Linguistics Monograph

1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................
iv
2. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?...............................................................1
3. Key concepts: the phoneme................................................................................................................2
4. The difference between a phoneme and an allophone.......................................................................2
5. Phonetics & Phonology......................................................................................................................3
6. Phonetics vs. Phonology....................................................................................................................3
7. Let’s begin from Alphabets................................................................................................................4
8. Front vowel sounds............................................................................................................................7
9. Back vowel sounds...........................................................................................................................10
10. Central vowel sounds.......................................................................................................................18
11. Combined vowel..............................................................................................................................25
12. Consonants:......................................................................................................................................39
13. Nasal and Oral Sounds.....................................................................................................................42
14. Alveolars .........................................................................................................................................43
15. Stops.................................................................................................................................................44
16. Fricatives..........................................................................................................................................45
17. Liquids..............................................................................................................................................45
18. Supra-segmental Phonemes.............................................................................................................46
19. Sentence and Phrase Stress..............................................................................................................47
20. Conclusion........................................................................................................................................48
Introduction
This book is both for students and teachers who want to improve their pronunciation skills
along speaking. I have deeply mentioned all vowel and consonant sounds with definitions.
This book will fulfill the thirst of those learners who still make mistakes in sounds, so here
we have place and manner of articulation beside that we will find good structure and
phoneme to grapheme rules.
iv
What is Linguistics?
The scientific study and analysis of human language.
Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of speech sounds
Ex:I bought a car./ /aɪ/ /bɔːt/ /ə/ /kɑːr/
 Sound: A disturbance in silence or a single vibration is called sound.
 Voice: Is a sound coming out of human through having identifying and

distinguishing characteristic used for singing and talking purposes.
Note: Every sound is voice, but every voice is not a sound.
What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?

• Phonology deals with the sound systems of languages
• Phonetics deals with the physical realisation of the elements of the sound system,
e.g. how the sound is physically produced (articulatory phonetics), or the acoustic
characteristics of the speech sound (acoustic phonetics)
1
Key concepts: the phoneme
• The smallest speech sound that has linguistic value
• When a series of phones are similar in terms of articulation and can be distinguished
from another group in terms of meaning and collocation, the group is given a name
e.g. /t/. This is a phoneme.
• The phoneme is an abstract term, specific to a particular language.
Key concepts: the allophone
• Each phoneme may have different realisations depending on the context in which it
is found e.g. consider the different articulations of /s/ in seen and soon.
In the first, the phoneme is produced with spread lips, as /i:/ follows.
In the second /s/ is realised with rounded lips, to prepare for the following
rounded vowel, /u:/.
This second, rounded /s/ is a variation, or allophone of the phoneme. It is

indicated with a special symbol called a diacritic [s½].
The difference between a phoneme and an allophone.

• If one allophone is exchanged with another, e.g. if seen is produced with a [s½], the
word, while perhaps sounding a bit strange, is still comprehensible
• If one phoneme is swapped with another, e.g. seen is produced with a /b/, instead of
a /s/, the meaning of the word changes
Phonemic v. Phonetic transcription (‘broad’ v. ‘Narrow’)
• Slashes // are used to indicated phonemic transcription (also called broad

transcription). This is specific to a particular language, e.g. the English and Italian /t/
phonemes are quite different
• Square brackets [ ] are used for phonetic (also called narrow) transcription. This
gives detailed information on the speech produced, e.g. characteristics of an accent
of a language, or of the speech of a particular person.
2
Phonetics &Phonology.
Phonology. Phonology deals with the system and pattern of speech sounds in a
language.
Phonology of a language is the system and pattern of speech sounds.
Phonological knowledge permits us to;
produce sounds which form meaningful utterances,
to recognize a “foreign” accent,
to make up new words,
To know what is or is not a sound in one’s language
to know what different sound strings may represent
Phonetics vs. Phonology.
3
Easy learn pronunciation
Let’s begin from Alphabets.

