Compiled By: R.

Senthil Kumar, AP / Mechanical, Sri Sai Ram Engineering College

ME 8793 – Process Planning and Cost Estimation

Unit I – Introduction to Process Planning

Introduction – Methods of Process Planning – Drawing Interpretation – Material

Evaluation – Steps in Process Selection – Production Equipment & Tooling Selection
**********
PROCESS PLANNING
 It is the systematic determination of the methods by which a product is to be manufactured economically and
competitively within the limits of design specifications laid down.
 Process planning comprises the selection and sequencing of processes and operations to transform a chosen raw
material into a finished component.
 It is the act of preparing detailed work instructions to produce a component. This includes the selection of
manufacturing processes and operations, production equipment, tooling and jigs and fixtures. It will also
normally include determining manufacturing parameters and specifying criteria for the selection of quality
assurance (QA) methods to ensure product quality.
 It is an intermediate stage between designing the product and manufacturing it.

Figure 1 Process Planning – The Design ~ Manufacture Interface

 The process starts with the selection of raw material and ends with the completion of part.

 Process Planning comprise mainly:

 An interpretation of the specifications contained in the definition drawing of a part, including mainly
dimensions and tolerances, geometric tolerances, surface roughness, material type, blank size, number of
parts in the batch etc;
 A selection of processes and tools which are candidates for processing a part and its feature by respecting
the constraints imposed in the definition drawing;
 A determination of production tolerances and setting dimensions which ensure execution of the design
tolerances, while choosing production dimensions for reasons of commodity and capability of
manufacturing machinery;

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 A selection of starting surfaces and datum surfaces to ensure precise execution of processing operations
simultaneously with a selection of holding fixtures and checking of stability of a part by appropriate
clamping;
 A sequence of operation as a function of priorities imposed by accuracy and technological constraints;
 A grouping of elementary operations on the same machine so that operation time will be reduced, while
respecting accuracy requirements;
 A selection of machines to execute the technological operations, taking into account the number of
workpieces to be produced;
 A selection of inspection methods and inspection instruments to guarantee final conformity of component
with functional requirements;
 A determination of processing conditions for every elementary operation which enables the computation
of working times and costs in order to carry out an economic evaluation;
 Editing of process sheets to be assembled in a comprehensive process planning file which is transferred to
the manufacturing department for execution.

Sales Forecast: How many

Design Specification & Requirements
to make

Functional Design

Product
Design
Production Design, Basic Decisions setting
minimum possible costs

Drawings and specifications of

what to make

Product analysis – Assembly

charts and flow charts

Buy Make – Buy Decision

Planning
Process

Make

Process decisions – Selection

from alternative processes

Route sheet and operation sheets: Work place and tool designs
Specifications of how to manufacture

Modifications of process plan due to layout, quality

Manufacturing
preference and machine availability

Fig. 1 Overall Development of Processing Plan

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 Function of Process Planning

 To determine, what parts are to be manufactured and, what parts to be purchased from outside.

 To determine the most economical manufacturing process to be used.

 To determine the sequence of operation to be performed on each component.

 To prepare the bill of material for all the components to initiate the purchasing of raw materials.

 To determine the tooling and gauging needed.

 To determine the time standard of performance of the job.

 To provide estimates of the cost of tooling and equipment needed to manufacture new products.

 To determine part changes necessary to ease manufacturing or reduce cost.

 Information Required for Process Planning

 Quantity of work to be done along with product specification;

 Quality of the work to be completed.

 Availability of tools, equipments and personnel‟s.

 Sequence of operation & Standard time of each operation.

 Name of the equipment on which the operation will be performed;

 Factors affecting Process Planning

 Size and form of raw material  Improper selection results in, Wastage of material, increased
material handling cost, increased too cost, increased process time

 Processing method & Quantity to be manufactured

 Choice of plant layout & Capacities of machine tool;

 Tolerance and surface finish

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PROCESS PLANNING ACTIVITIES

Input Specifications and Drawing and

Interpretation Supplementary Data

Decision
Selection of Primary Process Data Files
Tables

Determination of Production
Tolerances

Selection of Holding Devices Jigs and Fixture File

and Datum’s Inspection Devices

Selection and Grouping of

Precedence Relationship
Operations

Selection of Machine and Machine

Sequence of Operations File

Selection of Tools Tool File

Selection of Quality
assurance Method

Time
Time and Cost Module
Standards

Editing of Process Sheet

Fig. 2 Detailed Process Planning Activity

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Analysis of part requirements

Selection of raw work piece

Selection of manufacturing operations and their sequences

Selection of machine tools

Selection of tools, tool holding devices, work holding devices and inspection equipments

Selection of manufacturing conditions (i.e. cutting speed, feed and depth of cut)

Determination of manufacturing times

Documentation of Process Plan

Communication of Process Plan

Fig. 3 Simplified Process Planning Activity

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 Drawing interpretation

The first step in preparing the process plan for any component or product is to consult the engineering
drawings.

The interpretation of the drawing will include assessing the part geometry, dimensions and associated
tolerances, geometric tolerances, surface finish specifications, the material specification and the number of
parts required.

