culated to any required degree of accuracy.
To seven places
re = 31415927 . . .
For many purposes we take
re = 3-1416
22 / / \
Roughly re = -y. / / \
It is not possible to find any I Q
arithmetical fraction which
exactly represents the value
\
\
j
/
of re. Hence re is called “ in- X.
commensurable
116. The unit of circular measure. FlG- 91’

As has been stated in § 6(c) the unit of circular measure

is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
whose length is equal to that of the radius.
Thus in Fig. 91 the length of the arc AB is equal to r, the
radius of the circle. The angle A OB is the unit by which
angles are measured, and is termed a radian.

Definition of a radian.
A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an
arc equal in length to the radius.
Note that since
the circumference is re times the diameter
the semicircular arc is re times the radius
or arc of semicircle = rer.
By Theorem 17, § 18.
The angles at the centre of a circle are proportional to the
arcs on which they stand.
Now in Fig. 91 the arc of the semicircle ABC subtends
150 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
two right angles, and the arc AB subtends 1 radian and as
semicircle arc is n times arc AB
;. angle subtended by the semicircular arc is it times
the angle subtended by arc AB.
i.
e. 2 right angles = it radians
of 180° = n radians.

117. The number of degrees in a radian.

As shown above n radians = 180°

= 57-2958° approx.
.*. I radian = 57° 17'45' approx.

118. The circular measure of any angle.

In a circle of radius r, Fig. 92, let AOD be any angle and

let AAOB represent a radian.
/. length of arc AB = r.
LA0T3
Number of radians in LAOD =
LAOB
By Theorem 17 quoted above
AAOD _ arc4Z>
AA0B~ arc AB
If 9 = number of radians in AAOD
arc AD
then --------- - *
r
 CIRCULAR MEASURE 151

119. To convert degrees to radians.

Since 180° = it radians

1°= IB radians

and 6° = ^0 X radians.

120. To find the length of an arc.

Let a — length of arc
and 6 = number of radians in angle.
Then as shown in J 1J8

—aJr -
radius
= number of radians in the angle the arc subtends,

? = 0 (§118)

and a = r0.
121. In more advanced mathematics, circular measure is
always employed except in cases in which, for practical
purposes, we require to use degrees. Consequently when
we speak of an angle 0, it is generally understood that we
are speaking of 0 radians. Thus when referring to n
radians, the equivalent of two right angles, we commonly
speak of the angle it. Hence we have the double use of
the symbol:
(1) As the constant ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter;
(2) As short for it radians, i.e. the equivalent of 180°.
In accordance with this use of it, angles are frequently
expressed as multiples or fractions of it.
Thus 2it = 360°
g = 90°

j = 45°
4
1 = 60°
o
5 = 30°
o
it is not usually evaluated in such cases, except for some
special purpose.
152 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

Exercise 27
1. What is the number of degrees in each of the following
angles expressed in radians: t
2. Write down from the tables the following ratios:
(a) sin^ (b) cos^. (c) sin^.

(d) cos (e) sin + ^Y

3. Express in radians the angles subtended by the

following arcs:
(a) arc = 114 mm, radius = 2-4 mm.
(&) arc = 5-6 cm, radius = 2-2 cm.
4. Express the following angles in degrees and minutes:
(a) 0-234 radian. (6) 1-56 radian.
5. Express the following angles in radians, using fractions
of tt:
(a) 15°. (5) 72°. (c) 66°. (rf) 105°.
6. Find the length of the arc in each of the following
cases:
(1) v = 2-3 cm, 0 = 2-54 radians.
(2) r = 12-5 m, 0 = 1-4 radians.
7. A circular arc 154 cm long and the radius of the arc
is 252 cm. What is the angle subtended at the centre of
the circle, in radians and degrees?
8. Express a right angle in radians, not using a multiple
of 7t.
9. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio of 3:4:5.
Express them in radians.
 CHAPTER XI
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY
MAGNITUDE

122. In Chapter III we dealt with the trigonometrical

ratios of acute angles, i.e. angles in the first quadrant. In
Chapter V the definitions of these ratios were extended to
obtuse angles, or angles in the second quadrant. But in
mathematics we generalise and consequently in this chapter
we proceed to consider the ratios of angles of any magnitude.
In § 5, Chapter I, an angle was defined by the rotation of
a straight line from a fixed position and round a fixed
centre, and there was no limitation as to the amount of
rotation. The rotating line may describe any angle up
to 360° or one complete rotation, and may then proceed to
two, three, four—to any number of complete rotations in
addition to the rotation made initially.

123. Angles in the third and fourth quadrants.

We will first deal with angles in the third and fourth
quadrants, and thus include all those angles which are less
than 360° or a complete rotation.
Before proceeding to the work which follows the student
is advised to revise § 68, in Chapter V, dealing with positive
and negative lines.
In § '70 it was shown that the ratios of angles in the
second quadrant were defined in the same fundamental
method as those of angles in the first quadrant, the only
difference being that in obtaining the values of the ratios
we have to take into consideration the signs of the lines
employed, i.e. whether they are positive or negative.
It will now be seen that, with the same attention to the
signs of the lines, the same definitions of the trigonometrical
ratios will apply, whatever the quadrant in which the
angle occurs.
In Fig. 93 there are shown in separate diagrams, angles in
the four quadrants. In each case from a point P on the
rotating Ime a perpendicular PQ is drawn to the fixed line
OX, produced in the cases of the second and third quadrants.
Thus we have formed, in each case, a triangle OPQ, using
153
i54 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

the sides of which we obtain, in each quadrant, the ratio;

as follows, denoting /.AOP by 0.
Then, in each quadrant
sin 0 = §

n OQ
cos o = qp

tan0 = 3

We now consider the signs of these lines in each quadrant.

(1) In the first quadrant.

. All the lines are +ve.
All the ratios are 4-ve.

(2) In the second quadrant.,

OQ is — ve
sin 6 is q-ve
cos 0 is — ve
tan 6 is —ve
 RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 155

(3) In the third quadrant.

OQ and PQ are — ve
sin 0 is — ve
cos 0 is — ve
tan 0 is +ve
(4) In the fourth quadrant.
PQ is —ve
sin 6 is — ve
cos 6 is +ve
tan'0 is —ve
Note.—The cosecant, secant and tangent will, of course,
have the same signs as their reciprocals. These results may
be summarised as follows:
Quadrant II Quadrant I
r sin, 4-ve sin, 4-ve "|
sine + J cos, — ve cos, 4-ve > all 4-
i tan, — ve tan, 4-ve J

Quadrant III Quadrant IV ■

sin, — ve sin, — ve 1
tan + cos, — ve cos, 4-ve > cos 4-
tan, 4-ve tan, — ve J
124. Variations in the sine of an angle between 0° and 360°.
These have previously been considered for angles in the
first and second quadrants. Summarising these for com­
pleteness, we will proceed to examine the changes in the
third and fourth quadrants.
Construct a circle of unit radius (Fig. 94) and centre O,
Take on the circumference of this a series of points Px, Pt.
P. . . . and draw perpendiculars to the fixed line XOX'.
Then the radius being of unit length, these perpendiculars,
in the scale in which OA represents unity, will represent the
sines of the corresponding angles.
By observing the changes in the lengths of these per­
pendiculars we can see, throughout the four quadrants, the
changes in the value of the sine.
In quadrant I
sin 0 is 4-ve and increasing from 0 to 1.
In quadrant II
sin 0 is 4-ve and decreasing from 1 to 0.
156 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

In quadrant 111
sin 0 Is —ve.

Now the actual lengths of the perpendiculars is increasing,

but as they are — ve, the value of the sine is actually
decreasing, and at 270° is equal to — 1.
The sine decreases In this quadrant from 0 to — I.

In quadrant IV
sin 0 is —ve.
The lengths of the perpendiculars are decreasing, but as
they are —ve, their values are increasing and at 360° the
sine is equal to sin 0° and is therefore zero.
sin 0 is Increasing from — I to 0.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 157

125. Graphs of sin 0 and cosec 0.

By using the values of sines obtained in the method
shown above (Fig. 94) or by taking the values of sines from
the tables, a graph of the sine between 0° and 360° can now
be drawn. It is shown in Fig. 95, together with that of
cosec 0 (dotted line) the changes in which through the four
quadrants can be deduced from those of the sine. The
student should compare the two graphs, their signs, their
maximum and minimum values, etc.

Graphs of sin 8 and cosec 6.

(Cosec 0 is dotted.)

126. Variations in the cosine of an angle between 0° and

360°.
If the student will refer to Fig. 94, he will see that the
distances intercepted on the fixed line by the perpendiculars
from Pi, Pj . . ., viz. OQt, OQS . . . will represent, in the
scale in which OA represents unity, the cosines of the
corresponding angles. Examining these we see
(1) In quadrant I.
The cosine is +ve and decreases from 1 to 0.
158 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

(2) In quadrant II.

The cosine Is always —ve and decreases from 0 to — 1.
(3) In quadrant III.
The cosine Is —ve and always increasing from — 1 to 0
and cos 270° = 0.
(4) tn quadrant IV.
The cosine is +ve and always Increasing from 0 to + 1
since cos 360° = cos 0° = 1.

Graphs of cos 6 and sec fl (dotted curve).

127. Graphs of cos 0 and sec 6.

In Fig. 96 is shown the graph of cos 9, which can be drawn
as directed for the sine in § 125. The curve of its reciprocal,
sec 0, is also shown by the dotted curve. These two curves
should be compared by the student.

128. Variations In the tangent between 0° and 360°.

The changes in the value of tan 0 between 0° and 360°
can be seen in Fig. 97, which is an extension of Fig. 39.
The circle is drawn with unit radius.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 159

From A and A' tangents are drawn to the circle and at

right angles to XOX'.
' Considering any angle such as AOPt,
. //W =
tan^OPj D tAJ
= P

Consequently P^A, PtA, PtA', PtA' . . . represent the

/numerical value of the tangent of the corresponding angle.
, But account must be taken of the sign.

Fig. 97.
t In quadrants II and III, the denominator of the ratio
is — 1 in numerical value, while in quadrants III and IV
the numerator of the fraction is — ve.
Consequently the tangent is +ve in quadrants I and III
and — ve in quadrants II and IV.
Considering a particular angle, viz. the LA'OPt in the
quadrant III
tan/TOP, =

tan 0 is +ve and is represented numerically by

P^'.
r<5o TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
From such observations of the varying values of tan 9
the changes between 0° and 360° can be determined as.
follows:
(1) In quadrant I
tan 0 Is always +ve and increasing.
It is 0 at 0° and —> oo at 90°.
(2) In quadrant II
tan 6 Is always —ve and increasing
from — oo at 90° to 0 at 180°.
Note.—When 0 has increased an infinitely small amount

Graph of tan 6 and cot 8 (dotted line)

(3) In quadrant III
tan 0 is always 4-ve and'increasing.
At 180° the tangent is 0 and at 270° tan 0—>oo.
(4) In quadrant IV
tan 0 Is always —ve and increasing
from — oo at 270° to 0 at 360°.

129. Graphs of tan 0 and cot 0.

In Fig. 98 are shown the graphs of tan 0 and cot 0 (dotted
curve) for values of angles between 0° and 360°.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE i6t
130. Ratios of angles greater than 360°.
•Let A.AOP (Fig. 99) be any angle, fl, which has been
formed by rotation in an anti-clockwise or positive direction
from the position OA.
Suppose now that the rotating line continues to rotate
in the same direction for a complete rotation or 360° from
OP so that it arrives in the same position, OP, as before.
The total amount of rotation from OA is now 360° + 0
or (2n -|- 0) radians.
Clearly the trigonometrical ratios of this new angle
2n -J- 0 must be the same as,0, so that sin -f- 0) = sin 0,
and so for the other ratios.
Similarly if further complete rotations were made so
that angles were formed such as 4n + 0, On + 0, etc., it is
evident that the trigonometrical ratios of these angles will
be the same as those of 0.

Turning again to Fig. 99 it is also evident that if a com­

plete rotation were made in a clockwise, i.e. negative, direc­
tion, from the position OP, we should have the angle
— 2n -f- 0. The trigonometrical ratios of this angle, and
also such angles as — 4n -j- 0, — 6n + 0, will be the same
as those of 0.
All such angles can be included in the general formula
2«n + 0
where " n ” is any integer, positive or negative.
Referring to the graphs of the ratios in Figs. 95, 96 and 98, it
is clear that when the angle is increased by successive
complete rotations, the curves as shown, will be repeated
either in a positive or a negative direction, and this can be
done to an infinite extent.
Each of the ratios is called a " periodic function ” of the
angle, because the values of the ratio are repeated at inter­
vals of 2tt radians or 360°, which is called the period of the
, function.
162 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
131. Trigonometrical ratio of — 0.
In Fig. 100 let the rotating line OA rotate in a clockwise,
«>. negative, direction to form the angle AOP. This will
be a negative angle. Let it be represented by — 0.
Let the angle AOP' be formed by rotation in an anti­
clockwise i.e. 4-ve direction and let it be equal to 6.
Then the straight line P'MP completes two triangles.
OMP and OMP’
These triangles are congruent (Theorem 7, § 13) and the
angles OMP, OMP' are equal and .'. right angles.

TKor. i a\ PM P’M
Then sm (- 0) = ^5 = - —-

but = sin 0
sin (— 0) = — sin 0
Similarly cos (— 0) = = cos 0
Similarly tan (— 0) = — tan 0
Collecting these results,
sin (— 0) = — sin 0
cos (— 0) = cos 0
tan (— 0) = — tan 0
By these results the student will be able to construct the
curves of sin 0, cos 0 and tan 0 for — ve angles. He will
see that the curves for — ve angles will be repeated in the
opposite direction.
132. To compare the trigonometrical ratios of 0 and
180° 4- 0.
Note.—If 0 is an acute angle, then 180° 4- 0 or ir 4- 0 is
an angle in the third quadrant.
 RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 163

In Fig. 101 with the usual construction let APOQ be

any acute angle, 6.
Let PO be produced to meet the circle again in P'.
Draw PQ and P'Q' perpendicular to XOX'.
Then AP'OQ' = APOQ = 9 (Theorem 1, § 8)
and A AOP' = 180° 4- 9.

The As POQ, P'OQ' are congruent

P'Q' — — PQ
and OQ' = — OQ
Now sin 9 = ^5

and sin (180° + 9) = sin A OP'

sin 9 = - sin (180° + 0)

similarly cos 9 = — cos (180° + 9)
and tan 0 = tan (180° + 9)
133. To compare the ratios of 9 and 360° — 9.
Note.—If 9 is an acute angle, then 360° — 0 is an angle
in the fourth quadrant.
In Fig. 102 if the acute angle AOP represents 6 then the
re-entrant angle AOP, shown by the dotted line represents
360° - 9.
The trigonometrical ratios of this angle may be obtained
i64 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
from the sides of the A OMP in the usual way and will be
the same as those of — 0 (see § 131).
using the results of § 131 we have
sin (360° — 6) = — sin 0
cos (360° — 0) = cos 0
tan (360° — 0) = — tan 0

134. It will be convenient for future reference to collect

some of the results obtained in this chapter, as follows
sin 0 = sin (ir — 0) = — sin (ir + 0) = — sin (2ir — 0)
= - sin (- 0)
COS 0 =» — cos (it — 0) = — COS (it + 0) = COS (2lt — 0
= cos (— 0
tan 0 = — tan (it — 0) = tan (it + 0) = — tan (2it — 0)
• = — tan (— 0)
135. It is now possible, by use of the above results and
using the tables of ratios for acute angles, to write down the
trigonometrical ratios of angles of any magnitude.
A few examples are given to illustrate the method to be
employed.
Example I. Find the value of sin 245°.
We first note that this angle is in the third quadrant
its sine must be negative.
Next, by using the form of (180° + 0)
sin 245° = sin (180° + 65°)
Thus we can use the appropriate formula of § 134, viz.
sin 0 = — sin (ir + 0)
 RATIOS Of ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 165

Consequently
sin (180° + 65°) = — sin 65°
== - 0-9063.
Example 2. Find the value of cos 325°.
This angle is in the fourth quadrant and so we use the
formulae for values of 360° — 0 (see § 133).
In this quadrant the cosine is always 4-ve
cos 325° = cos (360° — 35°)
= cos 35’ (§ 133)
s= 0 8192.
Example 3. Find the value of tan 392?.
This angle is greater than 360° or one whole revolution.
.-. tan 392’ = tan (360° 4- 32°)
= tan 32°
= 0-6249.
Example 4. Find the value of sec 253°.
This angle is in the third quadrant.
.’. we use the formula connected with (n + 0) (see § 132).
Also in this quadrant the cosine, the reciprocal of the
secant is —ve.
sec 253° = sec (180° 4- 73°)
= — sec 73°
= - 3-4203.
Exercise 28
1. Find the sine, cosine and tangent of each of the follow­
ing angles:
(a) 257°. (b) 201° 13'.
(c) 315° 20'. (d) 343° 8'.
2. Find the values of:
(a) sin (— 51°.) lb) cos (— 42°).
(c) sin (— 1386). (d) cos (— 256°).
3. Find the values of:
(a) cosec 251°. (b) sec 300°.
(c) cot 321°. (d) sec 235°.
4. Find the values of:
(a) sin (n + 57°). (b) cos (2n - 42°).
(c) tan (2n 4- 52°). (<f) sin (4tc 4- 36°).
136. To find the angles which have given trigonometrical
ratios.
(a) To find all the angles which have a given sine (or
cosecant).
We have already seen in § 73 that corresponding to a
given sine there are two angles, 0 and 180° — 6, where 0 is
166 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
the acute angle -whose sine is given in the tables. Having
now considered angles of any magnitude it becomes necessary
to discover what other angles have the given sine.
An examination of the graph of sin 0 in Fig. 95 shows that
only two of the angles less than 360° have a given sine,
whether it be positive or negative, the two already men­
tioned above if the sine is 4-ve, and two in the third and
fourth quadrants if it be — ve.
But the curve may extend to an indefinite extent for
angles greater than 360°, and for negative angles, and every
section corresponding to each additional 360°, positive or
negative, will be similar to that shown. Therefore it follows
that there will be an infinite number of other angles, two
in each section which have the given sine. These will occur
at intervals of 2n radians from those in the first quadrant.
There will thus be two sets of such angles.
(1) 0, 2it + 0, 4n + Q, . . .
(2) -n — 6, 3t: — 0, — 0, . . .
These two sets include all the angles which have the given
sines. They can be summarised as follows;
(1) (any even multiple of rr) 4- 0.
(2) (any odd multiple of k) — 0.
These can be combined together in one formula as follows:
Let n be any integer, positive or negative.
Then sets (1) and (2) are contained in
W7t+ (- 1)"0
The introduction of (— 1)" is a device which ensures
that when n is even, i.e. we have an even multiple of n,
(— 1)" = 1 and the formula becomes rm 4- 0. When
n is odd (— 1)M = — 1 and the formula becomes rm — 0.
/. the general formula for all angles which have a
given sine is
tire 4- (— l)*0
where n is any integer -f-ve or —ve, and 0 is the smallest
angle having the given sine.
The same formula mil clearly hold also for the cosecant.
(b) To find all the angles which have a given cosine
(or secant).
Examining the graph of cos 0 (Fig. 96), it is seen that
there are two angles between 0° and 360° which have a given
cosine which is 4-ve, one in the first quadrant and one in
the fourth. If the given cosine is — ve, the two angles lie
 RATIOS OF ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE 167

in the second and third quadrants. These two angles are

expressed by 0 and 360° — 0.
or 6 and 2k — 0 in radians.
As in the case of the sine for angles greater than 360° or
for negative angles, there will be two angles with the given
sine in the section corresponding to each additional 360°.
There will therefore be two sets;
(1) 0, 2k + 0, 4k 4- 0, . . .
(2) 2k — 0, 4k — 0, 6k — 0, . . .
These can be combined in one set, viz.:
(any even multiple of k) ± 0
or if n be any integer, positive on negative, this can be
expressed by
2mk ± 0-
the general formula for all angles with a given
cosine is:
2hk ± 0-
The formula for the secant will be the same.
(c) To find all the angles which have a given tangent
(or cotangent).
An examination of the graph of tan 0 (Fig. 98), shows
that there are two angles less than 360° which have the
same tangent, viz.:
fland 180° + 0
or 0 and it + 0
As before, there will be other angles at intervals of 2k
which will have the same tangent. Thus there will be two
sets, viz.:
0, 2k + 0, 4k + 0, . . .
k + 0, 3k + 0, 5k + 0, . . .
Combining these it is clear that all are included in the
general formula
(any multiple of k) +0
If n be any integer, positive or negative,
The general formula for all angles with a given tangent is
f»K + 0
The same formula holds for the cotangent.
Exercises which involve the use of these formulae will
occur in the next chapter.
 CHAPTER XII

TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS

137. Trigonometrical equations are those in which the

unknown quantities, whose values we require, are the
trigonometrical ratios of angles. The angles themselves
can be determined when the values of the ratios are known.
The actual form which the answer will take depends on
whether we require only the smallest angle corresponding
to the ratio, which will be obtained from the tables, or
whether we want to include some or all of those other
angles which, as we have seen in the previous chapter, have
the same ratio.
This can be shown in a very simple example.
Example. Solve the equation 2 cos 0 = 0-842.
(1) The smallest angle only may be required.
Since 2 cos 0 = 0-842
cos 6 = 0-421
From the tables 0 = 65° 6'.
(2) The angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the
equation may be required.
As we have seen in § 136(b) there is only one other such
angle, in the fourth quadrant.
It is given by 2n — 0 or 360° — 6
A This angle = 360° — 65° 6' = 294° 54'.
The two solutions are 65° 6' and 294° 54'.
(3) A general expression for all angles which satisfy the
equation may be required.
In this case one of the formulae obtained in the previous
chapter will be used.
Thus in § 136(b) all angles with a given cosine are included
in the formula
2nit ± 6
In this example 0 = 65° 6'.
A The solution is 2«tt ± cos-’ 0-4?!.
The inverse notation (see § 74) is used to avoid the
incongruity of part of the answer 2nit being in radians, and
the other in degrees.
168
 TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS 169
138. Some of the different types of equations will now be
considered.
(a) Equations which involve only one ratio.
The example considered in the previous paragraph is the
simplest form of this type. Very little manipulation is, as a
rule, required unless the equation is quadratic in form.
Example. Solve the equation
' 6 sin* 6—7 sin 0 + 2 = 0
for values of 0 between 0° and 360°.
Factorising
(3 sin 0 — 2) (2 sin 0 — 1) = -0
whence 3 sin 0 — 2 = 0 (1)
or 2 sin 6—1 = 0 (2)
From (1) sin 6 = f = 0-6667
.'. from the tables
0 = 41° 49'.
The only other angle less than 360° with this sine is
180° - 6 = 138° II'
From (2) sin 6 = £
6 = 30°.
and the other angle with this sine is 180° — 30°
= 150°
the complete solution is
41° 49', 138° II', 30°, 150°.
Note.—If one of the values of sin 0 or cos 0 obtained
in an equation is numerically greater than unity, such a root
must be discarded as impossible. Similarly values of the
secant and cosecant less than unity are impossible Solutions
from this point of view.
(c) Equations containing more than one ratio of the
angle.
Manipulation is necessary to replace one of the ratios
by its equivalent in terms of the other. To effect this we
must use an appropriate formula connected with the ratios
such as were proved in Chapter IV.
Example I. Obtain a complete solution of the equation
3 sin 6=2 cos* 6.
The best plan here is to change cos’ 6 into its equivalent
value of sin 6. This can be done by the formula
sin’ 6 4- cos* 6=1
whence cos’ 6=1 — sin* 0.
170 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
Substituting in the above equation
3 sin 0 = 2(1 — sin’ 0)
A 2 sin’ 04-3 sin 0 — 2 = 0
Factorising,
(2 sin 0—1) (sin 0 -|- 2) = 0
whence sin 0 4-2 = 0 (1)
or 2 sin 0 — 1 = 0 (2)
From (1) sin 0 = — 2
This is impossible, and therefore does not provide a
solution of the given equation.
From (2) 2 sin 0 = 1
sin 0 = |
The smallest angle with this sine is 30° or radians.
b
Using the general formula for all angles with a given
sine, viz.:
nr. 4- (— 1)" 0
The general solution of the equation is

© = !«+(- I)«g

Example 2. Solve the equation

sin 29 = cos2 0
giving the values of 0 between 0° and 360° which satisfy
the equation.
Since sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0 (see § 83)
- - 2 sin 0 cos 0 = cos’ 0
Hence cos 0 = 0 (1)
or 2 sin 0 = cos 0 (2)
From (1) 0 = 90° or 270°
From (2) 2 sin 0 = cos 0
A 2 tan 0=1
and tan 0 = 0-5
whence 0 = 26° 34'
Also tan 0 = tan (180° 4- 0) (see § 132)
A The other angle less than 360° with this tangent is
180° 4- 26° 34'
= 206° 34'
A The solution is 0 = 26° 34' or 206° 34'.
A The required solution is 0 = 90°, 270°, 26° 34' or
206° 34'.
 TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS 171
139. Equations of the form
a cos 0 4- b sin 0 = c.
where a, b, c are known constants, are important in electrical
work and other applications of trigonometry.
This could be solved by using the substitution
cos 0 = Vl — sin’ 0
but the introduction of the square root is not satisfactory.
We can obtain a solution more readily by the following
device.
Since a and b are known it is always possible to find an
angle a,' such that
a
tan a =
o
as the tangent is capable of having any value (see graph,
Fig. 98).
Let ABC (Fig. 103) be a right-angled A in which the
sides congaining the right angle axe a and b units in length.

Fig. 103.
fZ
Then tan ABC = T
0
/.ABC = a.
By the Theorem of Pythagoras:
AB = Va1 + b*

id , „ — • = sm a
Va2 + h’
b
■■ . .-= = = cos a
Va’ +
.". in the equation
a cos 0 + b sin 0 = c
Divide throughout by Va2 4~ 6’
/. . a cos 0 4—, &___ sin 0 = .. e.-
Va* 4- b* Va* 4- b* Va* 4- b*
171 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

sin a cos 0 + cos a sin 0 — ■ ' -C ■ -

Va» + b*

sin (0 4- a) = (see § 80, No. 1)

Va* 4-0’
Now . c can be evaluated, since a, b, c are known
v a* 4-0*
and provided it is less than unity it is the sine of some angle,
say 0.
0 4- a = 0
and 0 = 0 — a
Thus the least value of 0 is determined.
Example. Solve the equation
3 cos 0 4-4 sin 0 = 3-5
In this case a = 3, b = 4,
Va2 4- b* = V9 4- 16 = 5.
Thus tan a = J, sin a = t, cos a — f and a = 36° 52'
(from the tables).
.". Dividing the given equation by 5
O.K
f cos 0 4- ♦ sin 0 = —
5
.*.
sin a cos 0 4- cos a sin 0 = 0-7
sin (0 4- a) = 0-7
But the angle whose sine is 0-7 is 44° 25'.
0 4- a = 44° 25'
or 0 4- 36° 52' = 44° 25'
0 = 44° 25' — 36° 52'
= 7° 33'.
139 Variations of a cos 0 4- b sin 0.
This expression is an important one in its application, and
the graphical representations of its variation may have to
be studied by some students. The variations of the ex­
pression may be best studied by using, in a modified form,
the device employed above.
By means of the reasoning given in the previous para­
graph, the expression can be written in the form
Va1 4- b* {sin (0 4- a)}
By assigning different values to 0, the only variable in
the expression, the variations can be studied and a graph
constructed.
 TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS 173

Exercise 29
1. Find the angles less than 360° which satisfy the
following equations:
(1) sin 0 = 0-8910. (2) cos 0 = 0-4179.
(3) 2 tan 0 = 0-7. (4) sec 0 = 2-375.
2. Find the angles less than 360° which satisfy the
following equations:
(1) 4 cos 2 0 - 3 = 0. (2) 3 sin 20 = 1-8.
3. Find the angles less than 360° which satisfy the
following equations:
(1) 6 sin 0 = tan 0. (2) 4 cos 0 = 3 tan 0.
(3) 3 cos8 0+5 sin8 0 = 4. (4) 4 cos 0 = 3 sec 0.
4. Find the angles less than 360° which satisfy the
following equations:
(1) 2 tan8 0 — 3 tan 0 + 1 = 0.
(2) 5 tan80 — sec8 0 = 11.
(3) 4 sin8 0 — 3 cos 0 = 1-5.
(4) sin 0 + sin8 0 = 0,
5. Find general formulae for the angles which satisfy the
following equations:
(1) 2 cos 0 - 0-6578 = 0.
(2) j sin 20 = 0-3174.
(3) cos 20 + sin 0 = 1.
(4) tan 0 + cot 0 = 4.
6. Find the smallest angles which satisfy the equations:
(1) sin 0 + cos 0 = 1-2.
(2) sin 0 — cos 0 = 0-2.
(3) 2 cos 0 + sin 0 = 2-1.
(4) 4 cos 0 + 3 sin 0 = 5.
 SUMMARY OF FORMULAE
1. Complementary angles.
sin 0 = cos (90° — 0)
cos 0 = sin (90° — 0)
tan 0 = cot (90° — 0)
2. Supplementary angles.
sin 0 = sin (180° — 0)
cos 0 = — cos (180° — 0)
tan 0 = — tan (180° — 0)
3. Relations between the ratios.

sin* 0 + cos* 0=1

tan* 0 + 1 = sec* 0
cot* 0 + 1 = cosec* 0
4. Compound angles.
sin (A + B) = sin zl cos B -f- cos .4 sinB
sin (A — B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B — sin A sin B
cos (A — B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A 4- tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 — tan A tan B
tan A — tan B
tan (A — B) =
1 4- tan A tan B
sin P 4- sin Q = 2 sin —- ~h cos
z A
P _i_ n p__ o
sin P — sin Q = 2 cos —sin v
n , /-> o p+ Q P—Q
cos P 4- cos 0=2 cos —cos —x—-
2 2
p 4- Q p _ Q
cos 0 — cos P = 2 sin ' * sin —
2 2
5. Multiple angles.
sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0
cos 20 = cos* 0 — sin* 0
= 2 cos’ 0—1
= 1 — 2 sin* 0
oi cos* 0 = |(1 4- cos 20)
sin* 0 = |(1 — cos 26)
, 2 tan 0
tan 20 = ------ r—ta
1 — tan* 0
*74
 SUMMARY OF FORMULAE 175
6. Solutions of a triangle.
Case I. Three sides known.
,. Z>2 + c2 — a2 ... ,
1. cos J =--- -------- (“ a> c are small)

2. iSUl . / -------7---------- r use

2 y s(s — a)
sin42 = V/FHSEEZl
be
cosd = /5<s ~g)
2 A/ be
2 _______________ _
sin. A = Vs (s — a) (s — 6) (s — c).
Case II. Two sides and contained angle known,
, B — C b — c .A
tan—2~ =&4^cot2-
Case III. Two angles and a side known.
sin A sin B sin C
a ~ b c
7. Ratios of angles between 0 and 2rc radians.
sin 0 = sin (it — 6) = — sin (re 4- 0) — — sin (2?t — 6)
cos = — cos (re — 0) = — cos (re + 6) = cos (2?r — 6)
tan = — tan (n — 0) = tan (rc + 6) = — tan (2tc — b)
8. Ratios of 0 and — 0.
sin 0 = — sin (— 0)
cos 0 = cos (— 0)
tan 0 = — tan (— 0)
9. General formulae for angles with the same ratios as 0.
sine n- + (— 1)"0
cosine 2nn ± 0
tangent m + 0.
10. Circular measure.
1 radian = 57° 17' 45* (approx.)
To convert degrees to radians.
0° = ("0° x radians.
\ loU/
Length of an arc.
a = rd (0 in radians).
 LOGARITHMS of numbers 100 to 549
Proportion*! Parti

0 1 2 3 4 S 4 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8\

10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33
II 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

IS 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22
1* 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20
1* 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19
1* 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18

20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17]
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 1
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 is1
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 1

25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 1
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 ]
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 ]
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 ]
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 13 4 6 7 9 10 U 1

30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 13 4 6 7 9 io u i
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038 13 4 5 7 8 10 11 1
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172 13 4 5 7 8 8 11 1
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302 13 4 5 6 8 9 10 1
34 5313 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428 13 4 5 6 8 9 10 1

35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551 12 4 5 6 7 9 10 1
35 5563 SS75 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670 12 4 5 6 7 8 10 1
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786 12 3 5 6 7 8 9 1
30 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899 12 3 5 6 7 8 9 ]
3* 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010 12 3 4 5 7 8 9 1

40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117 12 3 4 5 6 7
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 12 3 4 5 6 7 8|
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 I
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 1

45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
44 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 12 3 4 5 6 7 7 1
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 12 3 4 5 5 « 7 |
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 gg^g 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893 12 3 4 4 5 6 7 1
43 6902 011 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981 12 3 4 4 5 8 7 1

50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 12 3 3 4 5 « 7 1
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 I
7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 J
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 12 2 3 4 5 6 « 1
(4 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 12 2 3 4 5 6 6 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8
 LOGARITHMS of numbers 5S0 to 999
Proportion*! Parti

: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7404 7412 7419 7417 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474 12 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 12 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
7559 7566 7574 7562 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 12 2 3 4 5 3 6 7
nu 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 112 3 4 4 5 6 7
rm 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 112 3 4 4 3 6 7

7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846 112 3 4 4 5 6 6
7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 112 3 4 4 5 6 6
7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7873 7980 7987 112 3 3 4 5 6 6
. 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 BOSS 8041 8048 8055 112 3 3 4 5 6 6
8062 8069 8075 8062 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122 112 3 3 4 3 3 6

8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 112 3 3 4 5 5 6
093 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 112 3 3 4 5 5 6
8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 112 3 3 4 4 5 6
8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 112 3 3 4 4 5 6
8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445 112 3 3 4 4 5 6

8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506 112 2 3 4 4 5 6
8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 112 2 3 4 4 5 5
8973 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 112 2 3 4 4 5 5
8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 112 2 3 4 4 5 5
«n 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745 112 2 3 4 4 5 5

8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 112 2 13 4 5 5
8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 112 2 13 4 5 5
8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
,8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 112 2 3 1 4 4 5

3031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9U7 9122 9128 9133 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
SIM 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289 112 2 3 3 4 4 5

9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9383 9390 112 2 3 3 4 4 5
9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 943S 9440 0 11 12 3 3 4 4
9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489 0 11 2 2 3 3 4 4
9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0 11 2 2 3 3 4 4

9542 9547 9552 9657 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0 11 2 2 3 3 4 4
SS90 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
SOS 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
■ 7689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9764 9768 9773 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4

9777 9782 9786 97% 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 Oil 2 2 1 3 4 4
9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 QojJE
*0^0 9850 9854 9859 9863 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
9868 9872 9877 9881 9866 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996 Oil 2 2 3 3 4 4
8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i a a 4 8 6 7 8 9
 ANTI-LOGARITHMS

Proportional Parti

0 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8

•00 1000 Kxa 1005 1007 1009 1012 1014 1016 1019 1021 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2
•01 1013 1026 1028 1030 1033 1035 1038 1040 1042 1045 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2
•02 iocr 1050 I0S2 1054 1057 1059 1062 1064 1067 1069 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2
.03 1072 1074 1076 1079 1081 1084 1086 1089 1091 1094 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2
•04 1094 1099 1102 1104 1107 1109 1112 1114 1117 1119 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

•M 1132 1125 1127 1130 1132 1135 1130 1140 1143 1146 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
■W 1140 HSI 1153 1156 1159 1161 1164 1167 1169 1172 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
*07 1175 1178 1180 1183 1186 1189 1191 1194 1197 1199 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
•00 1102 1205 1208 1211 1213 1216 1219 1222 1225 1227 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
•09 1230 1233 1236 1239 1242 1245 1247 1250 1253 1256 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

40 1259 1262 1265 1268 1271 1274 1276 1279 1282 1285 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
41 1288 1291 1294 1297 1300 1303 1306 1309 1312 1315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2-
*12 1318 1321 1324 1327 1330 1334 1337 1340 1343 1346 0 1 1 I 2 2 2 2*
■13 1349 1352 1355 1358 1361 1365 1368 1371 1374 1377 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
*14 1380 1384 1387 1390 1393 1396 1400 1403 1406 1409 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3

•u 1413 1416 1419 1422 1426 1429 1432 1435 1439 1442 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
*14 1445 1449 1452 1455 1459 1462 1466 1469 1472 1476 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 1
•17 1479 1483 I486 1489 1493 1496 1500 1503 1507 1510 0 J 1 1 2 2 2 3
•II 1514 1517 1521 1524 1528 1531 1535 1538 1542 1545 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
•IP 1543 1552 1556 1560 1563 1567 1570 1574 1578 1581 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3

40 1585 1589 1592 1596 1600 1603 1607 1611 1614 1618 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
*211622 1626 1629 1633 1637 1641 1644 1648 1652 1656 0 1 J 2 2 2 3 3
*22IMO 1663 1667 1671 1675 1679 1683 1687 1690 1694 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
•131698 1702 1706 1710 1714 1718 1722 1726 1730 1734 0 1 r 2 2 2 1 3
44 1738 1742 1746 1750 1754 1758 1762 1766 1770 1774 0 1 i 2 2 2 3 3

•IS 1778 1782 1786 1791 1795 1799 1803 1807 1811 1816 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 3
•34 ino 1824 1828 1832 1837 1841 1845 1849 1854 1858 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 3
*27 1862 1866 1871 1875 1879 1884 1888 1892 1897 1901 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 3
•28 1905 1910 1914 1919 1923 1928 1932 1936 1941 1945 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 4
•If 1950 1954 1959 1963 1968 1972 1977 1982 1986 1991 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 4

•30 1995 2000 2004 2009 2014 2018 2023 2028 2032 2037 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 4
*31 2042 2046 2051 2056 2061 2065 2070 2075 2080 2084 9 1 i 2 2 3 3 4
•32 2089 2094 2099 2104 2109 2113 2118 2123 2128 2133 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 4
•33 2138 2143 2148 2153 2158 2163 2168 2173 2178 2183 0 1 i 2 2 3 3 4
44 2188 2193 2198 2203 2208 2213 2218 2228 2234 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

-N 2239 2244 2249 2254 2259 2265 2270 2275 2280 2286 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
■31 3291 2296 2301 2307 2312 2317 2123 2328 2333 2339 1 1 2 2 3 1 4 4
•37 3344 2390 235S 2360 2366 2371 2177 2382 2388 2393 1 1 2 2 3 1 4 4
•30 2399 2404 2410 2415 2421 2427 2432 2438 2443 2449 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
•w 2455 2460 2466 2472 2477 2483 2489 2495 2500 2306 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 1

•40 2512 ISIS 2523 2529 2535 2541 2547 2553 2559 2564 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 3
*41 2570 3576 2582 2588 2594 2600 2606 2612 2518 2624 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5
•42 2130 2636 2642 2648 2655 2661 2667 2673 2679 2685 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5
•43 3692 2696 2704 2710 2716 2723 2729 2735 2742 2748 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5
•44 2754 2761 2767 2773 2780 2786 2793 2799 2805 2812 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 3

•4 2818 2825 2831 2838 2844 2881 2858 2864 2871 2877 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 3
•46 IBM 2891 2897 2904 291) 2817 2924 2931 2936 2944 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 3
•47 2951 2958 2965 2972 2979 2985 2992 2999 3006 3013 1 1 1 3 3 4 S 6
•40 3020 3027 3034 3041 3048 3055 3062 3069 3074 3083 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6
•49 3090 3097 3105 3112 3119 3126 3133 3141 3148 3155 1 1 2 3 4 4 s 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8
 ANTI-LOGARITHMS

Proportiontl Parti
0 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3M2 3170 3177 3184 3192 3199 3206 3214 3221 3228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
3236 3243 3251 3258 3266 3273 3281 3289 3296 3304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
3311 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3365 3373 3381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
net 3396 3404 3412 3420 3428 3436 3443 3451 3459 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
3467 3475 3483 3491 3499 3508 3516 3524 3532 3540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7

3548 3556 3565 3573 3581 3589 3597 3606 3614 3622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
3631 3639 3648 3656 3664 3673 3681 3690 3698 3707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
3715 3724 3733 3741 3750 3758 3767 3776 3784 3793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
3802 3811 3819 3828 3837 3846 3855. 3864 3873 3882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
3890 3899 3908 3917 3926 3936 3945 3954 3963 3972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8

3981 3990 3999 4009 4018 4027 4036 4046 4055 4064 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4074 4083 4093 4102 4111 4121 4130 4140 4150 4159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4169 4178 4188 4198 4207 4217 4227 4236 4246 4256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
<266 4276 4285 4295 4305 4315 4325 4335 4345 4355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4365 4375 4385 4395 4406 4416 4426 4436 4446 4457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4467 4477 4487 4498 4508 4519 4529 4539 4550 4560 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4571 4581 4592 4603 4613 4624 4634 4645 4656 4667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
4677 4688 4699 4710 4721 4732 4742 4753 4764 4775 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
4786 4797 4808 4819 4831 4842 4853 4864 4875 4887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
4898 4909 4920 4932 4943 4955 4966 4977 4989 5000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10