A.B.C.D.E.F.G.H.I.J.K.L.M
N.O.PQ.R.S.T.U.V.W.X.Y.Z
Language sound
 Vowel
 Consonant
We usually write phonetic symbols in slants or slashes./ /
We mostly use double : it means full colon it just enlarges a sound.
 Basically phonetics are written by two scholars,

 1) Jc-wells
 2) johns
 So we are following Jc-wells method here in this book.
Alphabet.
Prepared By: Sir. Sifatullah Sifat
4
Written purpose Pronunciation purpose
Ex: Sure /ʃʊr/
Machine /məˈʃiːn/
Wash /wɑːʃ/
 Front vowel sounds, /iː/,/i/, /ɪ/,/e/, /æ/.
 Back vowel sounds, /ɑː/, /ɒ/, /ɔː/, /uː/, /ʊ/
 Central vowel sounds,/ʌ/, /ɝː/ ,/ə/
5
The above map shows all vowel sounds that we have in this book.
6
Front vowel sounds

, /iː/ , /i/, /ɪ/ , /e/, /æ/ .
Grapheme –to- phoneme rules
(1) /iː/
Sound is possible at the beginning, middle, and at the end.
(ee)
ee- -ee- -ee
Eel /iːl/ Meet /miːt/ See /siː/

Eek /iːk/ Week /wiːk/ Flee /fliː/
Feet /fiːt/ Tree /triː/
Whenea gives /iː/ sound?
(ea)
ea-
Eat /iːt/
East /iːst/
Easter /ˈiː.stə r /
7
When single e gives /iː/ sound?
(e)
e- -e- -e
Economics /iː.kəˈnɒm.ɪk/ complete /kəmˈpliːt/ me /miː/
Eventual Meat /miːt/ We /wiː/
(2) /i/
/i/ Sound is possible always at the end.
(Y)
y- y- y-
Country /ˈkʌn.tri/ Cloudy /ˈklaʊ.di/ Baby /ˈbeɪ.bi/

Happy /ˈhæp.i/ Juicy /ˈdʒuː.si/ Shabby /ˈʃæb.i/
Tidy /ˈtaɪ.di/ Silly /ˈsɪl.i/ Easy /ˈiː.zi/
lazy /ˈleɪ.zi/ spicy /ˈspaɪ.si/ Noisy /ˈnɔɪ.zi/
(3) /ɪ/
Sound is possible at the beginning and middle.
When letter I gives /ɪ/ sound?
i- -i-
Ink /ɪŋk/ His /hɪz/

8
Inter /ɪnˈtɜː r / Pick /pɪk/
(5)/e/
ESound is possible at the beginning and middle.
(e)
e- -e-
End /end/ Bed /biːˈed/
Extra /ˈek.strə/ Shed /ʃed/
Enter /ˈen.tə r / Fresh /freʃ/
(ea) When ea gives /e/ sound?
ea
Head /hed/
Bread /bred/
Spread /spred/
9
(5) /æ/ Sound is possible at the beginning and middle.
When letter a gives /æ/ sound?
a- -a-
Act /ækt/ Bad /bæd/

Actor /ˈæk.tə r / Had /hæd/
Action /ˈæk.ʃ ə n/ Cat /kæt/
Add /æd/ Sad /sæd/
Back vowel sounds

 , /ɑː/, /ɒ/, /ɔː/, /uː/, /ʊ/
(1) /ɑː/
a- -a- -a
Art /ɑːrt/ Dark /dɑːrk/ Schwa /ʃwɑː/
Arch /ɑːrtʃ/ Car /kɑːr/
Are /ɑːr/ Star /stɑːr/
10
(2) /ɒ/
(o)
0- -o-
Odd /ɒd/ Doll /dɒl/

Optic /ˈɒp.tɪk/ Box /bɒks/
Oxford pot /pɒt/
11
(3) /ɔː/
When aw gives /ɔː/ sound?
aw- -aw- -aw
Awesome /ˈɔː.səm/ Dawn /dɔːn/ Law /dɔːn/
Awkward /ˈɔː.kwəd/ Claw /klɔː/
Awful /ˈɔː.f ə l/ Paw /pɔː/
When letter a gives /ɔː/ sound?
(a)
a- -a-
All /ɔːl/ Talk /tɔːk/

Alright /ɔːlˈraɪt/ Walk /wɔːk/
Always /ˈɔːl.weɪz/ Tall /tɔːl/
12
When augives /ɔː/ sound?
Au-
Taught /tɔːt/
Caught /kɔːt/
Author /ˈɔː.θə r /
When ou gives /ɔː/ sound?
(ou)
0u- -ou-
Thought /θɔːt/ Four /fɔːr