 Material Evaluation and Process Selection

A thorough knowledge of the materials used in manufacturing is essential for effective process planning. This
is because every material has different properties and, based on these, will be more suited to particular
processes than others.

For example, brittle materials are more suited to casting or material removal processes. On the other hand,
they are not well suited for use with forming processes. Also, some materials undergo changes in properties
during processing and therefore due consideration must be given to this fact.

It is the job of the manufacturing engineer to specify the raw material billet form for the component. This will
include the size and any special requirements for the raw materials, for example, heat treatment. Knowledge
of material properties is essential to carry out this task, again because some materials undergo changes in
their properties during processing. For example, during forging a material may undergo dynamic loading and
it is important to know how it will react to this sudden loading. Therefore, it is important to know about the
material's impact resistance or toughness, as it is also known.

Based on the drawing interpretation and the materials evaluation, a shortlist of candidate processes can be
drawn up.

Using some general rules for process selection and criteria such as material form, component size and weight,
economic considerations, dimensional and geometric accuracy, surface finish specification, batch size and
production rate, the shortlist can be evaluated further and a final selection of processes and operations
identified.

 Selection of Machines and Tooling

Typical factors to be considered in selecting specific production equipment include the component size and
weight, the physical size and construction of the machine, and the power and torque of the machine.

Another factor to be considered is the number and type of tools available for the machine under
consideration. There are various factors that will be considered in selecting an appropriate tool including
work piece material, type of cut, tool material, machining data and quality/capability requirements.

 Setting Process Parameters

Once the machines and tooling have been selected, specific parameters must be established for each
operation for each machine. These include calculating appropriate feeds, speeds and depth of cut for each
tool for each operation. It is also normal to calculate the time taken for each operation based on the part
geometry and the speeds and feeds employed. Times taken for non-value added tasks, such as setting and
handling, are also established. This enables the total time taken for the job to be compiled.

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 Work Holding Devices

General-purpose work holders, which include the likes of chucks and collets, and specialist work holders,
which are taken to mean jigs and fixtures. From the drawing interpretation, the process planner identifies any
general location and restraint requirements and any critical location and restraint requirements. The general
requirements will be based on any dimensional and geometric tolerances specified in the drawing, while the
critical requirements will be based on any instances of coupled dimensional and geometric tolerances.

 Selecting Quality Assurance Methods

The critical processing factors such as dimensional and geometric tolerances and surface finish specifications
will have been identified during the drawing interpretation. It is the job of the process planner to specify the
inspection criteria for all these critical processing factors as all manufacturing processes have some degree of
inherent variability. In some cases, the process planner might be responsible for specifying the tools and
techniques to be employed to ensure adherence to specification. However, more commonly the inspection
criteria will be passed to a Quality Engineer who decides which tools and techniques are most appropriate.

 Costing

The process planner is also tasked with estimating the costs of the process plan. This means estimating the
manufacturing costs of producing a component or product based on the available cost and time data. This will
be used to determine the unit cost and the profitability of the product. Through establishing relationships
between cost and volume, decisions can be made about what material to use, the manufacturing processes to
be used, the batch size to be employed and whether to make or buy a product or component.

 Preparing the Process Planning Documentation

Routing Sheets

The routing sheet, as its name suggests, specifies the route the raw material follows through the
manufacturing environment. It usually lists the production equipment and tooling to be used. It is normal
practice for the routing sheet to follow the material through the manufacturing shop floor providing 'travel'
information for the operators.

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Operations list

Once the routing of a component has been established, the detailed plan for every operation can be prepared
using an operations list. This specifies in more detail each individual operation. It is usual for an operations
list to be prepared for each workstation listed on the routing sheet, although it may sometimes cover a group
of machines in a work cell. Although the content of an operations sheet will vary from organization to
organization, it will typically include details of tooling (including work holding devices), feeds and speeds,
set-up and operation times.

Miscellaneous documents

In some companies, the total process planning package may include further documentation. For example, the
calculations for the speeds and feeds detailed in the operations list may be detailed in a speeds and feeds
calculation sheet. It can also be the case that further details of the tooling specified in the operations list is
detailed in a tooling list. Finally, it is important to note that in some companies a single process planning
document may be used which is a combination of the routing sheet and the operations list.

From the brief descriptions given above, it can be seen that the process plan provides the complete work
instructions required for the manufacture of a component or product. Consequently, these instructions will
affect the cost, quality and production rate of the component or product.

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Unit I – Introduction to Process Planning 9

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PROCESS PLANNING METHODS

Two basic methods employed in process planning

 Manual Process Planning – Traditional Approach, Workbook Approach
 Computer Aided Process Planning – Variant CAPP, Generative CAPP

Manual Process Planning

Traditional Approach
 Process planner is involved in process planning activities in three broad stages
1. Looks at the drawing and uses his experience of manufacturing methods, combined with knowledge
of the types of resource available, to decide how the component or assembly should be made. In the
case of a component, the form and size of material to be used will also be decided. It might be the case
that a previously developed plan for a similar part forms the basis of the new plan.
2. For each element of each operation, he refers to manuals to ascertain the company's recommended
tools, feeds and speeds for the particular material on the selected machine. Also using manuals, the
planned times for all the handling and machining elements involved are ascertained. These are then
used to synthesize the set-up time and the time per unit quantity for each operation.
3. All of the above particulars in Step 1 are documented in the process planning layout, also known as a
routing sheet, which lists all the operations. For each operation there is a methods or operations list,
which specifies all the details referred to in Step 2.