5012 5023 5035 5047 5058 5070 5082 5093 5105 5117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
5129 5140 5152 5164 5176 5188 5200 5212 5224 5236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 II
5248 5260 5272 5284 5297 5309 5321 5333 5346 5358 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 II
5370 5383 5395 5408 5420 5433 5445 5458 5470 5483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 II
5495 5508 5521 5534 5546 5559 5572 5585 5598 5610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12

5423 5636 5649 5662 5675 5689 5702 5715 5728 5741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
5754 5768 5781 5794 5808 5821 5834 5848 5861 5875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 II 12
5888 5902 5916 5929 5943 5957 5970 5984 5998 6012 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 II 12
6026 6039 6053 6067 6081 6095 6109 6124 6138 6152 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 II 13
6166 6180 6194 6209 6223 6237 6252 6266 6281 6295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13

63 >0 6324 6339 6353 6368 6383 6397 6412 6427 6442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
6457 6471 6486 6501 6516 6531 6546 6561 6577 6592 2 3 5 6 8 9 II 12 14
6607 6622 6637 6653 6668 6683 6699 6714 6730 6745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
4781 6776 6792 6808 6823 6839 6855 6871 6887 6902 2 3 5 6 8 9 II 13 14
6918 6934 6950 6966 6982 6998 7015 7031 7047 7063 2 3 5 6 8 10 II 13 14

7079 7096 7112 7129 7145 7161 7178 7194 7211 7228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
7244 7261 7278 7295 7311 7328 7345 7362 7379 73% 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 15
7413 7430 7447 7464 7482 7499 7516 7534 7551 7548 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
7586 7603 7621 7638 7656 7674 7691 7709 7727 7745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
7762 7780 7798 7816 7834 7852 7870 7889 7907 7925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16

7943 7962 7980 7998 8017 8035 8054 8072 8091 8110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
8128 8147 8166 8185 8204 8222 8241 8260 8279 8299 2 4 6 8 10 II 13 15 17
8318 8337 8356 8375 8395 8414 8433 8453 8472 8492 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 IS 17
8511 8531 8551 8570 8590 8610 8630 8650 8670 8690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
8710 8730 8750 8770 8790 8810 8831 8851 8872 8892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

8913 8933 8954 8974 8995 9016 9036 9057 9078 9099 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 17 19
9120 9141 9162 9183 9204 9226 9247 9268 9290 9311 2 4 6 9 II 13 15 17 19
9333 9354 9376 9397 9419 9441 9462 9484 9506 9528 2 4 7 9 II 13 15 17 20
9550 9572 9594 9616 9638 9661 9683 9705 9727 9750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
9772 9795 9817 9840 9863 9886 9908 9931 9954 9977 2 5 7 9 II 14 16 18 21

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 3* 1 « »
 NATURAL SINES Proportio
Parts

V 4' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' T 3' 4'

0* 0-0000 •0017 -0035 •0052 •0070 •0087 •0105 -0122 •0140 -0157 3 6 9 12
1 0-0175 *0192 •0209 •0227 •0244 -0262 •0279 •0297 •0314 •0332 3 6 9 12
2 0-0349 -0366 •0384 •0401 •0419 ■0436 -0454 •0471 •0489 •0506 3 6 9 12
3 0-0523 -0541 •0558 •0576 -0593 •0610 -0628 •0645 •0663 -0680 3 6 9 12
4 0-0498 •0715 -0732 •0750 ■0767 •0785 •0602 •0819 •0837 •0854 3 6 9 n

5 0-0872 -0889 •0906 •0924 ■0941 •0958 •0976 -0993 -1011 -1028 3 6 9 12
4 0-1045 -1063 -1080 •1097 •1115 *1132 -1149 •1167 -1184 •1201 3 6 9 12
7 0-1219 -1236 •1253 •1271 -1288 •1305 ■1323 ■1340 •1357 •1374 3 6 9 12
8 0-1392 •1409 *1426 •1444 •1461 •1478 •1495 *1513 -1530 •1547 3 6 9 II
9 0-1544 •1582 •1599 •1616 •1633 •1650 -1668 •1685 •1702 •1719 3 6 9 II

10 01736 -1754 •1771 •1788 •1805 •1822 -1840 •1857 ■1874 •1891 3 6 9 II
II 0-1908 ■1925 •1942 •1959 •1977 •1994 -2011 -2028 •2045" •2062 3 6 9 II
12 0-2079 •2096 -2113 •2130 •2147 *2164 •2181 -2198 -2215 •2232 3 6 9 It
13 0-2250 •2267 ■2284 •2300 •2317 •2334 -2351 •2368 -2385 •2402 3 6 8 II
14 0-2419 •2436 -2453 •2470 •2487 •2504 -2521 *2538 •2554 •2571 3 6 8 11

IS 0-2588 *2605 •2622 ■2689 -2656 -2672 -2689 •2706 •2723 •2740 3 6 8 II
18 0-2756 •2773 •2790 •2807 •2823 *2840 •2857 •2874 •2890 •2907 3 6 8 II
IT 0-2924 •2940 •2957 •2974 •2990 •3007 •3024 •3040 •3057 •3074 3 6 8 II
18 0-3090 -3107 •3123 ■3140 -3156 •3173 •3190 -3206 •3223 •3239 3 6 8 II
19 0*3256 •3272 •3289 •3305 •3322 •3338 •3355 •3371 •3387 -3404 3 5 8 ii

20 0-3420 •3437 •3453 •3469 •3486 •3502 •3518 -3535 •3551 ■3567 3 5 8 ii
21 0-3584 -3600 •3616 •3633 •3649 •3665 •3681 •3697 ■3714 •3730 3 5 8 ii
22 0-3746 -3762 •3778 •3795 •3811 •3827 •3843 •3859 •3875 •3891 3 5 8 ii
23 03907 -3923 •3939 •3955 •3971 •3987 •4003 •4019 •4035 •4051 3 5 8 ii >
24 0-4067 •4083 •4099 -4115 -4131 -4147 •4163 •4179 •4195 •4210 3 5 8 II

25 0-4226 -4242 •4258 •4274 •4289 -4305 •4321 •4337 •4352 •4368 3 5 8 1!
24 0-4384 •4399 •4415 •4431 •4446 •4462 •4478 •4493 *4509 •4524 3 5 8 10
27 0-4540 *4555 •4571 -4586 •4602 •4617 *4633 -4648 •4664 -4679 3 5 8 10
28 0-4695 •4710 •4726 •4741 •4756 •4772 •4787 •4802 •4818 •4833 3 5 8 10
29 0*4848 -4863 •4879 •4894 •4909 •4924 •4939 •4955 •4970 -4985 3 S 8 10

30 0-5000 •5015 •5030 -5045 -5060 •5075 •5090 -5105 -5120 •5135 2 5 8 10
31 0-5150 •5165 •5180 •5195 -5210 •5225 •5240 •5255 •5270 -5284 2 5 7 10
32 0-5299 -5314 •5329 •5344 •5358 •5373 •5388 •5402 •5417 -5432 2 5 7 K>
33 0-5446 •5461 -5476 •5490 -5505 -5519 •5534 -5548 •5563 •5577 2 5 7 10
34 0-5591 -5606 •5621 •5635 •5650 -5664 -5678 *5693 •5707 •5721 2 S 7 10;

35 0-5736 •5750 •5764 •5779 •5793 •SflOT -5821 -5835 •5850 •5864 2 5 7 9
34 0-5878 -5892 -5906 •5920 •5934 •5948 •5962 •5976 •5990 •6004 2 5 7 9
37 0-6018 •6032 •6046 •6060 -6074 -6088 •6101 •6115 *6129 -6143 2 5 7 9
38 0*6157 •6170 •6184 •6198 *6211 -6225 •6239 •6252 •6266 •6280 2 5 7 9;
39 0-6293 -6307 •6320 •6334 •6347 -6361 ■6374 •6388 •6401 •6414 1 4 7 9

40 0-6428 •6441 •6455 •6468 -6481 -6494 •6508 •6521 •6534 •6547 2 4 7 9»
41 0-6561 •6574 -6587 -6600 •6613 •6626 •6639 •6652 •6665 •6678 2 4 6 9
42 0-6691 •6704 •6717 •6730 •6743 -6756 •6769 •6782 •6794 -6807 2 4 6 9
43 0-6820 •6833 -6845 •6858 •6871 •6884 •6896 •6909 •6921 -6934 2 4 6 8
44 0-6947 •6959 •6972 •6984 •6997 -7009 •7022 •7034 *7046 ■7059 2 4 6 •

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' T y
 NATURAL SINES Proportional
Parts

0' 6' IT 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

«• 0-7071 •7083 •7096 •7|08 •7120 •7133 *7145 •7157 •7169 •7181 2 4 6 8 10
46 0-7193 •7206 •7218 •7230 •7242 •7254 -7266 •7278 •7290 •7302 2 4 6 8 10
« 0-7314 •7325 •7337 •7349 •7361 •7373 -7385 •7396 •7408 •7420 2 4 6 8 10
0-7431 •7443 •7455 •7466 •7478 •7490 •7501 •7513 •7524 •7536 2 4 6 8 10
99 0-7547 •7559 •7570 •7581 •7593 •7604 •7615 •7627 *7638 •7649 2 4 6 8 9

IB 0-7660 •7672 •7683 •7694 ■7705 •7716 •7727 •7738 •7749 •7760 2 4 6 7 9
II 0-7771 •7782 •7793 •7804 •7815 •7826 •7837 •7848 •7859 ■7869 2 4 5 7 9
B 0-7880 •7891 •7902 •7912 •7923 •7934 •7944 •7955 •7965 •7976 2 4 5 7 9
$3 0*7986 •7997 •8007 •8018 •8028 -8039 •8049 •8059 ■8070 •8080 2 3 5 7 9
u 0-8090 •8100 *8111 •8121 -8131 •8141 •8151 •8161 •8171 •8181 2 3 5 7 8

B 0-8192 •8202 -8211 •8221 •8231 •8241 •8251 -8261 •8271 -8281 2 3 5 7 8
16 0-8290 •8300 -8310 •8320 •8329 •8339 *8348 •8358 •8368 •8377 2 3 5 6 8
a 0-8387 -8396 •8406 *8415 -8425 -8434 *8443 •8453 •8462 •8471 2 3 5 6 8
b 0-8480 •8490 •8499 •8508 •8517 •8526 *6536 •8545 •8554 •8563 2 3 5 6 8
99 0-8572 -8581 •8590 •8599 •8607 •6616 *8625 •8634 •8643 •8652 1 3 4 6 7

£ 0-8660 ■8669 •8678 •8686 •8695 ■8704 •8712 •8721 -8729 -8738 1 3 4 6 7
fl 0-8746 *8755 •8763 •8771 ■8780 •8788 *8796 •8805 •8813 •8821 1 3 4 6 7
12 0-8829 •8838 aojz
OOTv •8854 •8862 •8870 •8873 •8886 •8894 •8902 1 3 4 5 7
63 0-8910 -8918 •8926 -8934 •8942 •8949 •8957 •8965 •8973 •8980 1 3 4 5 6
64 0-8988 •8996 •9003 -9011 •9018 •9026 *9033 •9041 •9048 •9056 1 2 4 5 6

« 0-9063 •9070 •9078 -9085 -9092 •9100 -9107 ■9114 *9121 •9128 1 2 4 5 6
II 0-9135 -9143 •9150 •9157 -9164 •9171 •9178 -9184 •9191 •9198 1 2 3 5 6
a 0-9205 •9212 •9219 •9225 •9232 •9239 •9245 ■9252 •9259 •9265 1 2 3 4 6
66 0-9272 •9278 •9285 •9291 •9298 •9304 •9311 •9317 •9323 •9330 1 2 3 4 5
49 0-9336 •9342 •9348 •9354 *9361 ■9367 •9373 •9379 -9385 •9391 1 2 3 4 5

n 0-9397 -9403 ■9409 •9415 •9421 •9426 •9432 •9438 •9444 -9449 1 2 3 4 5
?i 0-9455 •9461 •9466 •9472 •9478 -9483 •9489 •9494 •9500 •9505 1 2 3 4 5
n 0*9511 •9516 •9521 •9527 •9532 •9537 •9542 •9548 •9553 •9558 1 2 3 3 4
n 0*9563 •9568 •9573 •9578 •9583 •9588 •9593 •9598 •9603 •9608 1 2 2 3 4
M 0*9613 •9617 •9622 -9627 •9632 •9636 -9641 •9646 •9650 •9655 1 2 2 3 4

n 0-9659 •9664 •9668 •9673 •9677 •9681 •9686 •9690 •9694 •9699 1 1 2 3 4
n 0-9703 •9707 •9711 •9715 •9720 •9724 •9728 •9732 •9736 •9740 1 1 2 3 3
n 0-9744 •9748 •9751 •9755 •9759 -9763 •9767 ■9770 •9774 •9778 1 1 2 2 3
tn 0*9781 •9785 •9789 •9792 •9796 •9799 •9803 •9806 •9810 *9813 1 1 2 2 3
J> 0*9816 •9620 •9623 -9826 •9829 •9833 -9836 ■9839 -9642 •9845 1 1 2 2 1

M 0-9848 •9651 *9854 •9857 *9860 -9863 -9866 •9869 •9871 •9874 0 1 1 2 2
M 0-9877 •9880 •9882 •9685 *9888 •9890 •9893 •9895 -9898 •9900 0 1 1 2 2
82 0*9903 •9905 •9907 •9910 •9912 •9914 •9917 •9919 •9921 •9923 0 1 1 1 2
n 0-9925 ■9928 •9930 •9932 *9934 *9936 •9938 •9940 •9942 •9943 0 1 1 1 2
M 0-9945 •9947 •9949 •9951 •9952 •9954 •9956 •9957 -9959 -9960 0 1 1 1 1

B 09962 •9963 •9965 •9966 •9968 •9969 •9971 •9972 ■9m •9974 0 0 1 1 1
M 0-9976 •9977 •9978 •9979 -9980 •9981 •9982 •9983 •9984 -9985 0 0 0 1 1
V O-9966 •9987 •9988 •9989 •9990 •9990 •9991 •9992 -9993 •9993 0 0 0 1 1
^8 09994 •9995 •9995 •9996 •9996 •9997 •9997 •9997 •9998 •9998 0 0 0 0 0
st 0*9998 •9999 •9999 0*9999 1-0000 -0000 •0000 0000 •0000 0 0 0 0 0

r 6' 12' ir 24' 30' 34- 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' * r
 Proportional
NATURAL COSINES Parts
Subtract

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' i 36' ' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0* 1-0000 -0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 1-0000 0-9999 •9999 •9999 •9999 0 0 0 0 0
1 0-9998 *9998 •9998 •9997 •9997 •9997 •9996 •9996 •9995 •9995 0 0 0 0 0
2 0-9994 •9993 •9993 •9992 •9991 •9990 •9990 •9989 •9988 •9987 0 0 0 0 1
3 0-9986 •9985 •9984 ■9983 ■9982 •9981 •9980 •9979 •9978 •9977 0 0 0 1 1
4 0-9976 •9974 •9973 ■9972 •9971 •9969 •9968 •9966 •9965 •9963 0 0 1 1 1

S 0-9962 •9960 •9959 ■9957 •9956 •9954 •9952 -9951 •9949 •9947 0 1 1 1 1
6 0-9945 •9943 •9942 •9940 •9938 •9936 •9934 •9932 •9930 *9928 0 1 1 I 2
7 0-9925 •9923 •9921 •9919 •9917 •9914 •9912 •9910 •9907 •9905 0 1 1 1 2
8 0-9903 •9900 •9898 •9895 •9893 •9890 •9888 •9885 •9882 •9680 0 1 1 2 2
9 0-9877 •9874 •9871 •9869 -9866 -9863 -9860 •9857 •9854 -9851 0 1 I 2 2

10 0-9848 -9845 •9842 •9839 •9836 •9833 -9829 - 9826 • 9823 • 9820 1 1 2 2 3
II 0-9616 •9813 •9810 •9806 •9803 •9799 •9796 •9792 •9789 •9785 1 1 2 2 3
12 0-9781 ♦9778 •9774 •9770 •9767 •9763 •9759 ■9755 •9751 •9748 1 1 2 2 3
13 0-9744 •9740 -9736 •9732 •9728 •9724 •9720 •9715 •9711 •9707 1 1 2 3 3
14 0-9703 -9699 -9694 •9690 -9686 •9681 •9677 ■9673 -9668 -9664 1 1 2 3 4

IS 0-9659 -9655 •9650 •9646 -9641 -9636 -9632 •9627 •9622 •9617 1 2 2 3 4
16 0*9613 •9608 •9603 •9598 •9593 ■9588 •9583 •9578 •9573 •9568 1 2 2 3 4
17 0-9563 •9558 •9553 •9548 •9542 •9537 •9532 •9527 •9521 •9516 1 2 3 3 4
18 0-9511 •9505 •9500 •9494 -9489 ■9483 •9478 •9472 *9466 •9461 1 2 3 4 3
1* 0*9455 •9449 •9444 •9438 •9432 •9426 •9421 •9415 •9409 •9403 1 2 3 4 5

» 0-9397 •9391 •9385 •9379 -9373 •9367 •9361 ■9354 -9348 ■9342 1 2 3 4 5
21 0-9336 •9330 •9323 •9317 -9311 •9304 •9298 •9291 •9285 •9278 1 2 3 4 5
22 0*9272 ■9265 •9259 •9252 •9245 •9239 •9232 •9225 •9219 •9212 1 2 3 4 6
23 0-9205 •9198 •9191 •9184 •9178 •9171 •9164 •9157 *9150 •9143 1 2 3 5 6
24 0-9135 •9128 •9121 •9114 ■9107 •9100 •9092 -9085 •9078 •9070 1 2 4 5 6

25 0-9063 •9056 •9048 •9041 -9033 •9026 -9018 •9011 •9003 •8996 1 2 4 5 6
26 0-8988 -8980 •8973 •8965 •8957 •8949 •8942 •8934 •8926 •8918 1 3 4 5 6
27 0-8910 •8902 •8894 •6886 •8878 •8870 •8862 •8854 •8846 •8838 1 3 4 5 7
28 0-8829 ■8821 -8813 •8805 -8796 •8788 •8780 •8771 •8763 •8755 1 3 4 6 7
29 0-8746 •8738 •8729 •8721 •8712 •8704 •8695 •8686 •8678 •8669 1 3 4 6 7

30 0-8660 •8652 ■8643 •8634 -8625 •8616 •8607 -8599 •8590 •8581 1 3 4 6 7
31 0-8572 •8563 •8554 •8545 •8536 •8526 •8517 •8508 •8499 •8490 2 3 5 6 8
32 0-8480 •8471 •8462 •8453 •8443 •8434 •8425 •8415 •8406 •8396 2 3 5 6 8
33 0-8387 •8377 •8368 •8358 -8348 •8339 •8329 •8320 •8310 •8300 2 3 5 6 8
34 0-8290 •8281 •8271 •8261 •8251 -8241 -8231 •8221 •8211 •8202 2 3 5 7 8

33 0-8192 ■8181 ■8171 •8161 •8151 •8141 •8131 •8121 •Bill •8100 2 3 5 7 8
33 0-8090 •8080 •8070 •8059 •8049 •8039 •8028 •8018 •8007 •7997 2 3 5 7 9
37 07986 •7976 •7965 •7955 •7944 •7934 •7923 •7912 •7902 •7891 2 4 5 7 9
38 07880 ■7869 •7859 •7848 •7837 •7826 •7815 •7804 •7793 •7782 2 4 5 7 9
39 07771 •7760 •7749 -7738 ■7727 •7716 •7705 •7694 •7683 •7672 2 4 6 7 9

40 0-7660 •7649 •7638 -7627 •7615 ■7604 •7593 •7581 •7570 •7559 2 4 6 8 9
41 0-7547 •7536 •7524 •7513 •7501 •7490 •7478 -7466 •7455 •7443 2 4 6 8 10
42 0-7431 ■7420 •7408 •7396 •7385 •7373 •7361 •7349 •7337 •7325 2 4 6 8 10
43 0-7314 •7302 •7290 •7278 •7266 •7254 •7242 •7230 •7218 •7206 2 4 6 8 10
44 0-7193 •7181 •7169 •7157 •7145 •7133 •7120 •7108 •7096 •7083 2 4 6 8 10

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' M' 1' 2' r 4' 5'
 Proportional
NATURAL COSINES
Subtract

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' r
4F 0-7071 •7059 -7046 •7034 ■7022 •7009 ■6997 -6984 •6972 ■6959 2 4 6 8 10
a 0-6947 *6934 *6921 •6909 •6896 •6884 •6871 •6858 *6845 •6833 2 4 6 8 II
47 0-6820 *6807 •6794 -6782 •6769 •6756 •6743 •6730 •6717 •6704 2 4 6 9 II
48 0*6691 *6678 •6665 -6652 •6639 •6626 -6613 •6600 •6587 •6574 2 4 6 9 11
49 0*6561 *6547 •6534 -6521 -6508 •6494 ■6481 -6468 •6455 *6441 2 4 7 9 II