Bought /bɔːt/ Court /kɔːt/
Fought /fɔːt/ Pour pɔː r /
When o gives /ɔː/ sound?
13
(o)
0- -o-
Or /ɔː r / Bore /bɔː r /

More /mɔː r /
Sword /sɔːrd/
When oo gives /ɔː/ sound?
Sound is possible at the middle.
oo-
Door /dɔːr/
When oa gives /ɔː/ sound?
oa-
Soar /sɔːr/
Board /bɔːrd/
(4) /uː/
When oo gives/uː/ sound?
oo- -oo- -oo

14
ooze /uːz/ School /skuːl/ Zoo /zuː/

Tool /tuːl/ Tattoo /tætˈuː/
Stool /stuːl/ too /tuː/
Pool /puːl/
When ou gives /uː/ sound?
Sound is possible at the beginning.
ou-
Group /gruːp/
Through /θruː/
/suːp/
Soup
When ew gives /uː/ sound?
Sound is possible at the beginning.
ew-
Flew /fluː/
Knew /nuː/
New /nuː/
15
Brew /bruː/
When u gives /uː/ sound?
Sound is possible at the middle
u-
Student /ˈstjuː.d ə nt/
Flue /fluː/
tune /tuːn/
Music /ˈmjuː.zɪk/
When oe andue gives /uː/ sound?
Sound is possible at the end.
True /truː/
Blue /bluː/
Canoe /kəˈnuː/
Shoe /ʃuː/
(5) /ʊ/
Sound is possible.
oo gives /ʊ/ sound at the middle.
-oo-
Wood /wʊd/
Book /bʊk/
Look /bʊk/
Cook /kʊk/
16
Sound is possible.
Ou gives /ʊ/ sound at the middle.
-ou-
Could /kʊd/
Would /wʊd/
Should /ʃʊd/
Sound is possible.
U gives /ʊ/ sound at the middle.
-u-
Put /pʊt/
Central vowel sounds

 ,/ʌ/, , /ɝː/ ,/ə/
(1) /ʌ/
(u)
u- -u-
Up /ʌp/ Cup
Under /ˈʌn.də r / But
17
Umbrella /ʌmˈbrel.ə/ Cut

Until /ˈʌn-tɪl / Hut
When ou and oe give/ʌ/ sound?
-ou- , -oe-
Couple /ˈkʌp.l ̩/
Touch /tʌtʃ/
Rough /rʌf/
Does /dʌz
When letter o gives /ʌ/ sound?
-o-
Come /kʌm/
Son /sʌn/
Some /sʌm/
Sun /sʌn/
When letter oo give /ʌ/ sound?
-oo-
Blood /blʌd/
Flood /flʌd/
(2) /ɝː/ always before r.

(3) When letter ir give /ʌ/ sound?
-ir-
18
Bird /bɝːd/
Sir /sɝː/
Stir /stɝː/
Virtual /ˈvɜː.tju.əl/
Virtue /ˈvɜː.tjuː/
When letter er give /ʌ/ sound?
-er-
Serve /sɝːv/
When letter ear give /ʌ/ sound?
Sound is possible at the beginning and at the end.
-ear-
Heard
Hearth
Early
Earn
When letter or give /ʌ/ sound?
-ear-
World
Word
Worn
19
When letter ur give /ʌ/ sound?
-ur-
Fur
Murmur
Murder
Turn
Burn
Churn
(4)/ə/

When a gives /ə/ sound?
a- -a- -a
Another /əˈnʌð.ə r / Can /kən/ Comma /ˈkɑː.mə/
Accord /- ə ˈkɔːrd/ Banana /bəˈnɑː.nə/
Panorama /ˌpæn.rˈɑː.mə/
Accept /əkˈsept/ Pizza /ˈpiːt.sə/
Propaganda /ˌprɒp.əˈgæn.də/
Corona /kəˈrəʊ.nə/
20
When ia gives /ə/ sound?
-ia
Russia /ˈrʌ.ʃə/
Asia /ˈeɪ.ʒə/
When ergives /ə/ sound?
-er
Brother /ˈbrʌð.ə r /
Sister /ˈsɪs.tə r /
Letter /ˈlet.ə r /
When ai gives /ə/ sound?
-ai-
Certain /ˈsɜː.t ə n/
curtain /ˈkɜː.t ə n/
Sound is possible at the Beginning.
When o gives /ə/ sound?

