Arsi University

College of Computational Sciences

Department of Mathematics
Math 1011 Presentation
for Social Science
 Chapter One
Propositional Logic and Set Theory

Main objectives of this chapter

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-
• Know the basic concepts of mathematical logic.
• Know methods and procedures in combining the validity of
statements.
• Understand the concept of quantifiers.
• Know basic facts about argument and validity.
• Understand the concept of set.
• Apply rules of operations on sets to find the
result.
• Show set operations using Venn diagrams.
 1.1. Propositional Logic
• Definition 1.1: A proposition (or statement) is a sentence
which has a truth value (either True or False but not both).
• Example

The given Sentence Its truth value Type of sentence

2 is a prime number True proposition

A triangle has only two sides False proposition

Water boils at 1000 c True proposition

May God bless you! has no truth value not proposition

What is your name? has no truth value not proposition

Be punctual! has no truth value not proposition

 Logical connectives

Connectives Proposition formed

Name Symbol Name Notation How to read

Not ¬ Negation ¬p not p

And ∧ Conjunction 𝑝∧𝑞 p and q

or p also q

Or ∨ Disjunction 𝑝 ∨𝑞 p or q

If…then ⟹ Implication 𝑝⟹𝑞 p implies q

or
if p,then q

If and only if ⟺ Bi-implication 𝑝⟺𝑞 p if and only if q

 Truth Value tables
1. Conjunction 2. Disjunction
• Rule-1 :𝒑 ∧ 𝑞 is true iff • Rule-2: 𝒑 ∨ 𝑞 is false iff both p
both p and q are and q are false other wise it is
true,otherwise it is false. true.

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝑞 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻
𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑻
𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑭 𝑭
3. Implication 4. Bi-implication
• Rule-3:𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 is false • Rule-4:𝒑 ⟺ 𝑞 is false iff p and
iff p is true and q is q have different truth values.
false , otherwise it is Otherwise it is true.
true.

𝑝 𝒒 𝒑⟹𝑞 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⟺𝑞
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭
𝑭 𝑻 𝑻 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭
𝑭 𝑭 𝑻 𝑭 𝑭 𝑻
5. Negation
• Rule-5: a proposition and its negation have opposite truth
values.

𝒑 𝑝
𝐓 𝐅
𝐅 𝐓
Examples
• Let p: 2 is a prime number-T
q: 7 is a composite number-F
r: Cairo is the capital of Sudan-F
• Then, write the following propositions in words and give their
truth value.
a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 b) 𝒑 ∨ 𝑞 c) 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 d) r⟺ 𝑞
e) q⟹ p f) 𝑝 g) p⟺ 𝑞
• Answers
a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: 2 is a prime number and 7 is a composite number-F
b) 𝒑 ∨ 𝑞: 2 is a prime number or 7 is a composite number-T
c) 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞: If 2 is a prime number , then 7 is a composite
number-F
d) r⟺ 𝑞:Cairo is the capital of Sudan if and only if f 7 is a
composite number-T
e) q⟹ p: If 7 is a composite number, then 2 is a prime
number-T
f) 𝑝: 2 is a not a prime number or 2 is a composite number-F
g) p⟺ 𝑞: 2 is a prime number if and only if 7 is a composite
number-F
 Compound(Complex) Propositions

• Definition 1.2:The proposition formed by joining two or

more proposition by connective(s) is called a compound
proposition.

• Example:

a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 , 𝒑 ∨ 𝑞 , 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 , p⟺ 𝑞

b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ⟹ r, (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟺ (s∨ r) are examples of

compound propositions.
 Equivalent Propositions

• Definition 1.3: Two compound propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are

said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value for all
possible combinations of truth values for the component
propositions occurring in both 𝑃 and 𝑄.

• In this case we write 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.