50 0-6428 •6414 •6401 •6388 -6374 ■6361 •6347 -6334 •6320 ■6307 2 4 7 9 II
SI 0*6293 •6280 -6266 •6252 *6239 -6225 •6211 •6198 *6184 *6170 2 5 7 9 II
52 0-6157 •6143 •6129 •6115 -6101 •6088 •6074 •6060 •6046 •6032 2 5 7 9 12
53 0*6018 *6004 •5990 •5976 •5962’ *5948 •5934 •5920 •5906 •5892 2 5 7 9 12
M 0-5878 -5864 -5850 •5835 •5821 •5807 •5793 ■5779 •5764 •5750 2 5 7 9 12

55 0-5736 -5721 ■5707 -5693 •5678 ■5664 -5650 ■5635 ■5621 -5606 2 5 7 10 12
54 0*5592 •5577 -5563 •5548 •5534 •5519 •5505 •5490 •5476 -5461 2 5 7 10 12
17 0*5446 •5432 •5417 •5402 •5388 •5373 •5358 •5344 •5329 •5314 2 5 7 10 12
58 0*5299 •5284 •5270 •5255 •5240 •5225 •5210 •5195 •5180 •5165 2 5 7 10 12
n 0*5150 •5135 •5120 •5105 •5090 •5075 •5060 •5045 •5030 •5015 2 5 8 10 12

50 0*5000 •4985 ■4970 •4955 •4939 •4924 •4909 -4894 •4879 •4863 3 5 8 10 13
51 0-4848 -4833 •4818 *4802 •4787 •4772 •4756 ■4741 •4726 •4710 3 5 8 10 13
52 0*4695 •4679 •4664 •4648 •4633 •4617 •4602 •4586 •4571 •4555 3 5 8 10 13
53 0*4540 •4524 •4509 •4493 •4478 •4462 •4446 •4431 -4415 •4399 3 5 8 10 13
54 0*4384 •4368 •4352 •4337 •4321 •4305 •4289 •4274 •4258 •4242 3 5 8 II 13

45 0*4226 •4210 •4195 -4179 •4163 •4147 •4131 •4115 -4099 *4083 3 5 8 II 13
55 0*4067 *4051 •4035 •4019 *4003 •3987 •3971 •3955 •3939 •3923 3 5 8 II 13
57 0*3907 •3891 •3875 •3859 •3843 •3827 •3811 •3795 ■3778 •3762 3 5 8 II 13
58 0*3746 •3730 •3714 •3697 *3681 •3665 •3649 *3633 •3616 •3600 3 5 8 II 14
59 0*3584 •3567 •3551 •3535 *3518 -3502 -3486 ■3469 -3453 •3437 3 5 8 II 1*4

70 0*3420 •3404 •3387 •3371 •3355 -3338 •3322 •3305 •3289 ■3272 3 5 8 II 14
71 0*3256 •3239 •3223 •3206 •3190 •3173 •3156 •3140 •3123 •3107 3 6 8 II 14
72 0*3090 •3074 *3057 •3040 •3024 •3007 •2990 •2974 •2957 -2940 3 6 8 II 14
73 0-2924 •2907 •2890 •2874 •2857 -2840 ■2823 -2807 •2790 •2773 3 6 8 II 14
74 0*2756 *2740 •2723 *2706 •2689 •2672 •2656 *2639 *2622 ■2605 3 6 8 II 14

75 0*2588 •2571 •2554 •2538 •2521 •2504 •2487 •2470 •2453 •2436 3 6 8 11 14
75 02419 •2402 *2385 *2368 •2351 •2334 •2317 •2300 *2284 •2267 3 6 8 II 14
77 0-2250 •2232 •2215 •2198 •2181 •2164 ■2147 •2130 *2113 •2096 3 6 9 II 14
78 0-2079 •2062 •2045 •2028 *2011 •1994 •1977 •1959 *1942 •1925 3 6 9 II 14
7» 0*1908 •1891 •1874 •1857 •1840 •1822 •1805 •1788 •1771 •1754 3 6 9 II 14

80 0*1736 •1719 •1702 •1665 •1668 •1650 •1633 •1616 •1599 •1582 3 6 9 II 14
01 0*1564 •1547 •1530 *1513 •1495 •1478 •1461 •1444 •1426 •1409 3 6 9 II 14
82 0*1392 •1374 •1357 *1340 •1323 •1305 *1288 •1271 •1253 •1236 3 6 9 12 14
83 0*1219 *1201 •1184 *1167 •1149 •1132 *1115 ■1097 •1080 •1063 3 6 9 12 14
M 0*1045 •1028 •ton •0993 •0976 -0958 ■0941 •0924 -0906 •0889 3 6 9 12 14

85 0-0872 •0854 •0837 -0819 -0802 •0785 •0767 -0750 •0732 •0715 3 6 9 12 14
U 0*0698 •0680 •0663 -0645 *0628 -0610 *0593 •0576 •0558 •0541 3 6 9 12 15
87 0*0523 •0506 •0489 *0471 •0454 •0436 *0419 •0401 •0384 *0366 3 6 9 12 15
88 0*0349 •0332 •0314 •0297 •0279 •0262 *0244 •0227 -0209 •0192 3 6 9 12 15
M 00175 •0157 -0140 ■0122 -0105 -0087 *0070 *0052 -0035 •0017 3 6 9 12 15

0* 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 84' 1' 2' 3' 4' r
 NATURAL TANGENTS Proportional
Parts

V 6' 12' ir 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' r 2' r 4' r
•• 0-0000 •0017 •0035 -0052 •0070 ■0087 *0105 -0122 •0140 •0157 3 6 9 12 »
1 00175 -0192 •0209 -0227 •0244 •0262 •0279 •0297 •0314 •0332 3 6 9 12 is
2 0-0349 -0367 •0384 •0402 -0419 ■0437 *0454 •0472 •0489 •0507 3 6 9 12 15
3 0-0524 *0542 -0559 •0577 -0594 •0612 *0629 •0647 •0664 •0662 3 6 9 12 15
4 0-0699 •0717 •0734 •0752 •0769 •0787 •0805 •0822 •0840 •0857 3 6 9 12 15

S 0-0675 -0892 •0910 •0928 -0945 •0963 •0981 •0998 •1016 •1033 3 6 9 12 15
4 0-1051 *1069 -1086 •1104 •1122 •1139 •1157 •1175 •1192 •1210 3 6 9 12 IS
7 0-1228 *1246 •1253 •1281 •1299 •1317 •1334 •1352 •1370 -1388 3 6 9 12 IS
• 0*1405 -1423 •1441 •1459 •1477 •1495 ■1512 •1530 •1548 -1566 3 6 9 12 1$
» 01584 -1602 ■1620 •1638 •1655 ■1673 •1691 •1709 •1727 •1745 3 6 9 12 IS

10 0-1763 •1781 •1799 -1817 •1835 •1853 •1871 •1890 -1908 -1926 3 6 9 12 IS
II 0-1944 -1962 •1980 •1998 -2016 •2035 •2053 *2071 *2089 •2107 3 6 9 12 15
n 0-2126 •2144 •2162 •2180 •2199 •2217 -2235 •2254 •2272 -2290 3 6 9 12 IS
13 0-2309 •2327 •2345 •2364 -2382 •240| •2419 *2438 *2456 •2475 3 6 9 12 15
14 0*2493 -2512 -2530 •2549 ■2568 -2586 •2605 -2623 *2642 •2661 3 6 9 12 16

IS 0-2679 -2698 •2717 •2736 ■2754 •2773 •2792 -2811 •2830 •2849 3 6 9 13 16
16 0-2867 *2886 •2905 •2924 •2943 •2962 -2981 •3000 *3019 -3038 3 6 9 13 16
17 0*3057 •3076 -3096 •3115 •3134 *3153 •3172 •3191 •3211 *3230 3 6 9 13 16
18 0-3249 *3269 •3288 •3307 •3327 •3346 *3365 *3385 •3404 *3424 3 6 10 13 •«
1* 0-3443 -3463 •3482 •3502 •3522 •3541 *3561 •3581 ■3600 •3620 3 6 10 13 16

20 0-3640 -3659 •3679 •3699 •3719 •3739 •3759 •3779 •3799 -3819 3 6 10 15 17
21 0-3833 *3859 •3879 •3899 •3919 -3939 •3959 •3979 •4000 -4020 3 7 10 13 17
22 0-4040 -4061 -4081 •4101 •4122 -4142 •4163 •4183 -4204 •4224 3 7 10 14 17
23 0-4245 •4265 -4286 •4307 •4327 •4348 •4369 •4390 •4411 •4431 3 7 10 14 17
24 0-4452 -4473 •4494 -4515 •4536 •4557 •4578 •4599 •4621 •4642 4 7 II 14 18

23 0-4663 •4634 •4706 -4727 •4748 •4770 •4791 *4813 -4834 -4856 4 7 II 14 18
u 0-4877 -4899 •4921 •4942 •4964 -4986 •5008 •5029 *5051 •5073 4 7 II 15 It
27 0-5095 •5117 •5139 •5161 •5184 •5206 •5228 •5250 •5272 -5295 4 7 II 15 IS
23 0-5317 •5339 •5362 -5384 •5407 •5430 *5452 •5475 •5498 -5520 4 8 II 15 19
29 0-5543 -5566 •5589 -5612 -5635 ■5658 •5681 *5704 •5727 •5750 4 8 12 15 19

30 0-5774 •5797 ■5820 -5844 •5867 -5891 •5914 •5938 •5961 •5985 4 8 12 16 20
31 0*6009 •6032 •6056 •6080 -6104 •6128 -6152 •6176 ■6200 •6224 4 8 12 16 20
32 0-6249 •6273 •6297 •6322 •6346 •6371 •6395 •6420 •6445 *6469 4 8 12 16 20
33 0*6494 •6519 ■6544 <6569 •6594 ■6619 •6644 •6669 ■6694 *6720 4 8 13 17 21
34 0-6745 •6771 ■6796 •6822 ■6847 •6873 •6899 -6924 •6950 •6976 4 9 13 17 21

33 0-7002 •7028 •7054 -7080 •7107 •7133 •7159 •7186 •7212 •7239 4 9 13 18 22
34 0*7265 •7292 •7319 •7346 •7373 •7400 •7427 •74S4 *7481 •7508 5 9 14 18 23
37 0*7536 •7563 •7590 •7618 •7646 •7673 •7701 •7729 •7757 •7785 5 9 14 18 23
38 0-7813 •7841 -7869 *7898 7926 •7954 -7983 •8012 •8040 •8069 5 10 14 19 24
39 0-8098 •8127 -8156 <8185 •8214 •8243 *8273 •8302 -8332 •8361 5 K> IS 20 24

40 0-8391 •8421 •8451 •8481 •8511 -8541 -8571 -8601 *8632 ■8662 5 10 15 20 25
41 0*8693 •8724 •8754 •8785 •8816 •8847 •8878 •8910 •8941 •8972 S 10 16 21 26
42 0*9004 •9036 •9067 •9099 •9131 •9163 •9195 •9228 •9260 •9293 5 II 16 21 26
43 0*9325 •9358 •9391 •9424 •9457 ■9490 •9523 -9556 •9590 •9623 6 II 17 22 28
44 0-9657 •9691 •9725 •9759 •9793 •9827 -9861 •9896 ■9930 *9965 6 II 17 23 2»

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30- 36' 42' 4T 54' 1' T r r r
 NATURAL TANGENTS Proportion*!
Parts

O' 6' 12' ir 24' 30* 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' S'

r 1-0000 -0035 -0070 -0105 •0141 •0176 -0212 -0247 •0283 •0319 6 12 18 24 30
i 1-0355 -0392 •0428 •0464 •0501 *0538 -0575 •0612 •0649 •0686 6 12 18 25 31
1-0724 *0761 •0799 •0837 •0875 •0913 •0951 •0990 •1028 -1067 6 13 19 25 32
k 1*1106 -1145 -1184 •1224 *1263 -1303 •1343 •1383 •1423 -1463 7 (3 20 27 33
» 1*1504 *1544 -1585 •1626 •1667 •1708 -1750 •1792 •1833 -1875 7 14 21 28 34

• 1*1918 -I960 •2002 *2045 -2088 •213! •2174 -2218 •2261 •2305 7 14 22 ,29 36
ii 1*2349 *2393 •2437 •2482 •2527 •2572 •2617 •2662 •2708 •2753 8 15 23 30 38
I 1-2799 *2846 ■2892 •2938 •2985 -3032 •3079 •3127 •3175 •3222 8 16 24 31 39
3 1*3270 *3319 -3367 •3416 •3465 - *3514 •3564 *3613 •3663 •3713 8 16 25 33 41
4 1*3764 -3814 •3865 •3916 -3968 •4019 •4071 •4124 •4176 •4229 9 17 26 34 43

s 1-4281 •4335 •4388 -4442 •4496 •4550 •4605 •4659 •4715 ■4770 9 18 27 36 45
» 1*4826 *4882 ■4938 -4994 •505! •5108 -5166 •5224 •5282 •5340 10 19 29 38 48
» 1*5399 •5458 •5517 •5577 •563> •5697 ♦5757 •5818 -5880 •5941 10 20 30 40 50
3 1*6003 *6066 *6128 •6191 *6255 •6319 •6383 •6447 •6512 •6577 II 21 32 43 53
» 1*6643 •6709 •6775 -6842 •6909 •6977 •7045 •7113 •7182 •7251 II 23 34 45 57

B 1*7321 -7391 -7461 •7532 •7603 •7675 •7747 •7820 •7893 -7966 12 24 36 48 60
U 1*8040 •8115 *8190 •8265 •8341 -8418 •8495 •8572 -8650 •8728 13 26 38 51 64
B 1*8807 •8887 •8967 •9047 •9128 •9210 •9292 •9379 •9458 •9542 14 27 41 55 68
B 1-9626 •9711 •9797 •9883 1-9970 2*0057 •0145 •0233 •0323 -0413 15 29 44 58 73
H 2*0503 •0594 •0686 •0778 •0872 •0965 •1060 •1155 •1251 •1348 16 31 47 63 78

B 2*145 •154 •164 •174 -184 •194 •204 •215 •225 •236 2 3 5 7 8
B 2-246 •257 •267 •278 •289 •300 •311 •322 •333 •344 2 4 5 7 9
B 2-356 •367 •379 •391 >402 •414 •426 -438 •450 •463 2 4 6 8 10
B 2*475 -488 •500 •513 •526 •539 •552 •565 •578 -592 2 4 6 9 II
if 2-605 •619 •633 •646 *660 •675 •689 •703 •718 •733 2 5 7 9 12

• 2*747 •762 •778 -793 •808 -824 •840 -856 •872 •888 3 5 8 10 13
2*904 •921 •937 •954 •971 2*989 3-006 •024 *042 •060 3 6 9 12 14
i 3-078 -096 •115 •133 •152 •172 •191 •211 *230 -251 3 6 ioI 13 16
3 3-271 -291 •312 •333 •354 •376 •398 •420 •442 •465 4 7 II 14 18
M 3-487 •511 •534 •558 •582 •606 -630 -655 •681 •706 4 8 12 16 20

B 3-732 •758 •785 -812 •839 •867 -895 •923 •952 •981 5 9 14 19 23
B 4-01! •041 •071 •102 •134 •165 •198 •230 •264 •297 5 II 16 21 27
if 4-331 •366 •402 •437 •474 •Sil •548 •586 •625 •665 6 12 19 25 31
18 4*705 •745 •787 *829 •872 -915 4-959 5*005 •050 •097 7 15 22 29 37
If 5*145 •193 •242 •292 ■343 •396 •449 -503 •558 •614 9 18 26 35 44

B 5-671 •730 ■789 -850 -912 5*976 6-O4I •107 •174 •243 II 21 32 43 54
H 6*314 -386 *460 •535 •612 •691 •772 •855 6*940 7*026 13 27 40 54 67
B 7-115 •207 •300 •396 •495 •596 •700 •806 7-916 8*028 17 34 51 69 86
B 8*144 •386 •513 •643 •777 8*915 9*058 •205 •357 23 46 68 9I|I 14
‘

H 9*514 9*845 10*019 10-199 10*385 10*579 10*780 10-988 11*205

*

B, 11*43 11*66 11-91 1216 12-43 12-71 13-00 13*30 13-62 13-95 p.p. cease
* 14*30 14-67 15-06 15*46 15*89 16-35 16-83 17-34 17*89 18*46 to be
V 19-08 19*74 ^0*45 21-20 22*02 22-90 23-86 24*90 26*03 27-27 sufficiently
B 28-64 30-14 31-82 33-69 35-80 38*19 40-92 44*07 47-74 52*08 accurat •
» 57-29 63-66 71-62 81-85 95*49 1(4-6 143*2 191-0 286-5 573-0

V 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' I' -I, ■4 5'
 Proportion^
NATURAL COSECANTS Parts
Subtract

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30* 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4'
0° co 573-0 286-5 191-0 143-2 114-6 95-49 81-85 71-62 63-66
1 57-30 52-09 47-75 44-08 40-93 38-20 35-81 33-71 31*84 30*16
2 28-65 27-29 26-05 24-92 23-88 22-93 22-04 21-23 20-47 19-77
3 19-11 18-49 17-91 17-37 16-86 16-38 15-93 15-50 15-09 14-70
4 14-34 13-99 13-65 13-34 13-03 12-75 12-47 12-20 11-95 11-71 p.p. cease
to be
5 11-474 •249 11-034 10-826 •626 •433 -248 10-068 9-895 •728 sufficiently
6 9*567 •411 •259 9-113 8-971 •834 •700 •571 •446 •324 accurate
7 8-206 8-091 7-979 •870 •764 •661 -561 •463 •368 •276
8 7-185 •097 7-011 6-927 •845 •765 •687 •611 •537 •464
9 6-392 •323 •255 -188 •123 6-059 5-996 •935 •875 •816

10 5-759 •702 •647 •593 •540 •487 •436 •386 •337 •288 9 17 26 35
II 5-241 •194 •148 •103 •059 5-016 4-973 •931 •890 •850 7 14 22 29
12 4-810 •771 •732 -694 •657 •620 •584 •549 •514 •479 6 12 18 24
13 4-445 •412 •379 •347 •315 •284 •253 •222 •192 •163 5 10 16 21
14 4-134 •105 -077 •049 4-021 3-994 •967 •941 •915 •889 4 9 14 18

15 3-864 -839 -814 •790 •766 •742 •719 •695 •673 •650 4 8 12 16
16 3-628 -606 •584 •563 •542 •521 •500 •480 •460 •440 3 7 10 14
17 3-420 •401 •382 •363 •344 •326 •307 •289 •271 •254 3 6 9 12
18 3-236 •219 •202 •185 •168 •152 •135 -119 ■103 •087 3 5 8 II
19 3-072 •056 •041 •026 3-011 2-996 •981 •967 •952 •938 2 5 7 10

20 2-924 •910 -896 •882 •869 -855 •842 •829 •816 •803 2 4 7 9
21 2-790 ■778 •765 •753 •741 •729 •716 •705 •693 •681 2 4 6 8
22 2-669 •658 -647 -635 •624 •613 •602 •591 •581 •570 2 4 6 7
23 2-559 •549 -538 -528 •518 -508 •498 •488 *478 -468 2 3 5 7
24 2-459 •449 •439 •430 •421 •411 •402 •393 •384 •375 2 3 5 6

25 2-366 •357 •349 -340 •331 •323 •314 •306 •298 •289 1 3 4 6 7
26 2-281 •273 •265 •257 •249 •241 •233 •226 •218 •210 1 3 4 5 7
27 2-203 •195 -188 -180 •173 •166 •158 -151 •144 •137 1 2 4 5 8
28 2-130 •123 -116 •109 •103 •096 •089 •082 •076 •069 1 2 3 4 4
29 2-063 •056 •050 •043 •037 •031 •025 •018 •012 •006 1 2 3 4 5

30 2-0000 1-9940 •9880 ■9821 •9762 •9703 •9645 •9587 •9530 •9473 10 19 29 39
31 1-9416 •9360 •9304 •9249 •9194 •9139 •9084 •9031 •8977 •8924 9 18 27 36
32 1-8871 •8818 •8766 •8714 •8663 •8612 •8561 •8510 •8460 •8410 8 17 26 34
33 1-8361 •8312 •8263 ■8214 -8166 •8118 •8070 •8023 •7976 •7929 8 16 24 32 4
34 1-7883 •7837 •7791 •7745 •7700 •7655 ■7610 •7566 •7522 •7478 7 15 22 30 37

