UNIT-I

AC Circuits: Parameters of sinusoidal quantities, Generation of sinusoidal voltage, Voltage and

current
Relationship with phasor diagram in R, L and C circuits. Analysis with phasor diagram of R-L, R-C,
R-L-C Series and Parallel circuits, Power factor, real power, reactive power, apparent power,
Examples
Three-phase circuits: Generation of three phase EMF, phase sequence, relation between phase and
line values of voltage and current from phasor diagrams in Y and Δ connected systems, measurement
of power in three phase circuit by two wattmeter method (Balanced load) and examples.

SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

Generation of Sinusoidal waveform

Consider a coil of n turns placed in a magnetic field of maximum value m wb, produced
by two poles N & S.

Initially the coil is along the reference axis. Field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Let
the coil be rotated in the anticlockwise direction with an angular velocity of radian /Sec as
shown in fig(2.1)

When the coil is along the ref avis at wt=0, called zero emf position. This is because of the
movement of the coil at this instant wt = 0 along the field.

If coil relates making an angle =wt with ref. axis, a this instant the normal component of
magnetic flue w.r.t the plane of the coil is equal to m cos (  = wt)

The normal component =  m Cosωt

Flux linkages = N m cosωt

emf induced at this instant

d
e= (flux linkages)
dt

Hence instantaneous emf e = Em sin  t .

Definitions of (i) amplitude (ii) frequency (ii) cycle (iii) period w.r.t. sinusoidally varying
quantity

i) Amplitude :- The maximum value of an alternating quantity induced in a conductor

ii) Frequency :- No.of cycles of an alternating qty.
iii) Period :- It is the time taken to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity.
iv) Cycle :- A set of positive & negative values of an alternating quantity included in the
conductor is called the amplitude.

Derivation of an effective value of an alternating quantity.

Effective value is also called RMS value.

The effective value or r.m.s value of an alternating quantity is equal to that steady
current, which produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when
passed through the same resistance for the same time.

Divide the time base of an a.c wave form into “n” equal parts so that each interval is
equal to t/n secs.

Let I, is ------ in be the mid ordinates of these intervals,

then heat produced during the I interval = i12 R t/n

i) -----do----- 2n int. = i22 R t/n

ii) ------do------- nth interval = in2 R t/n

 The total heat produced in ‘t’ sees is given by the sum of all the above heats produced.

H = (i12+i22+-----------+in2) Rt =I2Rt

Where, I represents the effective value of r.m.s value of an alternating current.

(i12 + i 22 +.................. + i 2n )
I =
n

Derivation of an average value of an alternating quantity.

Average value of an alternating current is equal to that steady current, which transfers
the same amount of charge, as, transferred by the alternating current across the same
circuit anal in the same time.

Average value is considered for one half a cycle, as the avg. value for complete cycle
is zero.

π π
1 1 I
Iav =  idθ =  I msinθdθ = m -cosθ  π0
π0 π0 π

2
= I m = 0.637Im
π

 The average value of an alternating current is 0.637 times its maximum value.

Form factor & peak factor.

Form factor :- is the ratio of r.m.s value to average value of an alternating

quantity (kf).

r.m.s value
Kf = Form Factor =
Average value
 I 0.7071m
Kf = = = 1.11, (for sine wave)
Iav 0.6371m

Peak factor (kp):

KP is the ratio of mane value to the r.m.s value of an alternating quantity.

maximum value
Kp = Peak Factor =
r.m.s. value

Im I
Kp = = = 1.414, for a sine wave.
I 0.7071m

Phasor representation of an alternating quantity .

The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant is the angle through in which the
routing vector representing alternating quantity has related through from the reference axis.

Phase difference between two alternating quantities is the angle between the two rotating
vectors, representing the two alternating quantities as shown in fig(2.4)
Phase

Phase of an alternating quantity at any particular instant as the fractional part of a period
or cycle through which the quantity has advanced from the selected origin. Taking an example,
in fig: 5, the phase of current at point A is T/4 second, where T is the time period or expressed
in terms of angle, it is /2 radians.

 2
ωt
0 A

Figure 5

Phase Difference
 When two alternating quantities are considered, the frequency being the same, they may
not pass through a particular point at the same instant. These two quantities are said to have a
phase difference. It is specified either in degrees or in radians. Phase is measured by the angular
difference between the points where the two curves cross the base or reference line in the same
direction.