• Example: Decide whether the following pairs of compound

propositions are equivalent or not.
a) 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞, ¬𝒑 ∨ 𝑞 b) 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞, ¬𝒑 ⟹ ¬𝑞
c) 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞,¬𝑞 ⟹ ¬𝒑

Solutions
a)
p q ¬𝒑 𝒑⟹𝑞 ¬𝒑 ∨ 𝑞
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
From columns 4 and 5 of the above table we see that
𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞, ¬𝒑 ∨ 𝑞 have the same truth values.
Thus: 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝒑 ∨ 𝑞
b)
p q ¬p ¬q 𝒑⟹𝑞 ¬𝒑 ⟹ ¬𝑞
T T F F T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T

• As we can see from column 5 and 6 of the table

𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞, ¬𝑝 ⟹ ¬𝑞 have different truth values.
Thus they are not equivalent.
c) Left as exercise
Remark: Given the conditional 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 then,
a) q⟹ p is called the converse of 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞
b) ¬𝒑 ⟹ ¬𝑞 is called the inverse of 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞
c)¬q ⟹ ¬𝑝 is called a contrapositive of 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞
Example: Find the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
conditional

a) ‘If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.’

b) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ⟹ ¬𝑟
Soln:
a)Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.
Inverse : If it is not morning , then the sun is not in the east.
Contrapositive : If the sun is not in the east, then it is not
morning.

b) Converse:¬r ⟹ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
Inverse:¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟹ r
Contrapositive::r ⟹ ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
 Tautology and Contradiction
Definition 1.4: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is
always true regardless of the truth values of its component
propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition is
always false regardless of its component propositions, we say
that it is a contradiction.

Remark: a compound proposition which is neither tautology

nor contradiction is known as Contingency.
Example: Determine whether the following propositions are
tautology, contradiction or contingency.
a) 𝒑 ⟹ (𝑞 ⟹ p) b)(𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 ) ⟺(𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) c) ¬𝑞 ∧(𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 )
 p q q⟹ 𝐩 𝒑 ⟹ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑞 )

Soln:a) T T T T

T F T T

F T F T

F F T T

As it can be seen from column 4 of the table,

𝒑 ⟹ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑞 ) true in every rows.Therefore it is
tautology.
 p q ¬q 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞 (𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 ) ⟺(𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞)

T T F T F F
b)
T F T F T F

F T F T F F

F F T T F F

As it can be seen from column 6 of the table,

(𝒑 ⟹ 𝑞 ) ⟺(𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) false in every rows . Therefore it is
contradiction.
c) Show that it is contingency(exercise)
 1.2. Open Proposition and Quantifiers

• Definition 1.4: An open statement (a predicate) is a sentence that

contains one or more variables and whose truth value depends on
the values assigned for the variables.

• We represent an open statement by a capital letter followed by

the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g., 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑄(𝑥) etc.

• Examples

a) P(𝑥): 𝑥 is a prime number

b) Q(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥𝑦 < 0

c) R(𝑦): 𝑦 is a country in Africa

 Quantifiers

1. Universal Quantifier ( )

• ∀𝑥: we read it as “ for each 𝑥”, or “ for all 𝑥”, or “for every 𝑥”

• ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥): read it as: “ for all 𝑥 the property P(𝑥) holds true.”

2. Existential Quantifier ( )

• ∃𝑥: read it as “for some 𝑥”, or “ There is an 𝑥” or “ There is at

least one 𝑥”

• ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥): read it as: “There is at least one 𝑥 such that the

property P(𝑥) holds true.”
Examples:
• Write the truth values of the following propositions.

a) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ 𝑥 2 + 1 > 1 b) ∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ (𝑥 2 + 1 ≤ 1)

c) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5
𝑑) ∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∀𝑦 ∈ ℝ (𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5)

e) ∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∀𝑦 ∈ ℝ (𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑦 2 )

Answers:

a) F b) T c) T d) F e) T

Relationship between quantifiers

a) ¬ ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ≡ ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) b) ¬ ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 ≡ ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)
 1.3. Argument and Validity

• Definition 1.7: An argument (logical deduction) is an

assertion that a given set of statements 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 , called
hypotheses or premises, yield another statement 𝑄, called the
conclusion.