Workbook Approach
 A derivative of the traditional approach is the workbook approach. This is considered a more efficient
approach to process planning. It involves developing workbooks of pre-determined sequences of
operations for given types of work pieces. After having carried out the drawing interpretation and
identified the manufacturing processes required, the pre-determined sequence of operations can be
selected from the workbook and incorporated into the process plan.
General Guidelines for Manual Process Planning

 Although every part will have its own unique process plan, even for complex machined components there
are general guidelines which can be followed when preparing the routing sheet. These include:
 Establishing one datum as soon as processing commences and using this as a reference for all
subsequent operations;
 Creating as many surfaces as possible at the same setting (i.e. without clamping and unclamping) to
maximize dimensional accuracy;
 Avoiding the use of secondary surface data as much as possible;
 Precision operations, for example, those producing high-quality surface finishes, should be carried out
last to reduce the possibility of damage;
 Inspection operations should be included at appropriate intervals to minimize scrap and rework.

Advantages of Manual Process Planning – Low cost task & flexible

Disadvantages of Manual Process Planning – Excessive Clerical Content, Lack of Consistency in Planning,
Late Design Modifications, Changing Technology

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Computer Aided Process Planning

 The primary purpose of process planning is to translate the design requirements into manufacturing process
details. This suggests a system in which design information is processed by the process planning system to
generate manufacturing process details.
 CAPP integrates and optimizes system performance into the inter-organizational flow. For example, when
one changes the design, it must be able to fall back on CAPP module to generate manufacturing process
and cost estimates for these design changes. Similarly, in case of machine breakdown on the shop floor,
CAPP must generate the alternative actions so that most economical solution can be adopted in the given
situation. A typical CAPP frame-work is shown in Fig. 4.
 When compared with manual experience-based process planning, CAPP offers following advantages;
 Systematic development of accurate and consistent process plans
 Reduction of cost and lead time of process planning
 Reduced skill requirements of process planners
 Increased productivity of process planners
 Higher level application programs such as cost and manufacturing lead time estimation
and work standards can be interfaced

Fig.4 A Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) frame-work

 Two major methods are used in computer aided process planning; the Variant or retrieval CAPP method
and the generative CAPP method
 Variant or Retrieval CAPP method
 The variant process planning approach can be realized as a four step process; (Fig. 5)
1. Definition of coding scheme
2. Grouping parts into part families
3. Development of a standard process plan
4. Retrieval and modification of standard process plan

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Fig. 5 General Procedure for Retrieval CAPP System

 It is based on the principles of Group Technology (GT) and Parts Classification & Coding. In this
a standard process plan is stored in the computer files for each part code number. These standard
route sheets are based on current part routings or on an ideal process plan that has been prepared
for each part family. Development of the data base of these process plans requires substantial
effort. Before the system can be used for process planning a significant amount of information
must be compiled and entered into the CAPP data files. This is referred to as the “Preparatory
Stage”.

 Preparatory Stage consists of following steps:

a) Selecting appropriate classification and coding scheme for company.
b) Forming part families for the parts produced by the company.
c) Preparing standard process plans for the part families.

 Step „b‟ & „c‟ are repeated as new parts are designed and added to the company‟s design database.
After the preparatory phase is completed, the system is ready for use

 Now assume a new component for which the process plan is to be determined, the first step is to
derive the GT Code number for the part. With this code no., a search is made in the part family file
to determine if a standard route sheet exists for the given part code, if a standard route sheet exists
for the part, it is retrieved from the database. Hence the word “Retrieval” for this CAPP System.

 The standard process plan is examined to determine whether any modifications are necessary.
Modifications to be made may be minor or major. The user edits the standard plan accordingly.
This ability to edit the standard plan is what gives the retrieval system its alternative name: Variant
CAPP System.

 A number of variant process planning schemes have been developed and are in use. One of the
most widely used CAPP system is CAM-I developed by McDonnell-Douglas Automation
Company. This system can be used to generate process plan for rotational, prismatic and sheet-
metal parts

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Fig. 6 Symbolic Representation of Variant CAPP System

 The generative CAPP method
 Process plans are generated by means of decision logic, formulas, technology algorithms and
geometry based data to perform uniquely many processing decisions for converting part from raw
material to finished state.

 There are two major components of generative CAPP;

1. A geometry based coding scheme and
2. Process knowledge in form of decision logic data.
 The geometry based coding scheme defines all geometric features for process related surfaces
together with feature dimensions, locations, tolerances and the surface finish desired on the
features. The level of detail is much greater in a generative system than a variant system.