21
o-
Occasion /əˈkeɪ.ʒ ə n/
Official /əˈfɪʃ. ə l/
Sound is possible at the Beginning.
When pro gives /ə/ sound?
pro-
Professor /prəˈfes.ə r /
Protest /ˈprəʊ.test/
Prohibit /prəˈhɪb.ɪt/
Provision /prəˈvɪʒ. ə n/
Provoke /prəˈvəʊk/
Promote /prəˈməʊt/
When a word ends with ment there letter e functions as /ə/ sound?
pro-
Engagement /ɪnˈgeɪdʒ.mənt/
Treatment /ˈtriːt.mənt/
Moment /ˈmuːv.mənt/
Environment /ɪnˈvaɪə .rə n .mənt/
Appointment /əˈpɔɪnt.mənt/
Management /ˈmæn.ɪdʒ.mənt/
Sound is possible.
22
When the words end with following leterrs?
-tial /ə/ -martial /ˈmɑː.ʃə l/
-cial /ə/ -special/ˈspeʃ. ə l/
-ful /ə/ -beautiful /ˈbjuː.tɪ.f ə l/
-able /ə/ -acceptable/əkˈsept.ə.bl ̩/
-tion /ə/ -nation/ˈneɪ.ʃ ə n/
-cious /ə/ -delicious/dɪˈlɪʃ.əs/
/iː/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/
Beat Bit Bet Bat
Neat Neat Net Gnat
Peak Pick Pick Pack
Seat Sit Set Sat
Exam.
23
Ex: We had already bought a new pen
/wiː/,/hæd/,/ɔːlˈred.i/,/bɔːt/,/ə/,/nuː/,/pen/
Ex: She dropped another cap.
/ʃiː/, /drɑːpt/,/əˈnʌð.ə r /,/kæp/
Combined vowel
Diphthong Trip tongue
(1) Diphthong
24
 Is a single vowel sound that made by two vowels sounds one pronounced so quickly
after the other the difference cannot be noticed.
(1) /ɑː / + /ɪ/ = /aɪ/
When letter I gives /aɪ/ sound.
i- -i-
Ice /aɪs/ Kite /kaɪt/
Idol /ˈaɪ.d ə l/ Knight /naɪt/
Idea /aɪˈdɪə/ Fright /fraɪt/
When letters ie give /aɪ/ sound?
-ie
Die /daɪ/
Lie /laɪ/
Pie /paɪ/
Tie /taɪ/
When letters y give /aɪ/ sound?
Sound is possible.
25
y
Cycle /ˈsaɪ.kl ̩/
Sky /skaɪ/
Cry /kraɪ/
Shy /ʃaɪ/
By /baɪ/
When letters ye give /aɪ/ sound?
ye
Bye /baɪ/
Eye /aɪ/
When letters uy give /aɪ/ sound?
uy
Buy /baɪ/
Gaye /baɪ/
When letters ui give /aɪ/ sound?
ui
Guide /gaɪd/
Quite /kwaɪt/
26
Exam.
Ex: I like icy nights.
/aɪ/,/laɪk/,/ˈaɪ.si/,/naɪts/
Ex: I buy tie.
/aɪ/,/baɪ/,/aɪ/,
(2)/ɔː/ + /ʊ/ =
/aʊ//
Sound is possible at the end
When letters wn gives /aʊ/ sound?
ow
Now /naʊ/
Cow /kaʊ/
Allow /əˈlaʊ/
When letters ow gives /aʊ/ sound?
-ow-
27
Frown /fraʊn/
Crown /kraʊn/
Brown /braʊn/
Drown /draʊn/
When letters ou gives /aʊ/ sound?
-ou
Shout /ʃaʊt/
Mouth /maʊθ/
Sound /saʊnd/
Pound /paʊnd/
Around /əˈraʊnd/
Out /aʊt/
(2) /ɔː/+ /ɪ/ = /ɔɪ/
When oi gives /ɔɪ/ sound?
-oi
Boil /bɔɪl/
Coil /kɔɪl/
Soil /sɔɪl/
Foil /fɔɪl/
Toil /tɔɪl/
Oil /ɔɪl/
Poison /ˈpɔɪ.z ə n/
When oy gives /ɔɪ/ sound?