• Such a logical deduction is denoted by:

𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 ├ 𝑄
Example :Consider the following argument:
If you study hard, then you will pass the exam.
You did not pass the exam.
Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let 𝑝: You study hard.
𝑞: You will pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:
Definition 1.8: An argument form 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 ├ 𝑄 is said to
be valid if 𝑄 is true whenever all the premises 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛
are true; otherwise it is invalid.
Example: Investigate the validity of the following argument:
c) If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops
were not good.
Solutions
a) The given argument form is valid as can be seen from the
table
p q ¬q 𝒑⟹𝑞 ¬p

T T F T F
T F T F F
F T F T T
F F T T T
 b) Invalid c) invalid
Proof: exercise
• Remarks:
1) What is important in validity is the form of the argument
rather than the meaning or content of the statements
involved.
2) The argument form 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑛 ├ 𝑄 is valid iff the
statement
(𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ 𝑝3 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑝𝑛 ) ⟹ 𝑄 is a tautology.
Reading Assignment
 Rules of Inferences
Formal proofs of Validity
 1.4. Set Theory
1.4.1. The Concept of a Set
• Set is an undefined term which refers to a collection of well-
defined objects that share a certain property or certain
properties.

• “well-defined” means that one can decide whether or not a

given object belongs in the set.

• If 𝐴 is a set, then the objects of the collection 𝐴 are called the

elements or members of the set 𝐴.

• If 𝑥 is an element of the set 𝐴, we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. If 𝑥 is not an

element of the set 𝐴, we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.
 1.4.2. Description of sets
• There are four different ways of describing a set . These are:
I ) Verbal Method
E.g. a) C= The set of counting numbers less than 10
b) V=The set of English vowels
II ) Roster or Complete Listing Method
E.g. a) C={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
b) V={a,e,i,o,u}
III) Partial Listing Method
E.g. a) C={1,2,3,…,9}
b) N={1,2,3,…}
IV) The Set Builder Method
E.g. a) A={𝑥: 𝑥 is a prime number}
b) B= { 𝑦: 𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 6 = 0}
Activity: Define the following terms and provide examples
a) empty set b) finite and infinite sets
1.4.3. Relationships between Sets
1. Subset
A⊆ 𝐵 ⟺ ∀𝑥 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)
2. Proper Subset
𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 ⟺ (A ⊆ 𝐵) ∧ (𝐵 ⊈ 𝐴)
3. Equal Sets
𝐴 = 𝐵 ⟺ ∀𝑥 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) or (A ⊆ 𝐵) ∧ (𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴)
4. Power set
Let 𝐴 be a set. The power set of 𝐴, dented by 𝑃(𝐴), is the set
whose elements are all subsets of 𝐴.
That is, 𝑃 𝐴 = {𝐵: 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴}.
Remarks:
i) Any set is a subset of itself
ii) A set cannot be a proper subset of itself
ii) Empty set is a subset of any set
iv) If n(A)= k, then A has 2𝑘 subsets and 2𝑘 -1 proper subsets
Activity
If A={a,b,c} , B={a,b,c,d} and C={b,c,a}, then
a) What relation can you observe between these three sets
b) Write all the subsets of set A
c) Write 𝑃 𝐴
Answers:
a) A⊆ 𝐵, C⊆ 𝐵, A = 𝐶, 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, C ⊂ 𝐵
b) ∅, {𝑎},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},A
c) 𝑃 𝐴 ={∅, {𝑎},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},A}
1.4.4. Set Operations and Venn Diagram
1. Union of Sets
A ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)}.
2. Intersection of Sets
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∧ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)}.
3. Complement of Sets
𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴/𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 − relative complement
𝐴𝐶 or 𝐴′ ={𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}-absolute complement
Where U= the universal set
4. Symmetric Difference
𝐴Δ𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴)
E.g. If U={1,2,3,4,5}, A={1,2,3},B={2,3,5}
Then ,
A ∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,5} , 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵={2,3}, 𝐴 − 𝐵 ={1}, B−𝐴 = {5}
𝐴Δ𝐵 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴) ={1,5}
𝐴′ ={4,5}, 𝐵′ ={1,4}
Venn Diagrams
It is the pictorial representation of the sets under discussion.
Activity
Show the above examples of sets using Venn diagram