 For example, details such as rough and finished states of the parts and process capability of
machine tools to transform these parts to the desired states are provided. Process knowledge in
form of in the form of decision logic and data matches the part geometry requirements with the
manufacturing capabilities using knowledge base. It includes selection of processes, machine
tools, jigs or fixtures, tools, inspection equipments and sequencing operations.
 Development of manufacturing knowledge base is backbone of generative CAPP. The tools that
are widely used in development of this database are flow-charts, decision tables, decision trees,
iterative algorithms, concept of unit machined surfaces, pattern recognition techniques and
artificial intelligence techniques such as expert system shells

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Fig. 7 General Procedure for Generative CAPP System

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 Advantages of CAPP and future trends

CAPP has some important advantages over manual process planning which includes;
 Reduced process planning and production lead-times
 Faster response to engineering changes in the product

 Greater process plan accuracy and consistency

 Inclusion of up-to-date information in a central database

 Improved cost estimating procedures and fewer calculation errors
 More complete and detailed process plans

 Improved production scheduling and capacity utilization

 Improved ability to introduce new manufacturing technology and rapidly update process plans to
utilize the improved technology

 There are number of difficulties in achieving the goal of complete integration between various
functional areas such as design, manufacturing, process planning and inspection. For example,
each functional area has its own stand-alone relational database and associated database
management system. The software and hardware capabilities among these systems pose
difficulties in full integration. There is a need to develop single database technology to address
these difficulties. Other challenges include automated translation of design dimensions and
tolerances into manufacturing dimensions and tolerances considering process capabilities and
dimensional chains, automatic recognition of features and making CAPP systems affordable to the
small and medium scale manufacturing companies.

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 Drawing Interpretation

 A working drawing is a document complete in itself to manufacture a component or product. It show‟s

components geometrical shape, its dimensions with tolerances, surface finish required, bill of material and
any other information considered necessary so that the component can be manufactured and inspected
without any difficulty.
 An assembly drawing shows the complete product with all its parts in proper relationship. Detail drawing
shows each part individually and indicates dimensions, materials specification and other information.
 Selection of primary manufacturing process depends on the quantity to be produced.
 Consideration should be given to
 Geometric shape – to select process & Clamping devices
 Dimensions & their tolerances
 Geometric Tolerances
 Surface roughness, Material type and its hardness
 Size of the raw material, Number of parts to be produced
 Engineering Drawing
 Most common form of communication and is accepted as a universal language.
 Detail Drawings – Contains all the information required for manufacturing (includes all
dimensions, tolerances, surface finish specifications, and material specifications).
 Single-Part Drawing – Shows all the information required to completely define the
manufacture of a single item. This will include the form, dimensions, tolerances, material,
special treatments, surface finishes, etc. The complexity of the part will also determine the
number of views required to satisfactorily detail the part.
 Collective Single-Part Drawings – Shows essentially similar parts where only one or more
details differ from the rest. These are used for standard parts such as nuts, bolts, washers
 Assemble Drawings – Contains all the information required to assemble two or more parts
together. Normally, there will be no dimensions on an assembly drawing. However, in some
instances some dimensions that might be required for assembly may be included.
 Single-Part Assembly Drawings
 Collective Assembly Drawings
 Arrangement Drawings
 Combined Drawings – Shows an assembly with parts list and the details of these parts on one
drawing. The individual parts need not be given special identification numbers or separate drawing
numbers when using combined drawings.
 Dimensions
 Functional Dimensions – Those that influence or control the manner in which the part operates.
 Non-Functional Parts - those that do not affect the way in which the part operates but can
influence the efficiency of the part.
 Auxiliary Dimensions - those that are not related to the way the part operates but are required in
order to manufacture the part.
 Dimensional Tolerance
 Unilateral Tolerance
 Bilateral Tolerance
 Limits & Fits
 Hole Basis System
 Shaft Basis System
 Clearance Fit, Interference Fit, Transition Fit

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 Geometric Tolerances
 Limits the shape of a component to certain limits. The symbols for these are illustrated in Table below

Category Characteristics Symbol Datum References

Flatness

Straightness
Never uses a Datum
Form
Reference
Circularity

Cylindricity

Perpendicularity

Orientation Angularity

Parallelism
Always uses a Datum
Position
Reference
Location
Concentricity

Circular Runout
Runout
Total Runout

Profile of a Line
Profile May use a Datum Reference
Profile of a Surface

Basic Tolerance Frame for Geometric Tolerance

 Straightness – Limits the amount of 'waviness' of a surface in two dimensions between two parallel straight
lines set a specified distance apart.
 Flatness – Limits the amount of 'bumpiness' of a surface in three dimensions between two parallel planes set
a specified distance apart.
 Roundness – Limits the amount of ovality of a surface in three dimensions between concentric circles set a
specified distance apart.
 Cylindricity – Limits the amount of ovality of a cylindrical cross-section and the 'bumpiness' along its length
between two concentric cylinders set a specified distance apart.
 Parallelism – Limits the extent to which a surface is out of true between two parallel planes set a specified
distance apart from the datum.
 Squareness – Limits the extent to which perpendicular surfaces are out of true between two parallel planes
set a specified distance apart that are square to the chosen datum.