35 1-7434 •7391 •7348 •7305 •7263 •7221 •7179 •7137 •7095 •7054 7 14 21 28 3!
36 1-7013 •6972 ■6932 •6892 •6852 •6812 •6772 •6733 •6694 ■6655 7 13 20 26 33
37 1-6616 ■6578 •6540 •6502 ■6464 •6427 •6390 •6353 •6316 •6279 6 12 19 25 31
38 1-6243 •6207 •6171 •6135 •6099 -6064 -6029 •5994 •5959 •5925 6 12 18 24 2S
39 1-5890 •5856 •5822 •5788 •5755 •5721 •5688 •5655 •5622 •5590 6 II 17 22 28

40 1-5557 •5525 •5493 •5461 •5429 •5398 •5366 •5335 ■5304 •5273 5 10 16 21 24
41 1-5243 •5212 •5182 •5151 •5121 •5092 •5062 •5032 •5003 •4974 5 10 15 20 23
42 1-4945 -4916 •4887 •4859 •4830 -4802 •4774 •4746 •4718 •4690 5 9 14 19 24
43 1-4663 •4635 -4608 •4581 ■4554 •4527 •4501 •4474 •4448 •4422 4 9 13 18 27
44 1-4396 •4370 •4344 -4318 •4293 •4267 •4242 •4217 •4192 •4167 4 8 13 17 21
V 6' 12' 18' 24' 3T 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' S'
 Proportional
NATURAL COSECANTS Parts
Subtract

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

1-4142 -4118 •4093 •4069 •4044 •4020 •3996 •3972 -3949 •3925 4 8 12 16 20
1-3902 •3878 •3855 •3832 •3809 •3786 •3763 •3741 •3718 •3696 4 8 II 15 19
1*3673 •3651 •3629 •3607 •3585 •3563 •3542 •3520 •3499 •3478 4 7 II 14 18
1*3456 •3435 •3414 •3393 •3373 •3352 •333! ■3311 •3291 •3270 3 7 10 14 17
» 1-3250 -3230 •3210 •3190 •3171 •3151 •3131 •3112 •3093 •3073 3 7 10 13 16

I 1-3054 -3035 -3016 •2997 •2978 •2960 •2941 •2923 •2904 •2886 3 6 9 (2 15
1 1-2868 •2849 -2831 •2813 •2796 •2778 •2760 •2742 •2725 •2708 3 6 9 12 15
1 1*2690 •2673 -2656 •2639 •2622 ■2605 •2588 •2571 •2554 •2538 3 6 8 II 14
s 1-2521 *2505 ■2489 •2472 ■2456 *•2440 •2424 •2408 •2392 •2376 3 5 8 II 13
I 1-2361 •2345 •2329 •2314 •2299 •2283 -2268 •2253 •2238 •2223 3 5 8 10 13

« 1-2208 •2193 •2178 •2163 •2149 •2134 •2120 ■2105 •2091 •2076 2 5 7 10 12
I 1*2062 •2048 •2034 •2020 •2006 •1992 •1978 •1964 •1951 •1937 2 5 7 9 12
t 11924 •1910 •1897 •1883 •1870 •1857 •1844 -1831 •1818 •1805 2 4 7 9 II
1-1792 •1779 •1766 •1753 •1741 -1728 •1716 •1703 •1691 •1679 2 4 6 8 10
1*1666 -1654 •1642 •1630 -1618 •1606 •1594 •1582 •1570 •1559 2 4 6 8 10

1-1547 •1535 -1524 ■1512 •1501 -1490 -1478 •1467 •1456 •1445 2 4 6 8 9
1 1*1434 •1423 •1412 •1401 •1390 •1379 •1368 •1357 •1347 -1336 2 4 5 7 9
1 1*1326 •1315 •1305 •1294 •1284 •1274 •1264 •1253 •1243 •1233 2 3 5 7 9
1-1223 -1213 •1203 •1194 -1184 •1174 •1164 •1155 •1145 •1136 2 3 5 6 8
1-1126 •1117 •1107 •1098 •1089 •1079 •1070 •1061 •1052 -1043 2 3 5 6 8

5 1*1034 •1025 •1016 ■1007 •0998 •0989 •098 J •0972 •0963 •0955 1 3 4 6 7
1*0946 •0938 •0929 •0921 •0913 •0904 •0896 •0888 •0880 •0872 1 3 4 5 7
1*0864 -0856 •0848 •0840 •0832 -0824 -0816 •0808 -0801 •0793 1 3 4 5 7
1-0785 •0778 •0770 •0763 •0755 •0748 •0740 •0733 •0726 •0719 I 2 4 5 6
» 1-0711 •0704 •0697 •0690 -0683 •0676 •0669 •0662 •0655 •0649 I 2 3 5 6

» 1*0642 -0635 •0628 •0622 -0615 •0608 •0602 •0595 •0589 •0583 1 2 3 4 5
1*0576 •0570 •0564 •0557 •0551 •0545 •0539 •0533 •0527 •0521 1 2 3 4 5
a 1-0515 •0509 •0503 •0497 •0491 •0485 •0480 •0474 •0468 -0463 1 2 3 4 5
3 1-0457 •0451 •0446 •0440 •0435 ■0429 •0424 •0419 •0413 •0408 1 2 3 4 5
n 1*0403 -0398 •0393 •0388 -0382 •0377 •0372 •0367 •0363 •0358 1 2 3 3 4

s 1*0353 •0348 •0343 •0338 •0334 •0329 •0324 •0320 •0315 •0311 1 2 2 3 4
1-0306 •0302 •0297 •0293 •0288 ■0284 •0280 •0276 •0271 •0267 1 1 2 3 4
1-0263 •0259 •0255 •0251 •0247 •0243 •0239 •0235 •0231 •0227 1 1 2 3 3
I 1*0223 •0220 -0216 •0212 •0209 -0205 •0201 -0198 •0194 •0191 1 1 2 2 3
1-0187 •0184 •0180 •0177 •0174 •0170 •0167 •0164 •0161 •0157 1 1 2 2 3

1*0154 -0151 •0148 •0145 •0142 •0139 -0136 ■0133 -0130 •0127 0 1 1 2 2
n 1-0125 •0122 •0119 •0116 •0114 •Oil! •0108 •0106 •0103 •0101 0 1 1 2 2
B 1*0098 •0096 •0093 •0091 -0089 •0086 •0084 •0082 •0079 •0077 0 1 1 2 2
B 1*0075 •0073 •0071 •0069 •0067 •0065 •0063 •0061 •0059 •0057 0 1 1 1 2
1-0055 •0053 •0051 •0050 •0048 •0046 •0045 •0043 •0041 •0040 0 1 1 1 1

IS 1-0038 •0037 •0035 •0034 •0032 ■0031 •0030 •0028 •0027 •0026 0 0 1 1 1
1-0024 •0023 •0022 •0021 •0020 •0019 •00(8 •00(7 -0016 •0015 0 0 0 1 1
1-0014 -0013 •0012 •0011 •0010 •0010 •0009 •0008 •0007 •0007 0 0 0 1 1
1-0006 •0005 •0005 •0004 -0004 •0003 •0003 •0003 •0002 •0002 0 0 0 0 0
1-0002 •000f •000f -0001 -0001 •0000 •0000 -0000 ■0000 •0000 0 0 0 0 0
O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 5'
 NATURAL SECANTS Proportion-
Parts •

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48* 54' 1' 2' S' 4'

0° 1-0000 -0000 •0000 -0000 •0000 •0000 •0001 •0001 •0001 •0001 0 0 0 0 4
1 1-0002 *0002 •0002 •0003 •0003 •0003 •0004 •0004 ■0005 •0005 0 0 0 0 i
2 1-0006 -0007 •0007 •0008 •0009 •0010 •0010 -0011 •0012 -0013 0 0 0 1
3 1-0014 •0015 •0016 •0017 -obis •0019 -0020 •0021 -0022 •0023 0 0 0 1
4 1-0024 -0026 •0027 •0028 •0030 -0031 -0032 •0034 -0035 •0037 0 0 1 1
5 1-0038 •0040 •0041 •0043 •0045 •0046 •0048 •0050 .-0051 •0053 0 1 1 1
6 1-0055 •0057 •0059 •0061 -0063 •0065 •0067 •0069 •0071 ■0073 0 1 1 1 j
7 1-0075 •0077 •0079 •0082 -0084 •0086 -0089 •0091 •0093 •0096 0 1 1 2 1
8 1-0098 -0101 -0103 -0106 -0108 •0111 •0114 •0116 •01)9 •0122 0 1 1 2
9 1-0125 •0127 -0130 •0133 •0136 •0139 •0142 •0145 •0148 ■01 Sl 0 1 1 2 :

10 10154 ■0157 •0161 •0164 -0167 •0170 •0174 •0177 •0180 •0184 1 1 2 2 i
II . 1-0187 •0191 •0194 •0198 •0201 •0205 •0209 •0212 •0216 •0220 1 1 2 2
12 1-0223 •0227 •0231 •0235 •0239 •0243 •0247 -0251 •0255 •0259 1 1 2 3 i
13 1-0263 •0267 •0271 -0276 ■0280 •0284 •0288 -0293 •0297 •0302 1 1 2 3 i
14 1-0306 -0311 •0315 •0320 •0324 ■0329 •0334 •0338 •0343 -0348 1 2 2 3
15 1-0353 •0358 •0363 ■0367 •0372 •0377 •0382 •0388 •0393 •0398 1 2 3 3 .4
16 1-0403 •0408 -0413 •0419 -0424 -0429 •0435 •0440 •0446 •0451 1 2 3 4 !
17 1-0457 •0463 •0468 •0474 •0480 •0485 •0491 •0497 •0503 •0509 1 2 3 4 1
18 1-0515 •0521 •0527 ■0533 •0539 •0545 •0551 •0557 •0564 •0570 1 2 3 4 1
19 1-0576 •0583 •0589 •0595 •0602 •0608 •0615 •0622 •0628 •0635 1 2 3 4 !

20 1-0642 •0649 •0655 •0662 •0669 •0676 •0683 •0690 •0697 •0704 1 2 3 5 I
21 1-0711 -0719 •0726 •0733 •0740 ■0748 •0755 •0763 •0770 •0778 1 2 4 5 4
22 1-0785 •0793 •0801 •0808 -0816 -0824 -0832 •0840 •0848 -0856 1 3 4 5 i
23 1-0864 ■0872 •0880 •0888 •0896 •0904 -0913 •3921 •0929 •0938 1 3 4 5 1
24 1-0946 -0955 •0963 •0972 •0981 •0989 •0998 •1007 •1016 •1025 1 3 4 6 I

25 1-1034 •1043 •1052 •1061 •1070 •1079 •1089 -1098 -1107 •1117 2 3 5 6 i
26 1-1126 ■1136 •1145 ■115$ ■1164 •1174 •1184 •1194 •1203 -1213 2 3 5 6 1
27 1-1223 •1233 -1243 •1253 •1264 •1274 •1284 •1294 •1305 -1315 2 3 5 7 1
28 1-1326 •1336 •1347 •1357 •1368 •1379 ■1390 •1401 •1412 •1423 2 4 5 7 1
29 1-1434 •1445 -1456 •1467 •1478 •1490 •1501 •1512 ■1524 •1535 2 4 6 8 1
30 1-1547 •1559 •1570 •1582 •1594 •1606 •1618 -1630 •1642 •1654 2 4 6 8 u
31 1-1666 •1679 -1691 •1703 •1716 •1728 •1741 •1753 •1766 •1779 2 4 6 8 K
32 1-1792 •1805 -1818 -1831 •1844 •1857 •1870 •1883 •1897 -1910 2 4 7 9 H
33 1-1924 •1937 •1951 -1964 •1978 •1992 •2006 •2020 •2034 •2048 2 5 7 9 19
34 1-2062 •2076 -2091 •2105 •2120 •2134 •2149 •2163 •2178 •2193 2 5 7 10 19
35 1-2208 -2223 •2238 •2253 •2268 •2283 •2299 •2314 •2329 •2345 3 5 8 10 I!
36 1-2361 ■2376 •2392 -2408 •2424 •2440 •2456 •2472 •2489 •2505 3 5 8 II
37 1-2521 -2538 •2554 •2571 •2588 •2605 •2622 -2639 -2656 •2673 3 6 8 II H
38 1-2690 •2708 •2725 •2742 •2760 •2778 •2796 •2813 •2831 •2849 3 6 9 12 U
39 1-2868 •2886 •2904 •2923 •2941 -2960 •2978 •2997 •3016 •3035 3 6 9 12 I!

40 1-3054 •3073 •3093 •3112 •3131 •3151 •3171 •3)90 •3210 •3230 3 7 10 13 II
41 1-3250 •3270 •3291 •3311 •3331 •3352 •3373 •3393 •3414 •3435 3 7 10 14 •9
42 1-3456 •3478 •3499 •3520 -3542 •3563 •3585 •3607 •3629 •3651 4 7 II 14 II
43 1-3673 •3696 -3718 •3741 •3763 •3786 •3809 -3832 -3855 •3878 4 8 II IS H
44 1-3902 •3925 •3949 •3972 •3996 •4020 •4044 -4069 -4093 •4118 4 8 12 16 a
O' 6' 12' ir 24' W 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' T y 4* s
 NATURAL SECANTS Proportional
Parts

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4* 5'

45° 1-4142 •4167 •4192 •4217 •4242 •4267 •4293 •4318 •4344 •4370 4 8 13 17 21
46 1-4396 •4422 -4474 -4501 •4527 ■4554 •4581 •4608 •4635 4 9 13 18 22
47 1-4663 •4690 •4718 •4746 •4774 •4802 •4830 •4859 •4887 •4916 5 9 14 19 24
48 1-4945 -4974 -5003 -5032 •5062 •5092 -5121 -5151 -5182 -5212 5 10 15 20 25
49 1-5243 •5273 •5304 •5335 -5366 •5398 •5429 •5461 •5493 •5525 5 10 16 21 26

50 1-5557 •5590 •5622 •5655 •5688 •5721 •5755 •5788 •5822 •5856 6 II 17 22 28
61 1-5890 •5925 •5959 •5994 •6029 -6064 •6099 •6135 •6171 •6207 6 12 18 24 29
52 1-6243 •6279 •6316 •6353 •6390 •6427 -6464 •6502 -6540 •6578 6 12 19 25 31
53 1-6616 •6655 •6694 •6733 ■an •6812 ■6852 -6892 •6932 •6972 7 13 20 26 33
54 1-7013 •7054 -7095 •7137 ■7179 •7221 •7263 •7305 •7343 •7391 7 14 21 28 35

55 1-7434 •7478 -7522 •7566 •7610 •7655 ■7700 •7745 •7791 •7837 7 15 22 30 37
56 1-7883 •7929 ■7976 •8023 •8070 •8118 •8166 •8214 •8263 •8312 8 16 24 32 40
57 1-8361 •8410 •8460 •8510 •8561 •8612 •8663 •8714 •8766 ■8818 8 17 26 34 42
58 1-8871 -8924 •8977 •9031 •9084 •9139 •9194 •9249 ■9304 •9360 9 18 27 36 45
69 1-9416 •9473 •9530 •9587 -9645 •9703 •9762 •9821 ■9880 •9940 10 19 29 39 49

M 2-000 •006 •012 •018 •025 •031 •037 •043 •050 -056 1 2 3 4 5
61 2-063 -069 -076 •082 •089 •096 •103 •109 •116 ■123 1 2 3 4 6
42 2-130 •137 •144 •151 -158 -166 •173 •180 •188 •195 1 2 4 5 6
63 2-203 -210 -218 ■226 •233 •241 •249 -257 •265 •273 1 3 4 5 7
M 2-281 •289 •298 -306 •314 :323 •331 -340 -349 •357 1 3 4 6 7

65 2-366 -375 •384 •393 •402 -411 ■421 •430 •439 •449 2 3 5 6 8
66 2-459 -468 •478 -488 •498 •508 •518 •528 •538 •549 2 3 5 7 8
67 2-559 -570 •581 •591 -602 •613 •624 -635 ■647 -658 2 4 6 7 9
68 2-669 •681 •693 •705 •716 •729 •741 •753 •765 •778 2 4 6 8 10
69 2-790 •803 •816 •829 •842 •855 -869 •882 •896 •910 2 4 7 9 II

70 2-924 •938 -952 •967 •981 2-996 3-011 •026 •041 •056 2 5 7 10 12
71 3-072 •087 -103 •119 •135 •152 •168 •185 •202 •219 3 5 8 II 14
72 3-236 •254 •271 •289 •307 -326 •344 •363 •382 •401 3 6 9 12 15
73 3-420 •440 •460 •480 •500 •521 •542 ■563 -584 •606 3 7 10 14 17
74 3*628 •650 •673 •695 •719 •742 •766 •790 •814 •839 4 8 12 16 20

75 3-864 •889 •915 •941 •967 3-994 44)21 •049 •077 -105 4 9 14 18 22
76 4-134 •163 •192 •222 •253 •284 •315 •347 ■379 •412 5 10 16 21 26
n 4-445 -479 •514 •549 •584 -620 •657 •694 •732 •771 6 12 18 24 30
78 4-810 •850 •890 •931 4-973 5-016 •059 •103 •148 •194 7 14 22 29 36
79 5-241 •288 •337 •386 •436 •487 •540 •593 •647 •702 9 17 26 35 43

(0 5-759 •816 •875 •935 5-996 6-059 •123 -188 •255 •323
81 6-392 •464 •537 •611 •687 •765 •845 6-927 7-011 •097
82 7-185 •276 -368 -463 •561 •661 •764 •870 7-979 8-091
u 8-206 •324 •446 •571 •700 •834 8-971 9-113 •259 •411 p.p. cease
M 9-567 •728 9-895 10-068 •248 •433 -626 10-826 11-034 •249 to be
sufficiently
85 11-47 11-71 11-95 12-20 12-47 12-75 13-03 13-34 13-65 13-99 accurate
M 14-34 14-70 15-09 15-50 15-93 16-38 16-86 17-37 17-91 18*49
87 19-11 19-77 20-47 21-23 22-04 22-93 23-88 24-92 264)5 27-29
M 28-65 30-16 31-84 33-71 35-81 38-20 40-93 44-08 47-75 52-09
W 57-30 63-66 71-62 81-85 95-49 114-6 143-2 191-0 286-5 573-0
O' 6' 12' ir 24' 30' 36' «' 54' 1' T 3' 4' S'
 Proportional
NATURAL COTANGENTS
Part*
Subtract

O' 6' 12' IB' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' l'|2'|3' 4

0* cc 573-0 286-5 191-0 143-2 114-6 95-49 81-85 71-62 63-66

1 57-25 52-08 47-74 44-07 40-92 38-19 35-80 33-69 31*82 30-14 D.p. :eaie
2 28-64 27-27 26-03 24-90 23-86 22-90 22-02 21-20 20-45 19-74 to be
3 19-08 18-46 17-89 17-34 16-83 16-35 15-89 15-46 15-06 14-67 sufficiently
4 14-30 13-95 13-62 13-30 1300 12-71 12-43 12-16 11-91 11-66 accurate

5 11-30 11-205 10-988 10-780 10-579 10-385 10-199 10-019 9-845 9-677
6 9*514 •357 •205 9-058 8-915 •777 •643 •513 •386 ■264 23 4668 91 114
7 8*144 8-028 7-916 •806 •700 •596 •495 •396 ■300 •207 173451 69 86
8 7115 7-026 6-940 •855 ♦772 •691 •612 •535 •460 •386 13 2740 54 67
t 6-314 •243 •174 •107 6-041 5-976 •912 •850 •789 •730 II 21 32 43 54

10 5-671 -614 *558 •503 •449 •396 •343 •292 •242 •193 9 1826 35 44
II 5-145 •097 •050 5-005 4-959 •915 •872 •829 •787 •745 71522 29 37
12 4*705 -665 •625 •586 •548 •511 •474 •437 •402 *366 612 19 25 31
13 4-331 •297 •264 •230 •198 •165 •134 •102 •071 ■041 5 11 16 21 27
14 4-011 3-981 •952 •923 -895 •867 •839 •812 •785 •758 5 914 19 23

15 3-732 •706 *681 -655 -630 •606 •582 •558 •534 •511 4 8 12 16 20
16 3*487 *465 •442 •420 •398 ■376 •354 •333 *312 •291 4 711 14 IS
17 3-271 *251 •230 •211 •191 •172 •152 -133 *115 •096 3 6 10 13 16
IS 3-078 •060 •042 •024 3-006 2-989 ■971 •954 •937 •921 3 6 9 12 14
10 2-904 •888 •872 •856 •840 -824 •808 •793 •778 •762 3 5 8 10 13