28
-o
Boy /bɔɪ/
Toy /tɔɪ/
Enjoy /ɪnˈdʒɔɪ/
Destroy /dɪˈstrɔɪ/
Employ /ɪmˈplɔɪ/
Deploy /dɪˈplɔɪ/
(4)/e/ + /ɪ/ = /eɪ/
When ay gives /eɪ/ sound?
ay
Play /pleɪ/
Day /deɪ/
Ray /deɪ/
Way /weɪ/
Say /weɪ/
pray /preɪ/
When ey gives /eɪ/ sound?
Sound is possible at the middle .
ey
Convey /kənˈveɪ/
Prey /preɪ/
29
When a gives /eɪ/ sound?
Sound is possible at the middle and end.
a
Face /feɪs/
Mate /meɪt/
Date /deɪt/
Graduate /ˈgrædʒ.u.ət/
Separate /ˈsep. ə r.ət/
Hate /heɪt/
Patient /ˈpeɪ.ʃ ə nt/
Plate /pleɪt/
When ai gives /eɪ/ sound?
ai
Tail /teɪl/
Wait /weɪt/
Lain /leɪn/
Plain /leɪn/
Grain /leɪn/
Vain /veɪn
plate /pleɪt/
When ei gives /eɪ/ sound?
Sound is possible at the middle .
ei
Veil /veɪl/
(3) /ə/ = /ʊ/ /əʊ/
30
When o gives /əʊ/ sounds?
Sound is possible at the beginning, middle and at the end.
o
Old /əʊld/
Bold bəʊld/
Go /gəʊ/
No /nəʊ/
Home /həʊm/
Dome /dəʊm/
Told /təʊld/
So /səʊ/
When oa gives /əʊ/ sounds?
oa
Road /rəʊd/
Boat /bəʊt/
Float /fləʊt/
When ou gives /əʊ/ sounds?
oa
Shoulder /ˈʃəʊl.də r /
Soul /səʊl/
oe
31
toe /təʊ/
foe /fəʊ/
ow
Crow /krəʊ/
Know /nəʊ/
Flow /fləʊ/
(4) /e/ + /ə/ = /eə /
When ai gives /eə / sound?
ai
Air /eə r /
Hair /heə r /
Fair /feə r /
Chair /tʃeə r /
Stair /steə r /
When a gives /eə / sound?
a
Stare /steə r /
Care /keə r /
Bare /beə r /
Dare /deə r /
Fare /feə r /
Hare /heə r /
32
Share /ʃeə r /
Rare /reə r /
When eagives /eə / sound?
ea
Tear /teə r /
Bear /beə r /
Swear /sweə r /
Wear /weə r /
When aye gives /eə / sound?
aye
Prayer /preə r /
(7) /ɪ/ = /ə/ =/ɪə/
When egives /ɪə/ sound?
e
Here /hɪər /
Mere /mɪər /
When ee gives /ɪə/ sound?
ee
33
Deer /dɪər /
Sheer /ʃɪər /
Peer /pɪər /
When ei /ɪə/ sound?
ei
Weird /wɪərd/
When ia gives /ɪə/ sound?
ia
Peculiar /wɪəd/
(5) /ʊ/ = /ə/ + /ʊə/
When ou gives /ʊə/ sound?
ou
Tour /tʊər /
Tourist /ˈtʊə.rɪst/
When oo gives /ʊə/ sound?
oo
34
Moor /mʊər /
When ugives /ʊə/ sound?
Pure /pjʊə r /
Secure /sɪˈkjʊər /
Exam: Where there is a well there is a way /weə r / /ðeə r //ɪz//ə/ /wel//ðeə r //ɪz//ə//weɪ/
(2)Trip tongue
 Trip tongue always happens in the time when in a diphthong we face (R-L) always
with/ə/.
(1) /aʊ/ = /ə/ + / aʊə /
When our gives / aʊə / sound?
Sound is possible.
Our /aʊər /
Hour /aʊər /
Sour /saʊər /
35
When owe gives / aʊə / sound?
Sound is possible.
Power /paʊər /
Tower /taʊər /
Shower /ʃaʊər /
Flower /ˈflaʊ.ə r /
/əʊ+ə / British
(2)/oʊ+ɚ/ American
/oʊ+ɚ/
When wer gives / aʊə / sound?
Wer- Wer-
Lower /ˈloʊ.ɚ/ Blower /bləʊər /