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 Angularity – Limits the extent to which two surfaces at a stated angle may be out of true between two
parallel planes set a specified distance apart that are true to the required angle and datum.
 Concentricity – Limits the extent to which a cylinder axis can vary within a cylinder of a specified diameter
whose axis is in line with the chosen datum axis.
 Symmetry – Limits the extent to which the symmetrical axis of two planes is out of true between two
parallel planes set a specified distance apart which are also symmetrical about the central datum axis.
 Position (or true position) – Limits the extent to which an axis may deviate from its stated position in three
dimensions to lie within a cylinder of specified diameter whose axis is in the true position.
Examples of Geometric Tolerances

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 Surface Finish
 All manufacturing processes have an inherent ability to produce a range of surface finishes,
sometimes also referred to as surface texture or surface roughness.
 Surface finish is defined as the depth of irregularities of a surface resulting from the manufacturing
process used to produce it. The smaller the irregularity, the smoother the surface.

Surface Finish of some Common Process

Basic Type of Surface Finish Irregularities

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 When indicating a surface finish on a drawing, machining symbols are used. A variety of information can be
included with the symbol:

 The manufacturing process or treatment to be used

 The sampling length (the length over which the surface finish has to be measured)

 The direction of lay (the direction of cutting)

 The machining allowance (how much material is to be left for removal by machining)

 The surface finish required of the machining process

Basic Machining Symbol

Variations of Machining Symbols
Symbol Interpretation

Surface finish to n μm to be achieved by machining

Surface finish to n μm to be achieved by machining if required

(i.e. machining is optional)

Surface finish to n μm to be achieved but machining is not

allowed

Example
The bearing housing shown in Figure below has to be manufactured and the process planner has been
given the detail drawing for the part. The drawing specifies that the part material is cast iron and the
batch size is 250. The general tolerance is ±0.5 and the general surface finish is N9.

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Geometric Analysis – Based on the complexity of the part the most appropriate category of process to
manufacture this part would be casting. In terms of size, the part is relatively small.
Manufacturing Considerations – These are the process parameters stated within the drawing. These are:
 The 100 mm diameter bore that holds the bearing cannot deviate from the nominal size by more than
0.02mm;
 The 100mm diameter bore must also be perpendicular to the bottom surface within 0.1 mm tolerance zone;
 The 150 mm diameter bearing cannot deviate from the nominal size by more than 0.02 mm;
 The shaft hole must be machined and have a surface finish of 0.5 μm;
 The shaft hole surface and centreline must be parallel to each other to within a tolerance zone of 0.02mm;
 The position of the shaft hole centreline cannot deviate from the nominal size by more than 0.01.
The general dimensional tolerance, surface finish specification and batch size must also be taken into
consideration as stated on the drawing. It should be noted that an N9 surface finish is 6.3 μm.
Material Evaluation – The material specified is cast iron. This concurs with the assertion made in the
geometric analysis that a casting would be the most suitable process.
Correlating the above allows the critical process parameters to be formulated. These are essentially a list of
requirements that the initial manufacturing process must meet. In this case, they are as follows:
 Suitable for use with cast iron;
 Able to meet the general dimensional tolerance of ± 0..5 mm;
 Able to meet the general surface finish specification of 6.3 μm;
 Able to produce in batches of 250 economically;
 Able to meet the majority of the specific dimensional and geometric tolerances stated on the drawing.
Although the process must meet all of these requirements, the final requirement is less critical in this instance
with regards to the selection of the initial process. This is because secondary processing has already been
specified on the drawing, that is, the shaft hole must be machined. Therefore, it is likely that some of the other
specific dimensional and geometric tolerances will also be met through secondary processing.
 .MAKE OR BUY DECISION
 Quantitative Factors – Cost
 Qualitative Factors – Quality, Patents, Skill & Material, Long-Term Considerations
 Other Factors – Seasonal Demands, Reliability
1. A company manufactures and sells gas stoves. It makes some of the parts for the gas stove and purchases
other. The engineering department believes it might be possible to cut cost by manufacturing one of the
parts currently being purchased for Rs. 8.50 each. The firm uses 10,000 of these parts every year and the
accounting department gives the following details. Fixed cost will increase by Rs. 50,000, Labour cost will
rise by Rs. 125,000, and Factory over head, currently running Rs 500,000 per year may increase by 12%.
Raw material cost Rs 600,000. Should the company make or buy that component.
Cost Incurred in Manufacturing:
Additional Fixed Cost = Rs 50,000
Additional Labour Cost = Rs 125,000
Raw Material Cost = Rs 600,000
Additional Overhead Cost = Rs 60,000 (0.12 x 500,000)
Total Cost to Manufacture = Rs 835,000
Cost per Part = Rs 835,000 / 100,000
= Rs 8.35
Since, manufacturing cost is less than purchase cost. It is suggested to manufacture the component.

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 Material Evaluation

 The selection of a specific material for a particular part or product is an important part of the design and
manufacture cycle.
 Three main categories of materials used in manufacturing – Metals, Polymers & Ceramics
 Another two classes of material used in manufacturing – Composites & Semiconductors

 Mechanical Properties – Strength, Hardness, Toughness, Ductility, Elasticity, Impact Resistance, Fatigue
Resistance.
 Physical Properties – Density, Melting Point, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Expansion,
Electrical Conductivity.