20 2-747 •733 •718 •703 •689 •675 -660 •646 -633 •619 2 5 7 9 12
21 2-605 •592 •578 •565 •552 •539 •526 •513 •500 •488 2 4 6 9 II
22 2-475 •463 •450 •438 •426 •414 •402 -391 •379 •367 2 4 6 8 10
23 2-356 •344 •333 •322 •311 •300 •289 ♦278 •267 •257 2 4 5 7 9
24 2-246 •236 •225 •215 •204 •194 ■184 •174 ■164 •154 2 3 5 7 8

25 2-1445 •1348 •1251 •1155 •1060 •0965 •0872 •0778 ■0686 ■0594 1631 47 63 78
24 2-0503 •0413 •0323 •0233 •0145 2-0057 1-9970 •9883 •9797 •9711 15 2944 58 73
27 1-9626 •9542 •9458 •9375 •9292 •9210 •9128 •9047 *8967 •8887 142741 55 68
28 1*8807 •8728 •8650 •8572 •8495 -8418 •8341 •8265 •8190 -8115 13 26 38 51 64
» 1-8040 •7966 •7893 •7820 •7747 •7675 •7603 •7532 •7461 •7391 122436 48 60

30 1-7321 •7251 •7182 •7113 •7045 •6977 •6909 •6842 •6775 ■6709 II 23 34 45 57
31 1-6643 •6577 •6512 •6447 -6383 •6319 •6255 •6191 ■6128 •6066 1121 32 43 53
32 1-6003 •5941 •5880 •5818 •5757 •5697 •5637 •5577 ■5517 *5458 102030 40 50
33 1-5399 •5340 •5282 •5224 •5166 ■5108 *5051 •4994 •4938 -4882 101929 38 48
34 1-4826 •4770 •4715 •4659 •4605 •4550 •4496 •4442 •4388 •4335 918 27 36 45

35 1-4281 •4229 •4176 *4124 •4071 •4019 •3968 ■3916 ■3865 •3814 917 26 34 43
34 1-3764 •3713 •3663 •3613 •3564 -3514 •3465 •3416 ■3367 -3319 8 1625 33 41
37 1*3270 *3222 •3175 •3127 •3079 •3032 •2985 •2938 •2892 •2846 81624 31 39
30 1-2799 •2753 •2708 •2662 •2617 •2572 •2527 •2482 •2437 •2393 815 23 30 38
39 1-2349 •2305 •2261 •2218 •2174 ■2131 •2088 •2045 •2002 •I960 7 14 22 29 36

40 1-1918 •1875 •1833 •1792 •1750 •1708 -1667 -1626 •1585 •1544 714 21 28 34
41 1*1504 •1463 •1423 •1383 •1343 *1303 •1263 •1224 •1184 •1145 7 13 20 27 33
42 1-1106 •1067 •1028 •0990 •0951 •0913 •0875 •0837 •0799 •0761 6 13 19 25 32
43 1-0724 •0686 •0649 •0612 •0575 •0538 •0501 •0464 •0428 •0392 61218 25 3!
44 1-0355 ■0319 •0283 •0247 •0212 •0176 •0141 •0105 -0070 •0035 612 IS 24 30

V 6' 12 IS' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' S'
 Proportional
NATURAL COTANGENTS
Subtract

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

10000 0*9965 ■9930 •9896 •9861 •9827 •9793 -9759 •9725 -9691 6 II 17 23 29
« 0-9657 ■9623 •9590 •9556 •9523 •9490 •9457 •9424 •9391 •9358 6 II 17 22 28
cr 0-9325 •9293 •9260 •9228 •9195 •9(63 -9131 •9099 •9067 •9036 5 II 16 21 27
a 0-9004 •8972 •8941 •8910 •8878 •8847 •8816 •8785 •8754 •8724 5 10 16 21 26
w 0-8693 •8662 -8632 •8601 •8571 ■8541 •8511 •8481 •8451 •8421 5 10 15 20 25

st 0-8391 •8361 •8332 •8302 •8273 -8243 •8214 -8185 •8156 -8127 5 10 15 20 24
51 0-8098 •8069 ■8040 -8012 •7983 •7954 •7926 •7898 •7869 -7841 5 10 14 19 24
52 0-7813 •7785 •7757 •7729 •7701 •7673 •7646 •7618 •7590 •7563 5 9 14 18 23
S3 0-7536 •7508 •7481 •7454 •7427 •7400 •7373 •7346 •7319 •7292 5 9 14 18 23
54 0-7265 •7239 •7212 •7186 •7159 •7133 •7107 •7080 •7054 ■7028 4 9 13 18 22

5S 0*7002 •6976 •6950 -6924 •6899 •6873 •6847 •6822 •6796 ■6771 4 9 13 17 21
56 0-6745 •6720 •6694 •6669 •6644 •6619 •6594 •6569 •6544 •6519 4 8 13 17 21
57 0-6494 •6469 •6445 •6420 •6395 •6371 •6346 •6322 •6297 •6273 4 8 12 16 20
58 0-6249 •6224 •6200 •6176 •6152 •6128 •6104 •6080 -6056 •6032 4 8 12 16 20
st 0-6009 •5985 •5961 •5938 •5914 -5891 •5867 •5844 -5820 •5797 4 8 12 16 20

4t 0*5774 •5750 •5727 -5704 ■5681 -5658 ■5635 -5612 •5589 •5566 4 8 12 15 19
51 0-5543 •5520 •5498 •5475 •5452 -5430 •5407 •5384 •5362 •5339 4 8 II 15 19
52 0-5317 •5295 •5272 •5250 •5228 *5206 •5184 •5161 •5139 •5117 4 7 II 15 18
63 0-5095 •5073 •5051 •5029 •5008 •4986 •4964 •4942 •4921 •4899 4 7 II 15 18
54 0-4877 -4856 -4834 •4813 •4791 •4770 -4748 •4727 -4706 •4684 4 7 11 14 18

65 0*4663 •4642 •4621 •4599 •4578 •4557 •4536 •4515 •4494 •4473 4 7 II 14 It
66 0-4452 •4431 •4411 •4390 •4369 •4348 •4327 •4307 •4286 •4265 3 7 10 14 17
57 0-4245 •4224 •4204 •4183 •4163 •4142 •4122 •4101 ■4081 •4061 3 7 10 14 17
68 0-4040 •4020 •4000 •3979 •3959 •3939 •3919 •3899 •3879 •3859 3 7 10 13 17
68 0-3839 •3819 •3799 •3779 •3759 •3739 •3719 •3699 •3679 •3659 3 6 10 13 17

n 0-3640 •3620 •3600 -3581 •3561 •3541 •3522 •3502 •3482 •3463 3 6 10 13 16
71 0-3443 •3424 •3404 *3385 •3365 •3346 •3327 •3307 •3288 •3269 3 6 10 13 16
72 0-3249 •3230 •3211 •3191 •3172 •3153 •3134 -3115 •3096 •3076 3 6 9 13 16
73 0-3057 •3038 •3019 •3000 •2981 -2962 •2943 •2924 •2905 •2886 3 6 9 13 16
74 0*2867 •2849 •2830 •2811 •2792 •2773 •2754 •2736 •2717 •2698 3 6 9 13 16

75 0-2679 •2661 •2642 •2623 ■2605 •2586 -2568 •2549 ■2530 •2512 3 6 9 12 16
76 0-2493 •2475 •2456 •2438 •2419 •2401 •2382 •2364 •2345 •2327 3 6 9 12 15
77 0-2309 •2290 •2272 •2254 •2235 •2217 •2199 •2180 ■2162 -2144 5 6 9 12 15
78 0*2126 •2107 •2089 •2071 •2053- ■2035 •2016 •1998 •1980 -1962 3 6 9 12 15
77 0-1944 •1926 -1908 •1890 ■1871 ■1853 •1835 •1817 •1799 4781 3 6 9 12 15

M 0-1763 •1745 •1727 •1709 ■1691 -1673 -1655 •1638 -1620 -1602 3 6 9 12 15
81 0-1584 •1566 •1548 •1530 ■1512 -1495 •1477 -1459 •1441 *1423 3 6 9 12 15
82 0-1405 •1388 •1370 •1352 •1334 •1317 •1299 •1281 •1263 *1246 3 6 9 12 15
83 0-1228 •1210 •1192 •1175 •1157 •1139 •1122 •1104 •1086 *1069 3 6 9 12 15
84 0-1051 •1033 •1016 •0998 ■0981 -0963 •0945 •0928 •0910 •0892 3 6 9 12 15

85 0-0875 -0857 •0840 -0822 •0805 •0787 •0769 •0752 •0734 •0717 3 6 9 12 15
86 0*0699 •0682 ■0664 -0647 •0629 •0612 •0594 •0577 •0559 •0542 3 6 9 12 15
87 0-0524 •0507 •0489 •0472 •0454 •0437 •0419 •0402 •0384 *0367 3 6 9 12 15
88 0-0349 •0332 •0314 •0297 •0279 •0262 •0244 •0227 •0209 •0192 3 6 9 12 15
8* 00175 ■0157 ■0140 •0122 ■0105 ■0087 -0070 •0052 ■0035 •0017 3 6 9 12 15

O' V 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' S'
 LOGARITHMIC SINES Proportion^
Parts

6
1- ! 2.
O’ 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42 48' 54' 3' 4' S'
0° — co 3-2419 •5429 •7190 •8439 3-9408 2-0200 •0870 •1450 ■1961
1 2-2419 *2832 •3210 •3558 •3880 •4179 •4459 •4723 •4971 •5206 p.p cease
2 2-5428 •5640 •5842 •6035 •6220 •6397 •6567 •6731 •6889 •7041 to be
3 2-7188 •7330 •7468 •7602 •7731 •7857 •7979 •8098 •8213 •6326 sufficiently
4 2-8436 •8543 •8647 •8749 ■8849 ■8946 •9042 •9135 -9226 •9315 accurate

5 [2-9403 •9489 •9573 •9655 •9736 •9816 •9894 2-9970 T-0046 •0120 13 26 39 53 66
4 T-0192 •0264 •0334 -0403 •0472 •0539 •0605 •0670 •0734 ■0797 II 22 33 44 56
7 T-0859 •0920 •0981 •1040 •1099 •1157 •1214 •1271 •1326 •1381 10 19 29 38 48
8 T-1436 •1489 ■1542 •1594 ■1646 • 1697 •1747 •1797 •1847 • 1895 8 17 25 34 42
9 T-1943 ■1991 •2038 -2085 •2131 •2176 •2221 •2266 •2310 •2353 8 15 23 30 38

10 T-2397 •2439 •2482 •2524 •2565 •2606 •2647 -2687 ■2727 •2767 7 14 20 27 34
II 1*2806 ■2845 ■2883 •2921 •2959 ■2997 •3034 •3070 •3107 •3(43 6 12 19 25 31
12 T-3179 ■3214 -3250 •3284 •3319 •3353 •3387 •3421 •3455 •3488 6 II 17 23 28
13 T-3521 •3554 •3586 •3618 •3650 •3682 •3713 •3745 •3775 -3806 5 II 16 21 26
14 T-3837 •3867 •3897 •3927 •3957 •3986 •4015 •4044 •4073 -4102 5 10 15 20 24

IS T-4130 •4158 •4186 •4214 •4242 ■4269 -4296 •4323 •4350 •4377 5 9 14 18 23
1* T-4403 ■4430 •4456 •4482 •4508 •4533 •4559 •4584 •4609 •4634 4 9 13 17 21
17 T-4659 •4684 •4709 •4733 •4757 •4781 •4805 •4829 -4853 •4876 4 8 12 16 20
18 T-4900 •4923 •4946 •4969 •4992 •5015 •5037 •5060 •5082 •5104 4 8 II 15 19
19 T-5126 •5148 •5170 •5192 •5213 •5235 •5256 •5278 •5299 •5320 4 7 II 14 18

20 T-5341 •5361 •5382 •5402 •5423 •5443 •5463 •5484 ■5504 •5523 3 7 10 13 17
21 I-S543 •5563 •5583 •5602 •5621 •5641 •5660 •5679 •5698 •5717 3 6 10 13 16
22 T-5736 •5754 •5773 •5792 •5810 •5828 •5847 •5865 •5883 •5901 3 6 9 12 IS
23 T-5919 •5937 •5954 •5972 •5990 •6007 •6024 •6042 •6059 •6076 3 6 9 12 14
24 1-6093 •6110 •6127 •6144 •6161 •6177 ■6194 •6210 •6227 •6243 3 6 8 II 14

25 T-6259 •6276 •6292 •6308 •6324 -6340 ■6356 •6371 •6387 •6403 3 5 8 II 13
26 T-6418 •6434 •6449 •6465 •6480 •6495 •6510 •6526 •6541 ■6556 3 5 8 10 13
27 1-6570 •6585 •6600 ■6615 ■6625 ■6644 •6659 •6673 ■6687 ■6702 2 5 7 10 12
28 T-6716 •6730 •6744 •6759 •6773 •6787 •6801 •6814 •6828 •6842 2 5 7 9 12
29 1-6856 •6869 •6883 •6896 •6910 •6923 •6937 •6950 •6963 •6977 2 4 7 9 II

30 T-6990 ■7003 •7016 •7029 ■7042 ■7055 •7068 •7080 •7093 ■7106 2 4 *6 9 II
31 T-7118 •7131 •7144 •7156 ■7168 •7181 •7193 •7205 •7218 •7230 2 4 6 8 10
32 T-7242 •7254 •7266' •7278 •7290 •7302 •7314 •7326 •7338 •7349 2 4 6 8 10
33 T-7361 •7373 •7384 •7396 •7407 •7419 •7430 •7442 •7453 •7464 2 4 6 8 10
34 T-7476 •7487 •7498 •7509 •7520 •7531 •7542 •7553 •7564 •7575 2 4 6 7 9

35 T-7586 •7597 •7607 -76)8 •7629 •7640 •7650 •7661 •7671 •7682 2 4 5 7 9.
36 T-7692 •7703 •7713 •7723 •7734 •7744 •7754 •7764 ■7774 -7785 2 3 5 7 9
37 |T-7795 •7805 •7815 •7825 •7835 •7844 •7854 ■7864 •7874 -7884 2 3 5 7 8
38 T-7893 •7903 •7913 •7922 •7932 •7941 •7951 •7960 •7970 •7979 2 3 5 6 8
39 T-7989 •7998 -8007 •8017 •8026 •8035 •8044 •8053 •8063 •8072 2 3 5 6 8
40 T-80SI •8090 •8099 •8108 •8117 •8125 •8134 •8143 *8152 •8161 1 3 4 6 7
41 1-8169 •8178 •8187 •8195 •8204 •8213 •8221 •8230 •8238 •8247 1 3 4 6 7
42 T-8255 •8264 •8272 ■8280 •8289 •8297 •6305 •8313 •8322 -8330 1 3 4 6 7
43 1*8338 •8436 •8354 •8362 •8370 •8378 •8386 •8394 •8402 •8410 1 3 4 5 7
44 T-8418 •8426 •8433 •844) •8449 •8457 •8464 •8472 •8480 •8487 1 3 4 5 6
p7
O' 12 IB 24 30' 36' 42 4B T ll 5'
 LOGARITHMIC SINES Proportional
Parts

r 6' ir 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' r 4* 5'

45° 1*8495 •8502 •8510 •8517 •8525 ■8532 •8540 •8547 •8555 •8562 1 2 4 5 6
46 T-8569 •8577 •8584 •8591 •8598 •8606 •8613 •8620 •8627 •8634 1 2 4 5 6
47 T-8641 •8648 •8655 •8662 •8669 •8676 •8683 •8690 •8697 •8704 1 2 4 5 6
48 T-87II •8718 •8724 •8731 •8738 •8745 •8751 •8758 •8765 •8771 1 2 3 4 6
49 T-8778 •8784 •8791 •8797 •8804 •8810 ■8817 •8823 •8830 •8836 1 2 3 4 5

n T-8843 •8849 •8855 •8862 •8868 •8874 •8880 •8887 •8893 •8899 1 2 3 4 5
SI T-8905 •8911 •8917 •8923 •8929 •8935 •8941 •8947 •8953 •8959 1 2 3 4 5
n T-8965 •8971 •8977 •8983 •8989 •8995 •9000 •9006 •9012 •9018 1 2 3 4 5
S3 1*9023 ■9029 •9035 •9041 •9046 •9052 •9057 •9063 •9069 •9074 1 2 3 4 5
S4 T-9080 •9085 •9091 •9096 •9101 •9107 •9112 •9118 •9123 •9128 1 2 3 4 5

55 T-9134 •9139 •9144 •9149 •9155 •9160 •9165 •9170 •9175 •9181 1 2 3 3 4
56 1*9186 •9191 •9196 •9201 •9206 •9211 •9216 •9221 •9226 •9231 1 2 3 3 4
57 T-9236 •9241 •9246 •9251 •9255 •9260 •9265 •9270 •9275 •9279 1 2 2 3 4
55 T-9284 •9289 •9294 •9298 •9303 •9308 •9312 •9317 •9322 •9326 1 2 2 3 4
59 T-9331 •9335 •9340 •9344 •9349 •9353 •9358 •9362 •9367 •9371 1 1 2 3 4

«0 T-9375 •9380 •9384 •9388 •9393 •9397 •9401 •9406 •9410 •9414 1 1 2 3 4
<1 T-9418 •9422 •9427 •9431 •943F •9439 •9443 •9447 •9451 •9455 1 1 2 3 3
62 1*9459 •9463 •9467 •9471 •9475 •9479 •9483 •9487 •9491 •9495 1 1 2 3 3
43 T-9499 •9503 •9506 •9510 •9514 •9518 •9522 •9525 •9529 •9533 1 1 2 3 3
64 T-9537 •9540 •9544 •9548 •9551 •9555 •9558 •9562 •9566 •9569 1 1 2 2 3

65 1*9573 ■9576 •9580 •9583 •9587 •9590 •9594 •9597 •9601 •9604 1 1 2 2 3
66 T-9607 •9611 •9614 •9617 •9621 •9624 •9627 •9631 •9634 •9637 1 1 2 2 3
47 1*9640 •9643 •9647 •9650 •9653 •9656 ■9659 •9662 •9665 •9669 1 1 2 2 3
68 T-9672 •9675 •9678 •9681 •9684 •9687 •9690 •9693 -9696 •9699 1 1 2 2 2
69 1*9702 •9704 •9707 •9710 •9713 •9716 •9719 •9722 •9724 •9727 0 1 1 2 2

70 T-9730 •9733 •9735 •9738 •9741 •9743 •9746 •9749 •9751 •9754 0 1 1 2 2
71 T-9757 •9759 •9762 •9764 •9767 •9770 •9772 •9775 •9777 •9780 0 1 1 2 2
72 T-9782 •9785 •9787 •9789 •9792 •9794 •9797 •9799 •9801 •9804 0 1 I 2 2
73 f-9804 •9808 •98H •9813 •9815 •9817 •9820 •9822 •9824 •9826 0 1 1 1 2
74 1*9828 •9831 •9833 •9835 •9837 •9839 •9841 •9843 •9845 •9847 0 1 1 1 2

75 T-9849 •9851 •9853 •9855 •9857 •9859 •9861 •9863 •9865 •9867 0 1 1 1 2
76 1*9869 •9871 •9873 •9875 •9876 ■9878 •9880 •9882 •9884 •9885 0 1 1 1 2
77 1*9887 •9889 •9891 ■9892 ■9894 •9896 •9897 •9899 •9901 •9902 0 1 1 1 1
78 1*9904 •9906 •9907 •9909 •9910 •9912 ■9913 •9915 ■9916 ■9918 0 1 1 1 1
79 T-9919 •9921 •9922 •9924 •9925 •9927 •9928 •9929 •9931 •9932 0 0 1 1 1

00 1*9934 •9935 •9936 •9937 •9939 •9940 •9941 •9943 •9944 •9945 0 0 1 1 1
81 T-9946 •9947 •9949 •9950 •9951 •9952 •9953 •9954 •9955 ■9956 0 0 1 1 1
82 1*9958 •9959 •9960 •9961 •9962 ■9963 •9964 •9965 •9966 •9967 0 0 0 1 1
83 1*9968 •9968 •9969 •9970 •9971 •9972 •9973 •9974 •9975 •9975 0 0 0 1 1
M T-9976 •9977 •9978 •9978 •9979 •9980 •9981 -9981 •9982 •9983 0 0 0 0 1

U T-9983 •9984 •9985 •9985 •9986 •9987 •9987 •9988 •9988 •9989 0 0 0 0 0
86 T-9989 •9990 •9990 •9991 •9991 •9992 •9992 •9993 •9993 •9994 0 0 0 0 0
87 T-9994 •9994 •9995 •9995 •9996 •9996 •9996 ■9996 •9997 •9997 0 0 0 0 0
88 1*9997 •9998 •9998 •9998 •9998 •9999 •9999 •9999 ■9999 •9999 0 0 0 0 0
89 T-9999 T-9999 0*0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 0 0 0 0 0
V 6' 12' IF 30' 36' 42 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' F
 Proportional
LOGARITHMIC COSINES Parts
Subtract