The quantity ahead in phase is said to lead behind the other quantity whereas the second
quantity is said to lag behind the first one. In fig: 6, the leading current i1 goes through its zero
and maximum values first and current i1 goes through its zero and maximum values after time
angle .

i1
i2

 2
ωt  i1
0


i2

Figure 6

Two quantities are said to be in phase with each other if they pass through zero values at the
same instant and rise in the same direction. If two quantities pass through zero values at the
same instant by rise in opposite direction, they are said to be in opposition or out of phase.

Illustrative Examples

1. An alternating voltage has amplitude of 100V. Find its i) rms value and ii) average value.
Ans: Irms=Im/2=100/2=70.7A

Iav=0.637Im=63.7

2. An alternating current has an effective value of 200A. if its frequency is 25Hz, find its
average value and write down the expression for the current.

Ans: Iav= Irms/1.11=180.18A

Im =2 Irms= 2  200 = 282.84 A

I=Im sin 2  25t = 282.84 sin 157t A

3. An alternating voltage is represented by the equation v=100 sin 520t V. Calculate its i)
maximum value, ii) rms value, iii) average value, iv) form factor, v) peak factor, vi)
frequency, vii) voltage when t=0.0015s

Ans: v=100 sin 520t.

maximum value , Vm =100 V

rms value , V = Vm /2 =70.7V

average value, Vav= Vrms/1.11=63.7 V

form factor, kf= Vm /V= 1.11

peak factor, ka= V/ Vav = 1.414

frequency, f=82.8 Hz

voltage at 0.0015s=100 sin 5200.0015=70.35 V

4. An alternating current I is represented by i=10 sin 942t amperes. Determine a) frequency,

b) time period, c) time taken from t=0 for the current to reach a value of 6A for the first and
second time.

Ans: a) frequency, f=942/2=150Hz

b) time period, T=1/f=6.67ms

c) 6=10 sin 942t1

t1= 0.68ms

t2= T/2-t1=2.65ms

Analysis of AC circuits

1. Analysis of Pure Resistive circuit:

 R

i
i v

Let the voltage vector be taken as the reference. Then, the angle of lead/lag, Φ = 0

Therefore, v = Vm sin (ωt ± 0).

By Ohm’s law, instantaneous value of current through the circuit is given by,
v Vm sin (ωt)
i =R= = Im sin (ωt)
R

From the above equations, the phase difference between between v and i = 0. i.e,

i is in phase with v.

The instantaneous power consumed by resistance R is given by,

p = v. i = Vm sin(ωt) (Im sin ωt)

Vm 2 2 Vm 2 (1 − cos2ωt)
p= sin (ωt) =
R R 2

Vm 2 Vm 2 cos2ωt
p= −
R 2R 2
The second term represents a periodically varying quantity whose frequency is twice that of
the applied voltage v and therefore its Average value taken over its one full cycle = 0.

Therefore, Average Power consumed by pure R is,

Vm 2 Vm Vm Vrms
Pavg = −0= . = . Im
2R √2 √2 R √2
Pavg = Vrms . Irms
Average power consumed, P = V.I for a pure resistive circuit

2. Analysis of Pure Inductive circuit:

L

e v
i

Let v = Vm sin (ωt) (v is taken as the reference vector)

di di
By Faraday’s law, e = L dt and by KVL, e = v = L dt

di v
=
dt L
v Vm sin (ωt) Vm −cosωt Vm
i=∫ dt = ∫ dt = [ ]= [−sin (90 − ωt)]
L L L ω ωL
Vm Vm
i= [sin (ωt − π⁄2)] where 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚𝐋 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋 and Im =
XL XL

𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝛑⁄𝟐)

From the above equation, i lags v by 𝛑⁄𝟐 radians or 90 degrees for pure L circuit.

The instantaneous power consumed by inductance L is given by,

p = v. i = Vm sin(ωt) (Im sin ωt − π⁄2)

p = Vm Im sin(ωt) [−sin( π⁄2 − ωt)]

p = −Vm Im sin(ωt) cos (𝜔𝑡)

sin (2ωt)
p = −Vm Im
2
This represents a periodically varying quantity whose frequency is twice that of the applied
voltage v and therefore its Average value taken over its one full cycle = 0.
Therefore, Average Power consumed by pure L is,

Pavg = 0

Average power consumed, P = 0 for a pure inductive circuit.