Slower Mower /ˈmoʊ.ɚ/
Thrower /-ˌθroʊ.ɚ/ Rower /ˈroʊ.ɚ/
(2) /ɔɪ / + /ə/ = /ɔɪə /
Sound is possible.
36
Employer /ɪmˈplɔɪ.ə r /
Destroyer /dɪˈstrɔɪ.ə r /
(3) /eɪ/ + /ə/ = /eɪə /
Sound is possible.
yer
Player /ˈpleɪ.ə r /
 Conjunction:
Weak form Strong form

Because /bɪˈkəz/ /- bɪˈkɑːz/
But /bət/ /bʌt/
And / ə nd/ /ænd/
Until / ə nˈtɪl/ /ˈʌn- tɪl /
Or /ə r / /ɔːr/
For /fə r / /fɔːr/
 Preposition:
Weak form Strong form

At /ət/ /æt/
For /fə r / /fɔːr/
From /frəm/ /frɑːm/
About /əˈba:ʊt/ /əˈbaʊt/
Under / əˈn.də r / /ˈʌn.də r /
To /tʊ/ /tuː/
37
Consonants:
 BILABIALS
 LABIO-DENTALS
 INTERDENTALS
 ALVEOLARS
 PALATALS
 VELARS
 STOPS
 FRICATIVES
 AFFRICATES
 NASALS (NASALIZING)
 VOICING
38
39
The above map shows all consonant sounds that we have in this book.
40
Vowels and Consonants.Phonetically, it is easy to give definitions:
A vowel is any sound with no audible noise produced by constriction in the vocal
tract,
And consonant is a sound with audible noise produced by a constriction.
Articulatory Phonetics. The production of any speech sound involves the movement
of an air stream.
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing the air out of the lungs through the
mouth (oral) and sometimes through the nose (nasal).
Voiced and Voiceless Sounds. The air stream from the lungs passes through an
opening between the vocal cords, the glottis
If the vocal cords are apart and the airstream is not obstructed at the glottis, the
sounds produced this way are voiceless.
If the vocal cords are together and the airstream forces its way through, the vocal
cords vibrate and the sounds produced this way are voiced
41
Nasal and Oral Sounds.

When the soft palate or velum is raised to block the passage of air stream through the nose
and forced through the mouth, sounds produced this way are called oral.
If you force the air out of the nose by closing your lips or blocking the oral passage,
sounds produced this way are called nasal.
Places of Articulation.
Labials (bilabials, labiodentals)
Alveolars
Velars
Interdentals
Palatals
Glottals
Labials. [b], [p], [m], [f] and [v] are labials
When we produce [b], [p], or [m], we articulate them by bringing together both lips.
These speech sounds are called bilabials
When we produce [f] and [v], we articulate by touching the bottom lip to the upper
teeth.
These speech sounds are called labiodentals
42
Alveolars .
[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], and [l] are alveolars.
When we produce these sounds we raise the tip of our tongue toward the hard palate
and touch the alveolar ridge. These speech sounds are called alveolars
When we produce [f] and [v], we articulate by touching the bottom lip to the upper
teeth.
Velars.[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], and [l] are alveolars.
When we produce these sounds we raise the tip of our tongue toward the hard palate
and touch the alveolar ridge. These speech sounds are called alveolars
When we produce [f] and [v], we articulate by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth.
When we produce these sounds we insert the tip of our tongue between the upper
and the lower teeth. These speech sounds are called interdentals.
When we produce these sounds we raise the front part of our tongue to a point on
the hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge. These speech sounds are called
palatals.
43
MannersofArticulation.
Stops
Fricatives
Affricates
Liquids
Glides
Stops.
When the air stream enters the oral cavity it may be stopped, obstructed, or flow freely.
When the air is completely stopped for a brief period of time, these speech sounds
are called stops.
[b], [p], [t], [d], [k] and [g] are stops.
44
Fricatives.
When the air is not stopped completely but is obstructed from flowing freely, these speech
sounds are called fricatives.
Affricates. Some sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately a

slow release of the closure as in a fricative. These speech sounds are called
affricates.
Liquids.
When there is some obstruction of the air stream but not enough to cause friction,
these speech sounds are called liquids.[l] and [r] are liquids.
45
Supra-segmental Phonemes.
Pitch
Tone
Intonation
Stress
Pitch.is the speed at which the vocal cords vibrate. The faster the they vibrate, the
higher the pitch.
Pitch has the power to alter the meaning:
Tone.is the relation between the pitch of different syllables.
46
Most languages in the world are tone languages-except a few like English.
High tone vs low tone
Stress.In all content word, one or more of the syllables are stressed.
Subject The subject of the story
Subject He’ll subject us to his boring stories.
Present I would like to present this present.
Sentence and Phrase Stress.