 Material selection parameters

 Functional Requirement
 Fatigue Characteristics, Strength, Hardness, Electrical & Thermal properties
 Reliability
 Consistency with which the material will meet the entire product requirement throughout its
service life. Important for trouble-free maintenance.
 Service Life
 Aesthetics & Appearance

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 Colour, Texture, Luster, smoothness & Finish

 Environmental Factors
 Temperature, Humidity, Corrosive atmosphere
 Compatibility with other Materials
 Manufacturability
 Cost
 Classification of Metals

 Classification of Ceramics & Polymers

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 Material Selection Process

 Material Selection for Design & Development of New Product
 Specify the performance parameters of the design and translate these into the required material
properties, for example, strength, hardness, etc. taking into account the cost and availability of
materials.
 Specify the manufacturing considerations such as the quantity/batch size; size, weight and
complexity of the part; dimensional and geometrical accuracy required, the surface finish required,
any quality requirements and the overall manufacturability of the material.
 Draw up a shortlist of candidate materials from the largest possible database of materials deemed
suitable for the application.
 Evaluate the candidate materials in more detail. Compare each, based on product performance,
cost, availability and manufacturability. The result of this evaluation should be the selection of a
single material.
 Develop design data and/or a design specification for the chosen material.
 Material Selection for Modification of Existing Product
 Evaluate the current product in terms of the materials performance, manufacturing process
requirements and cost.
 Identify which characteristics have to be improved for enhanced product performance.
 Search for alternative materials and/or manufacturing routes.
 Compile a shortlist of materials and manufacturing routes. Evaluate each in terms of the cost of
manufactured parts.
 Evaluate the results of Step 4 and employ the best alternative.
 Material Selection Methods
 Selection with Computer Aided Databases, Performance Indices, Decision Matrices, Selection with
Expert Systems, Value Analysis, Failure Analysis, Cost-Benefit Analysis
 Material Evaluation Methods
 Shape or Geometry Consideration – Size, Complexity, Dimensional Tolerances, Surface Finish
Requirements, Design for Manufacture.
 Material Property Requirement
 Mechanical Properties – Loading Conditions, Wear Resistance, Temperature Range,
 Physical Properties – Weight, Appearance, Electrical, Magnetic, Thermal Property
 Service Requirements – Service Lifetime, Operating Temperature, Rate of Temperature change,
Severity of environment (Corrosion, Deterioration), Maintenance
 Manufacturing Consideration – Usage of Standard Components, Number of Components, Rate of
Manufacturing, Quality Control & Inspection requirements
 Manufacturing Processes – Casting, Forming & Shaping, Joining, Machining, Surface Processes.

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Processes used to add value in manufacturing

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 Process Selection

 The material itself will limit the manufacturing processes that can be used, as not all materials are suitable
for all processes.
 Factors common to both the material and process selection decisions:
 Number of Components, Size, Weight, Precision required, Surface Finish & Appearance
 Manufacturability or Processability – Ability of a material to be worked or shaped into the finished
component. (Weldability, Castability, Formability, Machinability)
 Workability has a significant influence on the quality of the product. (Freedom from defects, Surface
Finish, Dimensional Accuracy & Tolerances)

Material and process selection factors

 Factors to be considered in Selecting a Process
 Nature of part including materials, tolerances, desired surface finish and operation required.
 Method of fabrication including machining or assembling of similar parts or components.
 Limitation of facilities including the plant and equipment available.
 Possibility of likely product design changes to facilitate manufacturability or cost reduction.
 In-plant and outside material handling system.
 Inherent process to produce specified shape, surface finish to give desired mechanical properties.
 Available skill level of operators.

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 Process Selection Method

Process Selection Method

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 Two basic assumptions are made in using the above method.

 the material has been selected first, as opposed to manufacturing processes first, and specified at
the design stage;
 all the information contained within the design documents, that is, drawings, parts lists, etc. is
comprehensive and that all information required
 There are four stages to this process selection method as follows:
 Drawing interpretation - Forms the basis for the process selection. This analysis can be broken
down into three distinct analysis and outputs.
 The first of these is the geometry analysis. Using the geometry classification matrix a
number of candidate processes can be identified based on the complexity of shape required.
The size of the part will also be considered.
 The second analysis and output is that concerned with the manufacturing information in the
design documents. This includes information such process parameters as the surface finish,
dimensional and geometric tolerances, limits and fits, special treatments, gauge references
and tooling references.
 The third and final analysis and output is that of the material evaluation stage. This
considers the material in terms of the desired geometry, the material properties and the
manufacturing considerations
 Critical processing factors - The combined output from the first stage must be correlated to
identify the critical processing factors. In particular, the correlation of the candidate processes
from the geometry analysis and the material evaluation may allow the list of candidate processes to
be shortened using these factors. This is because they provide quantitative limits within which the
candidate process must operate.
 Consult process tables - Using the correlated data from the previous stage, the candidate
processes are compared by using the appropriate process selection table. In most cases, this
approach will enable a clear-cut decision to be made using all the information gathered. However,
in a case where more than one process can meet all the requirements, economic data such as
labour, equipment and tooling costs, batch size and production rate, may provide further
clarification. In some instances, a detailed cost comparison may have to be made between
processes to help make a decision. Finally, in some instances the decision being made maybe
whether to make or buy in a part/product where the process expertise is not available in-house. It
should be noted that the use of costing methods should be incorporated as early as possible in the
design and manufacture process.
 Identifying a process - Using the data from the second stage, and if required a detailed economic
analysis, a suitable process should be selected. If it is the case that one process is all that is
required to make the part, then the process selection is complete. However, except in the case of
the use of some primary processes, secondary processing is usually required. Therefore, in cases
where further processing is required, the critical processing factors should be reconsidered and
stage 3 repeated. Once all the required processes have been identified, the process selection is
complete.