3. Analysis of Pure Capacitive circuit:

C

i
i

v
v
Let v = Vm sin (ωt) (v is taken as the reference vector)

dv d[Vm sinωt]
i=C =C = Vm . ωC. sin(90 + ωt)
dt dt
Vm Vm
i= [sin (ωt + π⁄2)] where 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝟏⁄𝛚𝐂 = 𝟏⁄𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂 and Im =
XC XC

𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + 𝛑⁄𝟐)

From the above equation, i leads v by 𝛑⁄𝟐 radians or 90 degrees for pure C circuit.

The instantaneous power consumed by capacitance C is given by,

p = v. i = Vm sin(ωt) (Im sin ωt + π⁄2)

Vm Im
p = Vm Im sin ωt cosωt = sin2ωt
2
This represents a periodically varying quantity whose frequency is twice that of the applied
voltage v and therefore its Average value taken over its one full cycle = 0.
Therefore, Average Power consumed by pure C is,

Pavg = 0

Average power consumed, P = 0 for a pure capacitive circuit.

 4. Analysis of R-L Series circuit:

R L

ER EL E EL
I
Φ I

ER
E

⃗ and I are the RMS values of the applied voltage and the current respectively.
E

⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
E ER + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EL

Since it is a series circuit, we shall take I as the reference vector.

We know that for pure R circuit, voltage is in phase with current. Therefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ER is in phase
with I

We know that for a pure L circuit, current lags voltage by 90 degrees or ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EL leads I by 90
degrees. The vector sum of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ER and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EL gives ⃗E.

⃗ leads 𝐈 by Φ radians where 𝟎 ≤ 𝚽 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝐝𝐞𝐠

From the vector diagram, 𝐄

If e = Em sin (ωt) (taken as reference) then, 𝑖 = Im sin(ωt − ∅)

The instantaneous power consumed by R-L circuit is given by,

Em Im
p = e. i = Em Im sin(ωt) sin ωt (ωt − ∅) = [cos∅ − cos (2ωt − ∅)]
2
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄. 𝐈. 𝐜𝐨𝐬∅
Power triangle

P: Real power
P=
Q: Reactive power
S: Apparent power
Q=
S2 = P2 + Q2
S=

Definition of Real power

It is defined as the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance in Watts (W).
It is also called Active power or Wattful component of power or True power.
It is given by,
P = I2R = V I cosΦ Watts.

Definition of Reactive power

It is defined as the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit in Volt-Amperes-
Reactive (VAR).
It is also called Wattless component or Quadrature component of power.
It is given by,
Q = I2XL = I2.Z sinΦ = V I sinΦ Volt-Amperes-Reactive.

Definition of Apparent power

It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and circuit current in Volt-Amperes
(VA).
S = I2.Z = V I Volt-Amperes

Power factor

It may be defined as the

1) Cosine of the angle of lead or lag.
𝐑
2) The ratio of R to Z. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝚽 = 𝐙
𝐏 𝐖
3) The ratio of True power to Apparent power. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝚽 = = 𝐕𝐀
𝐒
The Maximum value of power factor=1.
 5. Analysis of R-C Series circuit:

R C ER

Φ
I
ER EC
i E
EC

E
⃗E = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ER + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EC

Since it is a series circuit, we shall take I as the reference vector.

⃗⃗⃗⃗
ER is in phase with I. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EC lags I by 90 degrees. The vector sum of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ER and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗.
EC gives E

⃗ lags 𝐈 by Φ radians where 𝟎 ≤ 𝚽 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝐝𝐞𝐠

From the vector diagram, 𝐄

If e = Em sin (ωt) (taken as reference) then, 𝑖 = Im sin(ωt + ∅)

The instantaneous power consumed by R-C circuit is given by,

Em Im
p = e. i = Em Im sin(ωt) sin ωt (ωt + ∅) = [cos(−∅) − cos (2ωt + ∅)]
2
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄. 𝐈. 𝐜𝐨𝐬∅
 6. Analysis of R-L-C Series circuit:

R L C

ER EL EC ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
i E ER + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EL + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EC

E
We shall take I as the reference vector. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ER is in phase with I. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EL leads I by 90 degrees. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EC
lags I by 90 degrees. Consider the following 3 cases.