White House the US president’s house
White House a house painted white
47
Conclusion
Easy learn pronunciation (the book) gives an accessible and sensible overview of
English phonology and approaches to teaching it. While it does not cover the
phonological details of some others reference works, it is very teaching-focused in what
is included and tackles issues relevant teachers. Such as intelligibility and factors that
influence what and individual can learn. It is also refreshing in its inclusion of non
native teachers and its attention to how we can approach pronunciation teaching in
classroom. There are also many useful professional development activities on wide
range of topics through out this pronunciation contextual book.
To conclude I have to say that this book provides a useful overview of the sound
system of English. While it is not easy reading, it covers the essential of what teachers
need to know about phonological theory thoroughly approach to our models and goals
in teaching pronunciation.
48
References
1) Cambridge Dictionary Second Edition.

2) Longman American Contemporary Dictionary.
3) And all English Language dictionaries.
49

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1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................

The scientific study and analysis of human language.

Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of speech sounds

Ex:I bought a car./ /aɪ/ /bɔːt/ /ə/ /kɑːr/

 Sound: A disturbance in silence or a single vibration is called sound.

 Voice: Is a sound coming out of human through having identifying and

Note: Every sound is voice, but every voice is not a sound.

What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?

• The phoneme is an abstract term, specific to a particular language.

Key concepts: the allophone

This second, rounded /s/ is a variation, or allophone of the phoneme. It is

The difference between a phoneme and an allophone.

Phonemic v. Phonetic transcription (‘broad’ v. ‘Narrow’)

• Slashes // are used to indicated phonemic transcription (also called broad

Phonology of a language is the system and pattern of speech sounds.

Phonological knowledge permits us to;

produce sounds which form meaningful utterances,

to recognize a “foreign” accent,

to make up new words,

To know what is or is not a sound in one’s language

to know what different sound strings may represent

Phonetics vs. Phonology.

Let’s begin from Alphabets.

We usually write phonetic symbols in slants or slashes./ /

We mostly use double : it means full colon it just enlarges a sound.

 Basically phonetics are written by two scholars,

Written purpose Pronunciation purpose

Ex: Sure /ʃʊr/

 Front vowel sounds, /iː/,/i/, /ɪ/,/e/, /æ/.

 Back vowel sounds, /ɑː/, /ɒ/, /ɔː/, /uː/, /ʊ/

 Central vowel sounds,/ʌ/, /ɝː/ ,/ə/

Prepared By: Sir. Sifatullah Sifat

Prepared By: Sir. Sifatullah Sifat

Front vowel sounds

Grapheme –to- phoneme rules

ee- -ee- -ee

Eel /iːl/ Meet /miːt/ See /siː/

Whenea gives /iː/ sound?

Prepared By: Sir. Sifatullah Sifat

When single e gives /iː/ sound?

Eventual Meat /miːt/ We /wiː/

/i/ Sound is possible always at the end.

Country /ˈkʌn.tri/ Cloudy /ˈklaʊ.di/ Baby /ˈbeɪ.bi/

Sound is possible at the beginning and middle.

When letter I gives /ɪ/ sound?

Ink /ɪŋk/ His /hɪz/

Inter /ɪnˈtɜː r / Pick /pɪk/

ESound is possible at the beginning and middle.

(ea) When ea gives /e/ sound?

Prepared By: Sir. Sifatullah Sifat

(5) /æ/ Sound is possible at the beginning and middle.

When letter a gives /æ/ sound?

Act /ækt/ Bad /bæd/

Back vowel sounds

Sound is possible at the beginning, middle, and at the end.

Art /ɑːrt/ Dark /dɑːrk/ Schwa /ʃwɑː/

Arch /ɑːrtʃ/ Car /kɑːr/

Are /ɑːr/ Star /stɑːr/

Prepared By: Sir. Sifatullah Sifat

Sound is possible at the beginning and middle.