O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' r 2' 3' 4' S'
0° 0-0000 -0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 •0000 ■0000 •0000 0-0000 T-9999 0 0 0 0 0
1 1*9999 •9999 •9999 •9999 •9999 •9999 •9998 •9998 •9998 ■9998 0 0 0 0 0
2 T-9997 •9997 •9997 •9996 •9996 •9996 •9996 ■9995 •9995 •9994 0 0 0 0 0
3 T-9994 •9994 •9993 ♦9993 •9992 ♦9992 •9991 •9991 •9990 •9990 0 0 0 0 0
4 T-9989 •9989 -9988 •9988 •9987 •9987 •9986 •9985 •9985 •9984 0 0 0 0 0
5 T-9983 ■9983 •9982 -9981 •9981 9980 •9979 •9978 •9978 •9977 0 0 0 0 1
6 T-9976 •9975 •9975 •9974 •9973 •9972 •9971 •9970 •9969 •9968 0 0 0 1 1
7 1*9968 •9967 •9966 •9965 •9964 •9963 •9962 •9961 •9960 •9959 0 0 0 1 1
8 T-99S8 •9956 •9955 •9954 •9953 •9952 •9951 •9950 ■9949 •9947 0 0 1 1 1
9 T-9946 •9945 •9944 •9943 •9941 •9940 ■9939 •9937 •9936 •9935 0 0 1 1 1
10 1*9934 ■9932 •9931 •9929 •9928 •9927 •9925 •9924 •9922 •9921 0 0 1 1 1
II T-9919 •9918 •9916 •9915 •9913 •9912 •9910 •9909 •9907 •9906 0 1 1 1 1
12 T-9904 ■9902 •9901 •9899 •9897 •9896 •9894 •9892 •9891 •9889 0 I 1 1 1
13 T-9887 •9885 •9884 •9882 •9880 •9878 •9876 •9875 •9873 •9871 0 1 1 1 2
14 1*9869 •9867 •9865 •9863 •9861 •9859 •9857 •9855 •9853 •9851 0 1 1 1 2
IS T-9849 •9847 •9845 •9843 •9841 •9839 •9837 •9835 •9833 •9831 0 1 1 1 2
16 T-9828 •9826 •9824 •9822 •9820 •9817 •9815 •9813 •9811 •9808 0 1 1 1 2
17 T-9806 •9804 •9801 •9799 •9797 •9794 •9792 •9789 •9787 •9785 0 1 1 2 2
18 T-9782 •9780 •9777 •9775 •9772 ■9770 •9767 •9764 •9762 •9759 0 1 1 2 2
19 1*9757 •9754 •9751 •9749 •9746 •9743 ■9741 •9738 •9735 •9733 0 1 1 2 2
20 1*9730 •9727 •9724 •9722 •9719 •9716 ■9713 •9710 •9707 •9704 0 1 I 2 2
21 T-9702 •9699 •9696 •9693 •9690 •9687 •9684 •9681 ■9678 •9675 1 1 2 2 2
22 T-9672 •9669 •9665 •9662 •9659 •9656 •9653 •9650 •9647 •9643 1 1 2 2 3
23 T-9640 •9637 •9634 •9631 •9627 •9624 •9621 •9617 •9614 •9611 1 1 2 2 3
24 1*9607 •9604 •9601 •9597 •9594 •9590 •9587 •9583 •9580 •9576 1 1 2 2 3
25 T-9573 •9569 •9566 •9562 •9558 •9555 •9551 •9548 •9544 •9540 1 1 2 2 3
26 T-9537 •9533 ♦9529 •9525 •9522 •9518 •9514 •9510 •9506 •9503 1 1 2 3 3
27 T-9499 •9495 •9491 •9487 •9483 •9479 •9475 •9471 •9467 •9463 1 1 2 3 3
28 T-9459 •9455 •9451 •9447 •9443 •9439 •9435 •9431 •9427 •9422 1 1 2 3 3
29 T-9418 •9414 •9410 •9406 •9401 •9397 ■9393 •9388 •9384 •9380 1 1 2 3 4
30 T-9375 •9371 •9367 ■9362 •9358 •9353 •9349 •9344 •9340 •9335 1 1 2 3 4
31 T-9331 •9326 •9322 •9317 •9312 •9308 •9303 •9298 •9294 •9289 1 2 2 3 4
32 T-9284 •9279 •9275 •9270 •9265 •9260 •9255 •9251 •9246 •9241 1 2 2 3 4
33 T-9236 •9231 •9226 •9221 •9216 •9211 •9206 •9201 •9196 •9191 I 2 3 3 4
34 1*9186 •9181 •9175 •9170 •9165 •9160 •9155 •9149 •9144 •9139 1 2 3 3 4
35 T-9134 •9128 •9123 •9118 •9112 •9107 •9101 •9096 ■9091 •9085 1 2 3 4 5
36 T-9080 •9074 •9069 •9063 •9057 •9052 •9046 •9041 ■9035 •9029 1 2 3 4 5
37 T-9023 •9018 •9012 •9006 •9000 •8995 •8989 •8983 •8977 •8971 1 2 3 4 5
38 1*8965 •8959 •8953 •8947 •8941 •8935 •8929 •8923 •8917 •8911 1 2 3 4 5
39 T-8905 •8899 •8893 •8887 •8880 •8874 •8868 •8862 •8855 •8849 1 2 3 4 5
40 1*8843 •8836 •8830 •8823 •8817 •8810 •8804 •8797 •8791 •8784 1 2 3 4 5
41 T-8778 •8771 •8765 •8758 •8751 •8745 •8738 •8731 •8724 •8718 J 2 3 4 6
42 T-87II •8704 •8697 •8690 •8683 •8676 •8669 •8662 •8655 •8648 1 2 4 5 6
43 T-8641 •8634 •8627 •8620 •8613 •8606 •8598 •8591 •8584 •8577 1 2 4 5 6
44 T-8569 •8562 •8555 •8547 •8540 •8532 •8525 ■8517 ■8510 •8502 1 2 4 5 6
O' 6' 12' ir 24' 3ff 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' < 5'
 Proportional
LOGARITHMIC COSINES Parts
Subtract

12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'

rlr 3' 4' 5'
O' 6'

r T-8495 •8487 •8480 •8472 •8464 •8457 •8449 •8441 •8433 •8426 1 3 4 5 6
i T-8418 •8410 •8402 •8394 •8386 •8378 •8370 •8362 •8354 •8346 I 3 4 5 7
r T-8338 •8330 •8322 •8313 •8305 •8297 •8289 •8280 •8272 •8264 1 3 4 6 7
i T-8255 •8247 •8238 •8230 •8221 •8213 •8204 •8195 •8187 •8178 1 3 4 6 7
r T-8169 •8161 •8152 •8143 •8134 •8125 •8117 •8108 ■8099 •8090 1 3 4 6 7

i 1*8081 •8072 •8063 •8053 •8044 •8035 •8026 •8017 •8007 •7998 2 3 5 6 8
i 1*7989 •7979 •7970 •7960 •7951 •7941 •7932 •7922 •7913 •7903 2 3 5 6 8
i T-7893 •7884 •7874 •7864 •7854 •7844 •7835 ■7825 •7815 •7805 2 3 5 7 8
i T-7795 •7785 •7774 •7764 •7754 •7744 •7734 •7723 •7713 •7703 2 3 5 7 9
i 7*7692 •7682 •7671 •7661 •7650 •7640 •7629 •7618 •7607 •7597 2 4 5 7 9

7*7586 ■7575 •7564 •7553 •7542 •7531 •7520 •7509 •7498 •7487 2 4 6 7 9
1 1*7*476 •7464 •7453 •7442 •7430 •7419 •7407 •7396 •7384 •7373 2 4 6 8 10
1 7*7361 •7349 •7338 •7326 •7314 •7302 •7290 •7278 •7266 ■7254 2 4
4
6
6
8
8
10
10
1 7*7242 •7230 •7218 ♦7205 •7193 •7181 •7168 •7156 •7144 •7131 2
* 7*7118 •7106 •7093 •7080 •7068 •7055 •7042 •7029 •7016 •7003 2 4 6 9 II

1 7*6990 •6977 •6963 •6950 •6937 •6923 •6910 •6896 •6883 •6869 2 4 7 9 II
7*6856 •6842 •6828 •6814 •6801 •6787 •6773 •6759 •6744 •6730 2 5 7 9 12
i 7*6716 •6702 •6687 •6673 •6659 •6644 •6629 •6615 •6600 •6585 2 5 7 10 12
1 7*6570 •6556 •6541 •6526 •6510 •6495 •6480 •6465 •6449 •6434 3 5 8 10 13
1 7*6418 •6403 •6387 •6371 •6356 •6340 ■6324 •6308 •6292 •6276 3 5 8 II 13

I 7*6259 •6243 •6227 •6210 ■6194 ■6I77 ■6161 •61*44 •6127 •6110 3 6 8 II 14
1 7*6093 •6076 •6059 •6042 *6024 •6007 •5990 •5972 •5954 •5937 3 6 9 12 14
I 7*5919 •5901 •5883 •5865 ■5847 •5828 •5810 •5792 •5773 •5754 3 6 9 12 15
1 7*5736 •5717 •5698 •5679 •5660 •5641 •5621 •5602 •5583 •5563 3 6 10 13 16
1 1*5543 •5523 •5504 •5484 ■5463 •5443 •5423 •5402 •5382 ■5361 3 7 10 13 17

1 7*5341 •5320 •5299 •5278 •5256 •5235 •5213 •5192 •5170 •5148 4 7 II 14 18
1*5126 *5104 •5082 •5060 •5037 •5015 •4992 •4969 *4946 •4923 4 8 11 15 19
I- 1*4900 •4876 •4853 •4829 •4805 •4781 •4757 ■4733 •4709 •4684 4 8 12 16 20
I 7*4659 •4634 •4609 •4584 •4559 •4533 •4508 •4482 •4456 •4430 4 9 13 17 21
J 7*4403 •4377 •4350 •4323 ■4296 •4269 •4242 ■4214 •4186 •4158 5 9 14 18 23

7*4130 •4102 •4073 •4044 •4015 •3986 •3957 •3927 •3897 •3867 5 10 15 20 24
1 7*3837 •3806 •3775 •3745 •3713 •3682 *3650 •3618 ■3586 •3554 5 II 16 21 26
7*3521 •3488 ■3455 •3421 •3387 •3353 •3319 •3284 •3250 •3214 6 11 17 23 28
1 7*3179 •3143 •3107 •3070 •3034 •2997 •2959 •2921 •2883 •2845 6 12 19 25 31
7*2806 ■2767 •2727 •2687 •2647 •2606 •2565 •2524 •2482 '2439 7 14 20 27 34
»
a 7*2397 •2353 •2310 •2266 •2221 •2176 •2131 •2085 •2038 •1991 8 15 23 30 38
1 7*1943 •1895 •1847 •1797 •1747 •1697 •1646 •1594 •1542 •1489 8 17 25 34 42
7*1436 •1381 •1326 •1271 •1214 •1157 •1099 •1040 •0981 •0920 10 19 29 38 48
1 7*0859 •0797 •0734 •0670 •0605 •0539 •0472 •0403 •0334 •0264 II 22 33 44 56
« 7*0192 •0120 T-0046 2*9970 •9894 •9816 ■9736 •9655 •9573 '9489 13 26 39 53 66

1 2*9403 •9315 •9226 •9135 •9042 •8946 •8849 •8749 •8647 •8543 p.p. cease
1 2*8436 •8326 •8213 •8098 •7979 •7857 •7731 •7602 •7468 •7330 to be
r 2*7188 •7041 •6889 •6731 •6567 •6397 •6220 •6035 •5842 •5640 sufficiently
2*5428 •5206 •4971 •4723 ♦4459 •4179 •3880 •3558 •3210 •2832 accurate
2*2419 •1961 •1450 •0870 2*0200 3*9*408 •8439 •7190 •5429 •2419
> I1'
V 6' 12' 18* 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' T 4' 5'
 LOGARITHMIC TANGENTS Proportion
Parts

O' 4' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 4*

r — CD 3-2419 •5429 •7190 •8439 3-9409 2-0200 •0870 -1450 •1962

i 2-2419 *2833 •3211 •3559 •3881 -4181 ■4461 •4725 •4973 -5208 p.p . cease
2 2-5431 •5643 •5845 •6038 •6223 *6401 •6571 •6736 •6894 •7046 to be
3 2-7194 •7337 •7475 •7609 ■7739 *7865 ■7988 *8107 ■8223 •8336 sufficiently
4 2-8446 •8554 •8659 •8762 •8862 -8960 •9056 •9150 •9241 •9331 accurate

5 2-9420 -9506 •9591 •9674 •9756 •9836 •9915 1-9992 1-0068 -0143 13 27 40 53
4 1-0216 •0289 *0360 ■0430 -0499 -0567 •0633 •0699 •0764 •0828 II 22 34 45
7 1-0891 •0954 *1015 •1076 •1135 •1194 •1252 •1310 •1367 •1423 10 20 29 39
8 1-1478 •1533 •1587 -1640 •1693 -1745 •1797 •1848 •1898 ■1948 9 17 26 35
» 1-1997 •2046 •2094 •2142 •2189 •2236 •2282 •2328 •2374 •2419 8 16 23 31

10 1-2463 •2507 •2551 •2594 •2637 •2680 •2722 •2764 ■2805 •2846 7 14 2) 28
II 1-2887 ♦2927 •2967 •3006 •3046 •3085 •3123 •3162 -3200 •3237 6 13 19 26
12 1-3275 •3312 •3349 •3385 •3422 •3458 •3493 *3529 •3564 •3599 6 12 18 24
13 1-3634 *3668 •3702 •3736 •3770 •3804 ■3837 •3870 •3903 •3935 6 II 17 22
14 1-3968 •4000 *4032 •4064 •4095 •4127 -4158 •4189 •4220 •4250 5 10 16 21

IS 1-4281 •4311 •4341 •4371 •4400 •4430 •4459 •4488 •4517 •4546 5 10 15 20
14 1-4575 ■4603 *4632 •4660 •4688 •4716 •4744 •4771 •4799 -4826 5 9 14 19
17 1-4853 •4880 •4907 •4934 •4961 •4987 *5014 •5040 •5066 •5092 4 9 13 18
18 T-5II8 •5143 •5169 •5195 •5220 •5245 •5270 •5295 •5320 ■5345 4 8 13 17
19 1-5370 •5394 •5419 •5443 •5467 •5491 •5516 -5539 •5563 •5587 4 8 12 16

20 1-5611 •5634 •5658 •5681 •5704 ■5727 •5750 •5773 •5796 -5819 4 8 12 15
21 1-5842 •5864 •5887 •5909 •5932 *5954 •5976 •5998 •6020 •6042 4 7 II 15
22 1-6064 •6086 •6108 •6129 •6151 •6172 •6194 *6215 •6236 •6257 4 7 II 14
23 1-6279 •6300 •6321 •6341 •6362 •6383 •6404 •6424 •6445 •6465 3 7 10 14
24 1-6486 •6506 •6527 •6547 *6567 •6587 •6607 •6627 •6647 •6667 3 7 10 13

25 1-6687 •6706 •6726 •6746 •6765 •6785 •6804 •6824 ■6843 •6863 3 6 10 13
24 1-6882 •6901 •6920 •6939 •6958 ♦6977 •6996 •7015 •7034 •7053 3 6 10 13
27 1-7072 •7090 •7109 •7128 •7146 •7165 *7183 •7202 •7220 •7238 3 6 9 12
28 1-7257 •7275 •7293 •7311 •7330 •7348 •7366 •7384 •7402 •7420 3 6 9 12
29 1-7438 •7455 •7473 •7491 •7509 •7526 •7544 •7562 •7579 •7597 3 6 9 12

30 1-7614 •7632 •7649 ■7667 •7684 •7701 •7719 •7736 •7753 •7771 3 6 9 12
31 1-7788 *7805 •7822 •7839 •7856 •7873 -7890 •7907 •7924 •7941 3 6 9 If
32 1-7958 •7975 •7992 •8008 •8025 -8042 •8059 •8075 •8092 •8109 3 6 8 II
33 1-8125 •8142 •8158 *8175 •8191 •8208 •8224 •6241 •8257 •8274 3 6 8 II
34 1-8290 •8306 •8323 •8339 •8355 -8371 •8388 •8404 •8420 •8436 3 5 8 II

35 1-8452 *8468 •8484 •8501 •8517 -8533 •8549 •8565 •8581 •8597 3 5 8 II
34 1-8613 *8629 •8644 •8660 •8676 ■8692 •8708 •8724 •8740 •8755 3 5 8 II
37 1-8771 •8787 •8803 •8818 •8834 •8850 •8865 •8881 •8897 •8912 3 5 8 10
36 1-8928 •8944 •8959 •8975 •8990 •9006 •9022 •9037 •9053 •9068 3 5 8 10
39 1-9084 •9099 •9115 •9130 •9146 •9161 •9176 •9192 •9207 •9223 3 5 8 10

40 1-9238 •9254 •9269 •9284 •9300 -9315 •9330 ■9346 -9361 •9376 3 9 8 10
41 1-9392 •9407 •9422 •9438 •9453 •9468 *9483 •9499 •9514 •9529 3 5 8 10
42 1-9544 *9560 •9575 •9590 •9605 •9621 •9636 •9651 -9666 •9681 3 5 6 10
43 1-9697 •9712 •9727 •9742 -9757 •9772 •9788 •9803 •9818 •9833 3 5 8 10
44 1-9848 •9864 •9879 •9894 •9909 •9924 •9939 •9955 •9970 •9985 3 5 8 10
V 4' 12' ir 24' 30' 36' 42' 4T 54' 1' 2' 3' 4'
 LOGARITHMIC TANGENTS Proportional
Parts

- O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30* 36' 42' 48 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' S'

0° 0*0000 •0015 •0030 •0045 •0061 •0076 •0091 -0106 •0121 •0136 3 5 8 10 13
w 0*0152 *0167 •0182 •0197 •0212 *0228 •0243 •0258 •0273 •0288 3 5 8 10 13
17 0*0303 *0319 •0334 •0349 •0364 •0379 •0395 •0410 •0425 •0440 3 5 8 10 13
0 0*0456 *0471 •0486 •0501 •0517 •0532 •0547 •0562 ■0578 •0593 3 5 8 10 13
•» 0*0608 •0624 •0639 •0654 •0670 -0685 •0700 •0716 •0731 •0746 3 5 8 10 13

» 0-0762 •0777 •0793 •0808 •0824 •0839 •0854 •0870 •0885 •0901 3 5 8 10 13
II 0*0916 •0932 •0947 •0963 •0978 •0994 •1010 •1025 •1041 •1056 3 5 8 10 13
A 0*1072 •1088 •1103 •1119 •1135 •1150 •1166 -1182 •1197 •1213 3 5 8 10 13
0 0*1229 *1245 •1260 •1276 *1292 *1308 •1324 *1340 -1356 •1371 3 5 8 II 13
H 0-1387 •1403 •1419 •1435 •1451 •1467 •1483 •1499 •1516 •1532 3 5 8 II 13

S 0*1548 •1564 •1580 •1596 •1612 •1629 •1645 •1661 •1677 •1694 3 5 8 II 13
0-1710 •1726 •1743 •1759 •1776 •1792 *1809 •1825 •1842 •1858 3 6 8 II 14
» 0*1875 *1891 *1908 •1925 •1941 •1958 •197? •1992 ■2008 •2025 3 6 8 II 14
■ 0*2042 •2059 •2076 •2093 •2110 •2127 •2144 •2161 •2178 •2195 3 6 9 II 14
» 0*2212 •2229 •2247 •2264 •2281 •2299 •2316 •2333 •2351 ■2368 3 6 9 12 15

a 0*2386 •2403 •2421 •2438 •2456 •2474 *2491 •2509 •2527 •2545 3 6 9 12 15
1 0*2562 •2580 •2598, •2616 •2634 *2652 *2670 •2689 •2707 •2725 3 6 9 12 15
> 0-2743 •2762 •2780 •2798 •2817 •2835 •2854 •2872 •2891 •2910 3 6 9 12 15
> 0*2928 •2947 •2966 •2985 •3004 *3023 •3042 •3061 •3080 •3099 3 6 10 13 16
* 0*3118 •3137 ■3157 •3176 •3196 0215 ■3235 •3254 •3274 •3294 3 6 10 13 16