Case 1: 𝐗 𝐋 > 𝐗 𝐂

This implies that IXL > IXC or EL > EC

It can be seen from the vector diagram that V leads I by Φ radians or I lags E by Φ radians.

Hence the circuit behaves as a series R-L circuit.

If e = Em sin (ωt) then, i = Im sin(ωt − ∅) and

𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄. 𝐈. 𝐜𝐨𝐬∅

Case 2: 𝐗 𝐋 < 𝐗 𝐂

This implies that IXL < IXC or EL < EC

It can be seen from the vector diagram that E lags I by Φ radians or I leads E by Φ radians.

The circuit behaves as a series R-C circuit.

If e = Em sin (ωt) then, i = Im sin(ωt + ∅) and

𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄. 𝐈. 𝐜𝐨𝐬∅

Case 3: 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝐗 𝐂

This implies that IXL = IXC or EL = EC

It can be seen from the vector diagram that I is in phase with E.

Circuit behaves as a pure R circuit.

If e = Em sin (ωt) then, i = Im sin(ωt) and

𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄. 𝐈

Power triangle
 P: Real power
P=
Q: Reactive power
S: Apparent power
Q= S2 = P2 + Q2
S=

Definition of Real power

It is defined as the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance in Watts (W).
It is also called Active power or Wattful component of power or True power.
It is given by,
P = I2R = V I cosΦ Watts.

Definition of Reactive power

It is defined as the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit in Volt-
Amperes-Reactive (VAR).
It is also called Wattless component or Quadrature component of power.
It is given by,
Q = I2XL = I2.Z sinΦ = V I sinΦ Volt-Amperes-Reactive.

Definition of Apparent power

It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and circuit current in Volt-
Amperes (VA).
S = I2.Z = V I Volt-Amperes

Power factor

It may be defined as the

4) Cosine of the angle of lead or lag.
𝐑
5) The ratio of R to Z. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝚽 = 𝐙
𝐏 𝐖
6) The ratio of True power to Apparent power. 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝚽 = = 𝐕𝐀
𝐒
The Maximum value of power factor=1.

Concept of power factor improvement:

Power factor plays an important role in AC circuits since power consumed depends upon it.
It is clear from the above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is inversely
proportional to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-
versa. A power factor less than unity results in greater conductor size, large copper losses and
poor voltage regulation.

The low power factor is mainly due to the fact that most of the power loads are inductive and
therefore, take lagging currents. In order to improve the power factor, some device taking
leading power should be connected in parallel with the load. One of such devices can be a
capacitor. The capacitor draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the
lagging reactive component of load current. This raises the power factor of the load.

To illustrate the power factor improvement by a capacitor, consider a single phase load taking
lagging current I at a power factor cosϕ1 as shown.

The capacitor C is connected in parallel with the load. The capacitor draws current IC which
leads the supply voltage by 90 degrees. The resulting line current I’ is the phasor sum of I and
IC and its angle of lag is ϕ2 as shown in the phasor diagram. It is clear that ϕ2 is less than ϕ1, so
that cos ϕ2 is greater than cos ϕ1. Hence the power factor of the load is improved. The following
points are to be noted.

1) The circuit current I’ after pf. Correction is less than the original circuit current I.
2) The active power (kW) remains unchanged due to power factor improvement.

Three-phase circuits:

Balanced 3 phase supply:

Three phase circuits

Advantages of 3 phase systems:

 1. A 3 phase apparatus is more efficient than a single phase apparatus.
2. A 3 phase apparatus costs less than a single phase apparatus of the same capacity.
3. A 3 phase apparatus is smaller in size than a single phase apparatus of the same capacity
and hence requires less material for construction.
4. To transmit the same amount of power over the same distance under the same power
loss, the conductor material required is less for a 3 phase system than for a single phase
system.
5. 3 phase motors are self starting whereas single phase motors are not self starting and
hence require a starting mechanism.
6. Three phase motors produce uniform torque whereas the torque in a single phase motor
is pulsating.
7. When single phase generators are connected in parallel, they give rise to harmonics,
whereas, 3 phase generators can be conveniently connected in parallel without giving
rise to harmonics.
8. In the case of a three phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained, one
between lines and the other between line and phase, whereas only one voltage can be
obtained in a single phase system.