 Process and Operation Sequence

 Process - defined as a procedure in which one or more operators machine one or more workpieces on
one machine or workstation.
 Operation - defined as a task usually accomplished without changing the cutting conditions or
machining parameters.
 Cut- defined as a procedure during which the cutting tool passes the workpiece surface only once.
 General guidelines for process sequencing
 Preparing the billet - In many cases, particularly for complex geometry, forming the billet will
involve the use of processes from either the casting or forming and shaping groups of processes.
The use of an appropriate casting or forming/shaping process will significantly influence the

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general surface finish characteristics and dimensional accuracy. The use of such processes may
also drastically reduce or even eliminate the need for secondary processes.
 Rough machining - After preparing the billet, the next phase is generally to 'rough out' the billet
and form the general shape required. However, the initial machining operations should be used to
provide a datum surface to be used for all subsequent processing. The rough machining will
typically involve machining processes such as rough turning and boring for rotational parts and
routing and rough boring for prismatic parts. These will be used to remove the bulk of material
from the major surfaces of the part in the most efficient manner possible and any minor surfaces.
 Finish Machining - The finish machining in this phase is carried out first for major surfaces of the
part. The finish machining will typically involve processes such as finish turning, finish boring and
drilling for rotational parts and milling, finish boring, reaming and drilling for prismatic parts. The
minor surfaces are also finished in this phase. These will include drilling small holes, chamfers,
bosses, countersinking, keyways and cutting threads.
 Heat Treatments - In some cases, although not all, heat treatment may be required due to changes
in property that a material may undergo during phases 1-3 of the processing. Numerous heat
treatments may be used for a variety of reasons. Reasons for heat-treating include improvement of
properties such as strength, hardness, ductility, toughness and corrosion resistance.
 Finishing Operations - This phase refers to the finishing of major surfaces that require further
refinement in terms of surface finish characteristics. Typical processes employed in this phase are
rough and smooth grinding, fine turning, broaching and finish reaming. Coating and/or cleaning
processes may be employed at this phase if no further finishing is required.
 Special Finishing - Special finishing is generally only required where particularly fine surface
finishes are required. Consequently, the typical processes involved here are honing, lapping,
buffing and polishing.
 Steps in planning Operation Sequence
 Determine the primary areas for locating and gauging.
 Setup primary manufacturing operations.
 Setup secondary operations and arrange them in order.
 Setup and insert necessary allied operations.
 Fundamental Principles in planning Operation Sequence
 The operation in which largest layer of metal is removed should be performed first.
 Thick metal removal reveals casting defects
 Releases the internal stresses
 Finishing operation should be done at the end of the sequence.
 Roughing and finishing should be done on different machine tools.
 A surface which is to remain unmachined should be selected as first setting up datum surface.
 Inspection stages should be introduced after, Roughing Operation, before operations which are to
be performed in other department, before important operations, after last machining operation.
 Surface whose machining will not greatly affect the rigidity of the work should be machined
earlier in the sequence.
 Sequence should be coordinated with heat treatment.

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 Production Equipment & Tooling Selection

 Initial requirement
 Part Print & Sequence of Operation
 Number of components to be produced
 Machine capacity data
 Machine availability chart & Machine load chart
 Factors to be considered
 Technical Factors
 Physical Size
The machine tool must be of a sufficient size to cope with the dimensions of the workpiece
and be physically able to carry out the desired processing. In addition, the structure of the
machine must be able to cope with the weight of the workpiece.

 Machine Accuracy (Dimensional & Geometric Tolerances)

Refers specifically to the capability of the machines under consideration to be able to
manufacture parts within the required dimensional and geometric tolerance specification.
Although already used to help identify suitable processes, the parameters specified for
individual processes are stated in ranges. Therefore, machines for specific processes may
operate within any part of that range. Thus, these parameters are considered for specific
machines to ascertain their suitability for a particular job.

 Surface Finish
Refers specifically to the capability of the machines under consideration to be able to
manufacture parts to the required surface specification. The reasoning behind considering
this factor again is the same as for machine accuracy.

 Cutting Force / Power

Calculation of cutting forces should be carried out for the operations identified. The cutting
forces involved are functions of the manufacturing parameters such as feed, speed and
depth of cut. Although these manufacturing parameters have not been calculated for each
operation, each machine will have maximum values for these parameters.

The machine power PM required for each operation can be calculated by multiplying the
cutting force by the cutting speed. (PM = FC x V)

The power required for each operation would have to be calculated to determine the
maximum power required of the machine. For the same conditions, the greater the volume
of material removed per unit time, the greater the power required. Finally, reducing feeds
and speeds and/or the depth of cut can reduce the power required.