I 0-3313 -3333 •3353 •3373 •3393 ■3413 •3433 •3453 •3473 •3494 3 7 10 13 17
4 0-3514 •3535 •3555 •3576 •3596 •3617 •3638 •3659 •3679 ■3700 3 7 10 14 17
r 0*3721 •3743 •3764 •3785 •3806 •3828 •3849 •3871 •3892 •3914 4 7 II 14 IB
I 0*3936 •3958 •3980 *4002 •4024 •4046 •4068 •4091 ■4113 *4136 4 7 II 15 IS
» 0*4158 •4181 •4202 •4227 •4250 •4273 •4296 •4319 •4342 •4366 4 8 12 15 19
Q 0*4389 •4413 •4437 •4461 •4484 •4509 •4533 •4557 •4581 •4606 4 8 12 16 20
1 0*4630. •4655 *4680 •4705 •4730 •4755 •4780 •4805 •4831 •4857 4 8 13 17 21
2 0*4882 •4908 •4934 ■4960 •4986 •5013 •5039 *5066 •5093 •5120 4 9 13 18 22
3 0*5147 •5174 •5201 •5229 •5256 •5284 *5312 •5340 *5368 •5397 5 9 14 19 23
« 0*5425 •5454 •5483 •5512 •5541 •5570 •5600 •5629 ■5659 -5689 5 10 15 20 24

a 0*5719 •5750 •5780 •5811 *5842 •5873 •5905 •5936 •5968 •6000 5 10 16 21 26
« 0*6032 •6065 •4097 •6130 •6163 •6196 •6230 •6264 *6298 •6332 6 II 17 22 28
7 0*6366 •6401 •6436 •6471 •6507 *6542 •6578 •6615 ■6651 •6688 6 12 18 24 30
| 0*6725 •6763 •6800 •6838 •6877 •6915 •6954 •6994 •7033 •7073 6 13 19 26 32
9 0-7113 •7154 •7195 •7236 •7278 •7320 •7363 ■7406 •7449 •7493 7 J* 21 28 35

t 0-7537 •7581 •7626 ■7672 •7718 •7764 •7811 •7858 •7906 •7954 8 16 23 31 39
I 0*8003 •8052 •8102 *8152 •8203 •8255 •8307 •8360 *8413 •8467 9 17 26 35 43
I 0-8522 •8577 •8633 ■8690 •8748 •8806 •8865 •8924 *8985 -9046 10 20 29 39 49
» 0*9109 •9172 •9236 •9301 •9367 •9433 •9501 •9570 •9640 •9711 II 22 34 45 56
« 0*9784 •9857 0-9932 10008 •0085 ■0164 •0244 •0326 •0409 •0494 13 27 40 53 66

1 1*0580 •0669 •0759 •0850 •0944 •1040 •1138 •1238 •1341 •1446 P-P . cease
i 1*1554 •1664 •1777 •1893 •2012 •2135 •2261 •2391 •2525 *2663 to be
1*2806 *2954 •3106 •3264 *3429 •3599 •3777 •3962 •4155 •4357 sufficiently
1*4569 •4792 •5027 •5275 •5539 •5819 •6119 •6441 •6789 •7167 accurate
1-7581 ■8038 •8550 •9130 1*9800 2-0591 •1561 •2810 •4571 •7581
O' 12 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' ■' 2- r r
 ANSWERS
p. 39 Exercise 1
1. (1) o« (3) *1* (5) 2’ = 128 (6) 3’ = 2187.
2) (4)
2. (1) a* (2) c* (3) x" (4) 2* = 64
(2) a* (3) 1 (4)
3. (1) *•
4. (1) a1* (4) 2* = 256 (7) A*"
(2) (5) 10* = 1,000,000 (8) 3* = 19683
(3) 1651*. (6) 27a*
p.42 Exercise 2
1. V3, I, J, 1, 3, 3o*, V64, A = 0-001

2. (1) 5-650 (3) Ar (5) 2-828 (6) 316-2

(2) 27 (4) all
3. (1) 4 (3) 1000 (5) 10 (6) 31-62
(2) 125 5* = 15625
4. (1) 4 (2) ¥• (3) 4 (4) i (5) & (6) *
5. 5-656
6. (1) (2) looVio,

p. 47 Exercise 3
1. 1, 3, 4, 2, 0, 5, 1, 3, 0, 2
2. (1) 0-6990, 1-6990, 2-6990, 4’6990
(2) 0'6721, 2-6721, 4’6721
(3) 1-7226, 0-7226, 2’7226.
(4) 2-9768, 0-9768, 4-9768
(5) 0-7588, 1-9842, 3-8433
S. (1) 446-7, 44670, 44'67 (3) 4-714, 471-4, 471,400
(2) 87-70, 8770, 8-770 (4) 2628, 5-229, 114-0

p.49 Exercise 4
1. 344-6 9. 14-22 17. 1-650
2. 276-4 10. 13-56 18. 1436
3. 1397. 11. 851-3 19. 1-359
4. 5976 12. 2650 20. 1-695
5. 2-396 13. 3-137 21. 2-32L
6. 6-997 14. 728-8 22. 2-786
7. 1-589 15. 2-172 23. 5-002
8. 222-8 16. 104-6 24 1-540
198
 ANSWERS 199
p. 51 Exercise 5
1. (1) 0-4470, 1-4470, 2-4470 (3) 5-9904, 1-9904, 1-9904
(2) 0-6298, 1-6298, 3-6298 (4) 2-8097, 1-8097, 4-8097
2. (I) 2-7771 (3) 3-9011 (5) 1-7538
(2) 1’6749 (4) 5-9673 (6) 2-9023
3. (1) 0-2159 (3) 0-03070 (5) 0-5940
(2) 0007453 (4) 0-0004402 (6) 2-482 x 10*^
p.!i3 Exercise 6
1. (1) 1-6037 (2) 2-7126.
2. (1) 2-5926 (3) 1-6597
(2) 0-8263 (4) 2-4814
3. (1) 1-7464 (3) 5-8910 (5) 1-1958
(2) 1-8368 (4) 1-3673 (6) 4-7913
4. (1) 2-6856 (3) 1-7754 (5) 2-0254
(2) 1-07155 (4) 1-1463 (6) 0’5619
5. (1) 1-7399 (3) 2-7726 (5) 1-7266
(2) 1-7127 (4) 2-5598 (6) 5-8973
6. 15-42 13. 01600 20. 1-457
7. 0-3285 14. 85-23 21. 3-558
8. 001529 15. 0-8414 22. 5-471
9. 5-699 16. 01226 23. 01014
10. 0-6116 17. 1-197 24. 01429
11. 003239 18. 0-07115 25. 9-399
12. 0-04903 19. 1-826
P-<3 Exercise 7
AC_CD_CQ_DQ_AD
tan A BC =
CB ~ DB QD~ QB CD
CB DB _QD QB CD
tan CAB = AC~CD~CQ'=DQ AD
2. tan ABC = J, tan CAB = i
3. (1) 0-3249 (3) 1-4826 (5) 0-2549
(2) 0-9325 (4) 3-2709 (6) 0-6950
4. (1) 0-1635 (3) 0-8122 (5) 2-1123
(2) 0-6188 (4) 1-3009
6. (1) 28° 36' (3) 70° 30' (5) 33° 51'
(2) 61° 18' (4) 52° 26' (6) 14° 16'
6. 8-36 m 7. 67° 23', 67° 23', 45° 14' 8. 19-54 m
9. 1-41 km 10. 21-3 m approx. 11. 37°; 53° approx.
12. 144 m
p. 69 Exercise 8

1. sin^ac — AB - DB — CB - CD AC
CB _ QB DB _DQ CD
sin CAB = AB ~ DB ~ CB CD AC
CB _ QB _ DB _ DQ _ CD
cos ABC — AB ~ DB ~ CB CD AC
AC ^Q _CD _CQ AD
cos CAB = AB*" DB ~ CB CD = AC
200 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

2. Cosine is 0-1109, sine is 0-9939

3. Length is 5-14 cm approx., distance from centre 3-06 cm
approx.
4. Sines 0-6 and 0-8, cosines 0-8 and 0-6
6. (1) 0-2621 (2) 0-7400 (3) 0-9363
6. (1) 29° 48' (2) 30° 46' (3) 62° 14'
7. (1) 0-9350 (3) 0-4594 (5) 0-1863
(2) 0-7149 (4) 0-7789 (6) 0-5390
8. (1) 57° 47' 3) 69° 14' 5 37° 43'
(2) 20° 39' (4) 77° 27' (6) 59° 4'
9. 10° 5' 11. 13° 56'
10. 7-34 m; 37° 48'; 52° 12' 12. 47° 36'; 43-8 m approx.
p.77 Exercise 9
1. (1) 1-7263 (3) 1-3589 (5) 1-2046
(2) 1-1576 (4) 1-6649 (6) 0-3528
2. (1) 60° 37' 2 64° 45' (3) 69° 18'
3. 48-2 mm 10. (a) 1-869
4. 22° 37', 67° 23' (6) 1-56 approx.
6. 2-87 m 11. 0-5602
6. 7-19 m 12. (1) 0-2616
7. («) 0-3465 (2) - 0-4695
6) 0-4394 13. 37° 8'
8. W 0-2204 14. 1-2234
(6) 2-988 15. 0-09661
9. («) 0-7367 16. 553-5
(6) 1-691
p. 83 Exercise 10
1. 35° 1', 54° 69', 2-86 m 2. 44° 12'
3. a = 55-5, b = 72-6
4. A = 30° 30', B = 59° 30'
5. At) - 2-66 cm, BD = 1-87 cm, DC — 2-81 cm, AC = 3-87 cm
6. A = 44° 8', b «= 390 mm (approx.)
7. 69° 31', 60°
8. 10-3 km N„ 14-7 km E.
9. 0-68 cm 10. —|
11. 2-60 cm; 2-34 cm (both approx.) i
12. 3° 36' 13. 10-2 km W„ 11-7 km N
14. 31° 507 W. of N; 17-1 km
p. 86 Exercise 11
1. 0-7002 2. J; }
3. 0-8827 4. 1-6243
6. 0-6745, 0-8290, 0-6592 6. 1-1547
7. 1-9121; 0-5230; 0-8523
8. sec 0 = Vl + <*; cos 0 = VTT?: sin 8 9= VTT?
9. sin a = 0-8829; tan a = 1-8807
 ANSWERS 201
p. 96 Exercise 12
1. sines are (a) 0-9781 (c) 0-9428 («) 0-4289
b) 0-5068 (d) 0-5698
cosines are la) -0-2079 (c) —0-3333 (e) —0 9033
(b) -0-8621 d) -0-8218
tangents are (a) -4-7046 («) -2-8291 (e) -0-4748
(b) -0-5879 w -0-6933
2. (a) 40’ 36' or 139’ 24'. (c) 20° 18' or 159° 42'
lb) 65’ 52' or 114’ 8'. , (4) 45° 25' or 134° 35'
3. (a) 117’ (c) 100’ 18‘ (e) 142° 21'
(b) 144’24' (d) 159’ 18' (/) 156° 15'
4. (a) 151’ (c) 112’ 18' (e) 144’28'
(b) 123’48' (d) 119° 36' (f) 130° 23'
6. (a) 2-2812 (b) -1 0485. (c) -3-3122
6. (a) 127’ 16' (d) 24’ or 156’
(b) 118’ (e) 149°
(c) 35’18'or 144’ 42' (/) 110° 54'
7. 0*5530
8. (a) 69’ or 111’ fc) 54’
(b) 65’ 113’

p. 103 Exercise 13
1. 0-6630 ; 0-9485
O T7 k V3 - 1
2. Each is „ {note that sin 8 = cos (90° — 0)}
“v2
4. 0-8545 6. 2 + V3
5. 0-8945; - 2 7. 3-0777; 0-5407
9. (1) 0-5592 (2) 0-4848
10. (a) 2-4751 (6) 0-8098

p. t05 Exercise 14
1. 0-96, 0-28, 3-428 6. 0-5
2. 0-4838, 0-8752, 0 5528 8. 0-5; 0 8660
4. 0*9917, — 0*1288 9. 0‘6001 approx.
a. (1) 0-9511 (2) 0-3090 12. 0-268 approx.

p. 108 Exercise 15
1. J (sin 48 4- sin 28) 9. 2 sin 3/4 cos A
2. |(sin 80’ - sin 10°) 10. 2 cos 3A sin 2/4
3. j(cos 80’ + cos 20°) 11. 2 sin 30 sin (—0)
4. |(sin 80 — sin 28) 12. 2 sin 3/4 sin 2/4
6. X{cos 3(C + D) + cos (C - D)} 13. 2 cos 41’ cos 6’
6. |(1 - sin 30°) = i 14. 2 cos 36’ sin 13’
1 7. cos 2/4 — cos 4A 15. cot 15’
8. i(sin 6C - sin 10.0) 16. tanS-±J
202 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY
p. 110 Exercise 16
1. b - 15-8; c = 14-7 4. c = 7-88; b = 5-59
2. a = 20-3; c - 30-4 5. c — 17-3; a — 231
3. a — 7-18; c — 650

p. H2 Exercise 17
1. A _ 28° 57', B - 46° 34', C = 104° 29’
2. A - 40° 7', B = 57° 54', C - 81° 59'
3. A — 62° 11', B = 44° 26', C = 73° 23’
4. A _ 28° 54', B - 32°, C - 119° 6'
5. 106° 13' 6. 43° 51’

p. 117 Exercise 18
1. 114° 24' 2. 29° 52' 3. 45° 27’
4. A - 22° 18', B - 31° 28', C = 126° 14'
5. 65°; 52° 20'; 62° 40' (all approx.)
6. 38° 52'

p. 120 Exercise 19
1. A - 25’ 30'; C - 46° 30'
2. A - 64° 19'; B - 78° 17'
3. B - 99° 46'; C - 16° 34'
4. 83° 25'; 36° 35' 6. 65’5'; 42’41'
5. 87° 2'; 63° 44'

p. 124 Exercise 20
1. A - 29° 24'; B - 41° 44'; C = 108° 52'
2. A - 51° 19'; B - 59° 10'; C = 69’31'
3. A - 43° 31'; B - 35° 11'; C - 100° 18'
4. A — 21’46'; B - 45’27'; C - 112’47'
5. A — 35° 23'; B — 45° 40'; C — 98° 57'

p. 125 Exercise 21
1. a - 166-5; B - 81° 24'; C = 38°
2. c — 172; A — 32° 42'; B — 66° 20'
3. b - 65-25; A — 33° 26'; C — 81° 25'
4. c - 286-4; A - 65° 18'; B — 36° 42'
5. 6 - 136-6; A - 58° 38'; C = 90° 55'

p. 127 Exercise 22
1. b - 145-2, c - 60-2, B = 81° 28’
2. a — 312, c - 213, C - 42° 41'
3. b - 151-4, c = 215, B = 42° 3'
4. a - 152-7, b — 83-4, A = 97° 41'
5. a - 8-27, c — 16-59, C - 110° 54'
 ANSWERS 203

p. 129 Exercise 23
1. Two solutions : a — 4-96 or 58;
A — 126’ 4' or 3’ 56'
C - 28’ 56' or 151° 4'
2. Two solutions : a — 21-44 or 109-2
A - 11° 19' or 88’ 41'
C - 128° 41' or 51’ 19'
3. One solution : b - 87-08, A - 61’ 18', B - 52’ 42’
4i Two solutions : b ■= 143 or 15-34.
A = 35’ or 145’.
B - 115’33'or 5’33'.

p. 131 Exercise 24
1. 19-05 m2 7. 361-3 Mm2
2. 72-36 km1 8. 24-17 m2
3. 39’ 25' 9. 0-503 Mg
4. 2537 cm' 10. 239-6 cm2
5. 485 cm2 11. 10 cm
6. 64-8 mm2

p. 132 Exercise 25
1. 5-94 km
2. A = 88° 4', B = 59° 56', C = 52’
3. B = 45’ 12', C = 59° 34', a = 726
4. C = 56° 6'
5. 16-35 m, 13-62 m
6. 41’
7. Two triangles: B = 113’ 10' or 66’ 50'
C = 16’ 50' or 63° 10'
c = 9-45 or 29-1
8. 267 m approx. 12. 4-5 cm, 6 cm; 11 cm2
9. 6-08 m, 5-71 m 13. 4J h
10. 3-09 mm 15. 0-3052 m2
11. 7-98 cm, P = 26’ 20', 16. 49’ 28'; 58’ 45'
a = 29’ 56'

p. 145 Exercise 26
1. 15-2 m 10. 2-170 km
2. 546 m 11. 500 m approx.
3. 276 m 12. 3-64 km; 45’ W. of N.; 5-15 km
4. 193 m approx. 13. 73 m; 51 m
5. 889 m approx. 14. 1246 m approx.
6. 1-26 km 15. 189 m approx.
7. 3700 m 16. 63-7 m approx.
8. 11 990 m 17. 1970 m and 7280 m approx.
9. 2-88 km approx.
204 TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY

p. 152 Exercise 27
1. 60°, 15°, 270°, 120°, 135°
2. (a) 0-5878 (c) 0-3090 («) 0-9659
(i>) 0'9239 (d) 0-3827
3. la) 4-75 (b) 2-545
4. (a) 13° 24' (b) 89° 23'
®- w f2 (i) (e) Vo'
6. (1) 5-842 cm (2) 17-5 m
7. |j radians; 35°
8. 1-57 approx.

p. 165 Exercise 28
1. (a) - 0’9744; — 0-2250; 4-3315
(M -0-3619; - 0-9322; 0-3882,
(c) - 0-7030; 0-7112; - 0-9884
(d) — 0-2901; 0-9570; - 0-3032
2. («) - 0-7771 (c) - 0-6691
(6) 0-7431 (4) - 0-2419
3. (a) - 1-0576 (c) - 1-2349
<b) 2 (d) - 1-7434
4. a) - 0-8387 ic) 1-2799
(t) 0-7431 (d) 0’5878

p. 173 Exercise 29
1. (1) 63°, 117° (3) 19° 18', 199° 18'
(21 65° 18', 294’42' (4) 65’ 6', 294' 54'
2. 1 20’ 42', 159° 18' (2) 18° 26', 71° 34'
3. (1) O’, 180’, 80° 32', 279’35'
(2) 43° 52', 136° 8'
(3) 45’, 135°, 225°, 315°
(4) 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°
4. (1) 26° 34', 45°, 206° 34', 225°
(2) 60°, 270’, 300°
(3) 60°, 300*
(4) 0°, 120°, 180°, 240’
5. 1 2nw,± cos-1 70° 48'
(2) nr, + ( - 1)° sin-1 19’ 42'
(3) srr or + (- 1)"^
ff Off
(4) nw + £2 or ”’ + 12
6. (1) 13° 2' (3) 6° 29'
(2) 53’8' (4) 36° 52'
Mathematics Books
in the

TEACH YOURSELF SERIES

ALGEBRA
P. ABBOTT, B.A.
“It covers the ground from the very beginnings. Regarded
as a textbook, this is probably tjie best value for money
on the market.” Higher Education Journal

CALCULUS
P. ABBOTT, B.A.
"Students who are beginning to study calculus method
will derive great help from this book.”
Faraday House Journal

GEOMETRY
P. ABBOTT, B.A.
"The course is clear, logical and concise, and should well
serve its purpose.” Higher Education Journal
 THE SLIDE RULE
BURNS SONDGRASS, M.B.E., A.R.C.Sc.
“Here is a work which gives not only the fundamentals
of the implement but numerous practical applications of
it to various trades and professions.”
The Times Educational Supplement

STATISTICS
R. GOODMAN, M.A., B.Sc.
“Students of statistics will find this book a useful intro­
duction to the subject. It presents the general basic
principles in a terse and understandable form.”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society

TRIGONOMETRY
P. ABBOTT, B.A.
“Simply written, bears evidence of long teaching experi­
ence, and is a straightforward account of the foundations
of the subject.” The Polytechnic Magazine

NEW MATHEMATICS
L. C. PASCOE, M.A.
• Y :J

Abbott
- j t ■?. iiib<, m
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BOOK SOCIETY,
an association of leading British publishers,
brings you essential, up-to-date textbooks

Teach Yourself TRIGONOMETRY

at greatly reduced prices.

The sterling price of

TEACH YOURSELF TRIGONOMETRY is
£0.20 (4s. Od.)
Inside you will find a list of some other ELBS
low-priced editions. Your local bookseller may
also be able to show you a complete list of
ELBS titles.

This book is a straightforward account of

the foundations of trigonometry. All important
formulae are derived and the solution of triangles
is progressively led up to. A useful selection
of practical problems is included and worked
examples are given all through the book.
The reader should already know some arithmetic
and a certain amount of algebra and have some
acquaintanceship with the fundamentals
of geometry ■

ISBN 0 340 05911 7 E.UP