Generation of balanced 3 phase AC voltage.

Consider an alternator which is a machine which generates 3 phase voltages. The stationary
part or the stator is cylindrical in shape and has uniform slots on its inner periphery. The
conductors which form a winding are placed in these slots and connected together such that
the emfs induced in a winding are always additive. There are 3 windings which are connected
either in star or delta. The rotating part or the rotor os represented by two poles of a magnet.
AA’, BB’ and CC’ are three independent coils which are electrically displaced by 120 degrees
with respect to one another. When the rotor rotates in the clockwise direction with a particular
speed Ns, the flux produced by it sweeps across the stator conductors and hence emfs are
induced in all the three phases, which have a phase displacement of 120 degrees with respect
to one another. The waveforms of the voltages generated are sinusoidal in nature and can be
represented by the waveforms as shown.
A 3 phase supply is said to be balanced when all the 3 voltages have the same magnitude but
differ in phase by 120ᵒ with respect to each other.

The waveforms of the sinusoidal voltages generated can be represented by the waveforms as
shown.

The equations for the voltages induced in the 3

windings are,
𝑒𝑎 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑒𝑎 = 𝐸𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 120ᵒ)
𝑒𝑎 = 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 240ᵒ) = 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 120ᵒ)

From the waveforms we observ

Ec
Ea

12 Ea
3 12
12 12
12
Ec Eb
Eb

Balanced 3 phase load:

A 3 phase load is said to be balanced when the impedances of all the 3 phases are exactly the
same. Here the magnitude of the currents in the 3 phases will be equal to each other but the
currents differ in phase by 120 degrees with respect to each other.

Relationship between Line and Phase values in a balanced star connected system:

Eab, Ebc and Eca are the Line voltages

which are equal since it is a balanced
supply.
Let Eab = Ebc = Eca=Eline
Ean, Ebn, Ecn are the phase voltages which
are equal since load is balanced.
Let Ean = Ebn = Ecn=Ephase
Ia, Ib and Ic are Line currents.
Ian, Ibn and Icn are Phase currents.
Let Ia = Ib = Ic = Iline
and Ian = Ibn = Icn = Iphase
In a star connected load, it can be seen that

Iline= Iphase

Applying KVL to loop1,

Eab-Ean+Ebn=0
Eab=Ean-Ebn
Draw a perpendicular to Eab from tip of
Ean.
From the vector diagram,
Eab=2. Ean. Cos 30
Eab=√3. Ean

𝐄𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 = √𝟑. 𝐄𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞

Power consumed by a 3 phase circuit:

P3∅
= 3 x power consumed by each phase
P3∅
= 3 x Eph Iph cos (∠ b⁄w Eph and Iph )
El
P3∅ = 3 x Il cos ϕ
√3
𝐏𝟑∅ = √𝟑 𝐄𝐥 𝐈𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟
Relationship between Line and Phase values in a balanced delta connected system:

Eab, Ebc and Eca are the Line voltages

which are equal since it is a balanced
supply.
Let Ia = Ib = Ic = Iline
Eab Iab = Ibc = Ica= Iphase
In a delta connected load, it can be seen
Eca that

Vline= Vphase
Ebc
Applying KCL at node 1,
Ia = Iab- Ica
From vector diagram,
Iab=2. Iab. Cos 30
Il=2. Iab √3/2

𝐈𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 = √𝟑. 𝐈𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞

Power consumed by a 3 phase

circuit:

P3∅
= 3 x power consumed by each phase
P3∅
= 3 x Vph Iph cos (∠ b⁄w Vph and Iph )
Il
P3∅ = 3 x Vl cos ϕ
√3
𝐏𝟑∅ = √𝟑 𝐕𝐥 𝐈𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟

Measurement of 3 phase power using two wattmeters

It is enough to measure the power consumed in three phase load by two watt meters in balanced
system and if the circuit is balanced we can also find the power factor from the readings of the
power factor from the readings of the two watt meters.
Consider a star connected load.