 Operational Factors
 Batch Size
Just as every process has an economic batch quantity (EBQ) that must be achieved before it
can be considered economically viable, so too does specific machinery. A common

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approach is to compare different machines for a given batch size using a break-even
analysis to see which is most economic.

 Capacity
As equally important as the EBQ is the production rate of the machines under
consideration. All machines are capable of achieving a particular output per unit time.
Therefore, parts must be assigned to machines capable of output that can match the MPS
requirements.

 Availability
This can be defined on two levels. The first definition is that of whether the machine
required is already being used or not, that is, is it available or unavailable. However, in
terms of equipment effectiveness, availability can be defined as the proportion of time a
machine is actually available to perform work out of the time it should be available. This, in
turn, relates to the overall efficiency and reliability for the machine.

 Machine Selection Method

 First Cut Selection - The types of machine will be specified by the virtue of having already
preselected the manufacturing processes. For example, if turning is the selected process then a
lathe will be the type of machine to be used. At this first cut selection, the only factor considered is
the physical size of the machine in relation to the workpiece. Any machine that cannot perform
any one operation is excluded from further consideration. For example, a lathe whose machine bed
is shorter than that of the length of the part cannot be used to turn that part.

 Power / Force Analysis - After having calculated the power requirements for all operations, those
machines that cannot meet the maximum power requirement can be discounted. The only
exception to this is if there are no other machines available. Similarly, those machines with a far
greater power output than required can also be discounted. This is on the basis that machines with
far greater power than required offer no significant advantage over those closest to the actual
power requirement. The only exception to this is if such a machine has a higher spindle speed
required by one or more operations.

 Capability Analysis - The factors considered in the capability analysis are the dimensional and
geometric accuracy and the surface finish required. The machine or machines that are most
suitable should be shortlisted and the remainder considered no further.

 Operational Analysis (Batch Size)

 Final Selection - Although it is unlikely that there will be more than one machine still being
considered at this stage, a single machine can be selected by selecting the machine with the lowest
machining time. If there is still more than one machine after this, then select the machine with the
lowest time for any operation. The final criteria to be used if still searching for a single machine is
to consider that with the lowest time for the most operations. This selection method, in effect,
considers the machine limitations (physical size, power and force) first and then the machine
capabilities (machine accuracy and surface finish). After this, the economics of the machines
under scrutiny are compared to give a single machine selection.

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Machine Selection Method

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 Factors in Tooling Selection

 Constraints on Tool Selection

 Manufacturing Practice
 Continuous Cutting – Turning, Milling, Drilling;
 Intermittent Cutting – Shaping, Planing
 Manufacturing Process
 Machine Tool Characteristics (Suitable Workholders, speed, feed, availability)
 Capability
 Processing Time
 Operating Requirements for Tooling Selection
 Workpiece Material, Operation, Part Geometry, Tooling Data
 Factors Affecting Tooling Performance
 Tool Material
 Harder & more wear resistant than the workpiece material
 Retain its physical and mechanical properties and characteristics during cutting
 Possess adequate toughness to avoid fracture under impact loading
 Tool Geometry – Tool shape and Form (tool angles, rake angles, cutting edge angles and
tool nose radius)
 Use of Cutting Fluids
 Cool both the workpiece and tool (Reducing the temperature at which cutting tools
operate helps them maintain their hardness. It also prevents the possibility of heat
causing any workpiece distortion.)
 Provide lubrication between tool and workpiece (reduces friction and also helps
maintain the wear resistance of the tool. The lubrication can also prevent chip build-up
on the cutting edge of the tool.)
 Improving the surface finish and flushing away the chips

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 Tool Selection is a Five stage process as follows

1. Evaluation of process and machine selections - Provided the selection of processes and
machines is satisfactory, the range of tools that can be used should be limited to those suitable
for the processes and machines selected. Therefore, this limits the initial list of possible
suitable tooling.

2. Analysis of machining operations - A specific machine will carry out every operation
required. Each machine tool to be used will have specific tool types to carry out certain
operations. Therefore, this analysis should enable the identification of specific tool types for
specific operations.

3. Analysis of workpiece characteristics - The focus of the workpiece analysis is on the

workpiece material and geometry and the capability in terms of dimensional and geometric
accuracy and surface finish. The analysis of the first two characteristics enables suitable tool
materials and geometry (in terms of size and shape) to be identified. The third characteristic
allows the tool type and geometry to be refined further to suit the operations.

4. Tooling analysis - Using the tooling data available, the general tooling specifications
generated at the third stage can be translated into a statement of tooling requirements for the
job, that is, a tooling list. This will obviously reflect whatever tooling is actually available for
the operations required.

5. Selection of tooling - There are two routes that the tool selection can take at this point. If
single-piece tooling is being used, then a suitable tool holder should be selected before fully
defining the tool geometry and material. However, if insert-type tooling is being used then the
following steps should be followed:

(i) Select clamping system;

(ii) Select tool holder type and size;

(iii) Select insert shape;

(iv) Select insert size;

(v) Determine tool edge radius;

(vi) Select insert type;

(vii) Select tool material.

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