Here we analyze the measurement of power when the load is star connected. The following
assumptions are made.
i) The 3 phase supply to which the load is connected is balanced.
ii) The phage sequence is ABC
iii) The load is balanced
iv) The load is R-L in nature

For Wattmeter 1

Current measured by W1=Ia

Voltage measured = EAB = (Ean-Ebn)

But the phase difference between EAB & Ia is (300-)

Wattmeter W1=Ia EAB cos(300-)--------------------------(1)

Similarly, current through W2 = Ib

Voltage across W2 = ECB = (- Ebn+Ecn)

Here phase difference is (300 + )

Wattmeter W2=Ic ECBcos(300+)----------------------------(2)

As load is balanced EAB = EBC = Line voltage EL and Ia = Ic = IL = Line current

From equations 1 and 2,

W1 = VL I L cos ( 300 −  ) and
W2 = VL I L cos ( 300 +  )
But W1 + W2 = VL I L cos ( 300 −  ) + VL I L cos ( 300 +  )
W1 + W = VL I L  2 cos 300.cos  
W1 + W2 = 3VL I L cos 

But we know that 3VL I L cos  = P3 = Total power consumed by the 3  load

Thus, total power absorbed in the three phase load is given by the sum of the two
wattmeter readings.

To find the power factor of the phase impedance:

Eqn. 1 + Eqn. 2 gives,

W1 + W2 = 3VL I L cos  − − − − − −(3)

Eqn. 1 - Eqn. 2 gives,

W1 − W2 = VL I L cos ( 300 −  ) − VL I L cos ( 300 +  )
W1 − W2 = VL I L  2sin 30sin  
W1 − W2 = VL I L sin  − − − − − − − −(4)
Eqn. 4 / Eqn. 3 gives,

W1 − W2 V I sin  1
 = L L = tan 
W1 + W2 3VL I L cos  3
 W − W2 
 tan  = 3  1 
 W1 + W2 
  W − W2  
 = tan −1  3  1 
  W1 + W2  
   W − W2  
Powerfactor = cos  = cos  tan −1  3  1  
   W1 + W2   

Hence the power factor.

Effect of power factor on Wattmeter readings:

1) When cos ϕ = 1, ϕ = 0. Then,

 W1 = VL I L cos ( 300 −  ) = VL I L cos (  )
W2 = VL I L cos ( 300 +  ) = VL I L cos (  )
Therefore the Wattmeter readings are +ve and equal.
2) When cos ϕ = 0.5, ϕ = 60. Then,
W1 = VL I L cos ( 300 − 600 ) = 3 VL I L
2
W2 = VL I L cos ( 300 + 600 ) = 0
Therefore one of the wattmeters i.e, W2 reads 0 and W1 is +ve .
3) When cos ϕ = 0, ϕ = 90. Then,

W1 = VL I L cos ( 300 − 900 ) = L L

VI
2
W2 = VL I L cos ( 300 + 900 ) = −VL I L sin 300 = − L L
VI
2
Therefore , W1 reads +ve and W2 reads -ve .

One of the wattmeters reads –ve . i.e, it kicks back. Then either Potential coil or
Current coil terminals are interchanged and the wattmeter reading is taken as –ve.

Numericals:

1. A circuit consists of a resistance R=20Ω, L=0.05 H connected in series across a supply of

voltage 230 V at 50 Hz. Find the current, power factor and power consumed by the circuit.
Draw the vector diagram. Solution:

Solution:
 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 =
15.7 𝛺
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
= 20 + 𝑗15.7 𝛺
𝑍
= 25.42∠38.13° 𝛺

Let V be taken as
reference.
⃗ = 230∠0° 𝑉
𝑉
230∠0
𝐼 = 25.42∠38.13° =

𝟗. 𝟎𝟒∠𝟑𝟖. 𝟏𝟑°𝑨
|𝑅|
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 = |𝑍|
=
20
=
25.42

𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠

P=I2R or
P=VIcosΦ
P=1634.4Watts
2. R=20 𝛺, 𝐿 = 0.2𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 100µ𝐹 are connected in series across 220 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate the current, power factor and power consumed in the circuit. Draw the vector
diagram.

Solution:

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 62.83𝛺
𝑋𝐶 = 1/2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 31.8𝛺
Here XL>XC
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
= 20 + 𝑗(62.83 − 31.8) 𝛺
𝑍 = 36.9 ∠58.32 Ω
Taking ⃗E = 220∠0° V as
reference,
 ⃗E 220∠0
I= =
𝑍 36.9∠58.32°
P = I2R or P = VIcosΦ
= 𝟓. 𝟗𝟔∠𝟓𝟖. 𝟑𝟐 𝑨
P=7106 Watts
|𝑅| 20
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 = =
|𝑍| 36.9
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠

3. When a resistor and an inductor are series connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply, a

current of 3 A flows, lagging 37 degrees behind the supply voltage, while the voltage
across the inductor coil is 171 V. Find the resistance of the resistor, resistance of the
inductor and reactance of the inductor.
⃗
V 240∠0
⃗Z = = = 8∠37
I 30∠ − 37
= 6.389 + j4.814

R + r = 6.389 Ω
XL = 4.814 Ω
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 171
|𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 | = |𝑟 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 | = =
𝐼 30
= 5.7 Ω

r 2 = Zcoil 2 − XL 2 = 3.87 Ω
R = 6.389 − 3.87 = 2.518 Ω

Numericals:

1) Two wattmeters measure total power in a 3 phase circuit and are correctly connected.
One wattmeter reads 4800 W and the other reads backwards. On reversing the
connection of the latter, it reads 400 W. What is the total power and power factor.

Solution:

W1= 4800 W, W2 = - 400 W

P3ϕ = W1+W2= 4400 W
   5200   
cos  = cos  tan −1  3     = 0.4389
   4400   

2) Three identical coils having a resistance of 10 Ω and an inductance of 0.05 H each are
connected in star across a 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz., balanced supply. Calculate the load
current and power consumed. What will be the readings of the two wattmeters connected
to measure the total power?
Solution:

X L = 2 fL = 15.707  P3ϕ = W1+W2= 4400 W ----------(1)

   W − W2   
Z ph = R ph 2 + X Lph 2 = 18.62 cos  = cos  tan −1  3  1  
VL 400    W1 + W2   
V ph = =
3 3  W − W2 
tan  = 3  1 
I L = I ph =
V ph
= 12.402 A
 W1 + W2 
I ph
W1 − W2 =
(W1 + W2 ) tan 
P3 = 3.I ph 2 .R ph = 4614.4W 3
R ph W1 − W2 = 4184.49W − − − − − (2)
cos  = = 0.537lagging (1) + (2) gives, W1 = 4399.45W
Z ph
W2 = 214.957W

3) A 3 phase star connected load draws a load current of 25 A. The load kVA and kW are 20
and 16 respectively. Find the reading on each of the two wattmeters used to measure the
3 phase power.

Solution:

Load kVA, ie, apparent power, S=20 kVA

Load kW, ie, active power, P =16 kW

 P (1) + (2) gives,
cos = = 0.8
S 2W1 = 22.928kW
wkt P3 = W1 + W2 W1 = 11.464kW , W2 = 4535W
16kW = W1 + W2 − − − − − − − − − (1)
   W − W2   
cos  = cos  tan −1  3  1  
   W1 + W2   
   W − W2   
0.8 = cos  tan −1  3  1  
   16000   
W1 − W2 = 6928.2W − − − − − − − − − (2)

4) The power flowing in a 440 V, 3ϕ, 3 wire balanced load system is measured by 2
wattmeter method. The reading in the wattmeter A is 750 W and in wattmeter B is 1500
W. What is the power factor of the system and load current per phase?

Solution:

440
V ph = = 254.03V
3
W1 + W2 = P3 = 750 + 1500 = 2250W
 W − W2 
tan  = 3  1  = −0.577
 W1 + W2 
cos = 0.866 lagging
P3 = 3Vl I l cos
I l = I ph = 3.409 A

5) Two wattmeters are connected to measure the input of a 15 H.P, 50 Hz, 3 phase Induction
motor at full load. The full load efficiency and power factor are 0.9 and 0.8 lagging
respectively. Find the readings of the 2 wattmeters.

Solution:

Power output by the 3 phase induction motor at full load = 15 H.P = 15 x 746W Power output
= 11.19kW
 output 11.19 x1000
Power input = = = 12.433kW
 0.9
P3 = W1 + W2 = 12.433kW − − − − − (1)
cos  = 0.8lagging
   W − W2   
cos  = cos  tan −1  3  1  
   W1 + W2   
  W − W2  
cos  −1 0.8 = tan −1  3  1 
  12.433k  
W1 − W2 = 5.378kW − − − − − (2)
W1 = 8.905kW , W2 = 3.527kW

Reactive power= (w1-w2)* root 3 kvar