AIM: To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insect and birds).

REQUIREMENTSS
Fresh flowers of maize or any other cereal/grass, Salvia/Ocimum and Brassica (mustard) forceps
hand lens, slide, needle etc.

PROCEDURE
Place the given flower on a slide and observe it with the help of hand lens. Note down the
for pollination by the external agencies.
adaptations of the flowers meant

Maize Flowers (Anemophilous or Wind Pollinated Flowers)

The flowers of maize show following adaptations for pollination by
wind.
male flowers are born in terI
1 The maize plant is monoecious and bears unisexual flowers. The
inflorescence while the female flowers are born in axillary inflorescence.

2. Flowers are small and inconscipicous.

3. The flowers are colourless, odourless and nectarless.

Flowers are produced above the foliage or placed in hanging position.
Both the stigmas and anthers are exerted (i.e., hang outside the perianth).
5.
6 Anthers are versatile, and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.

7. The pollen grains are produced in very large numbers.

C o r eE x p e n i m e n t s
59

1a is hairy, feathery or branched to catch wind born pollen grains.

Stigma
.

Male flowers

Tassel

Pollen grains

Versatile
Cob anther

Elongated Feathery
styles stigma
Pollen grains Ovary
of another plant
Stigmas

maize. Fig. 9.2.Feathery stigmas and versatile

Fig. 9.1. Anemophily in anthers in a flower of grass.

Salvia Flowers (Entomophilous or Insect PollinatedFlowers

pollination by insects.
The flowers of Saliva show following adaptations for
insects.
1The fowers are showy or brightly coloured for attracting pollinating
2. The flowers are born in verticellaster inflorescence to become conspicuous
are placed in such a position that
.Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands
an insect must touch both the anthers and stigmas.

4 The flowers have landing platform for the insects.

he flowers are protandrons with bilipped corolla and
have turn pipe or lever mechanism.
the end and sterile
has long connective which bears a fertile antherlobe upper at
Each stamen
anther plates block the path of insect.
Plate like anther lobe at the lower end. The two sterile
its head pushes, the anther plates
n ensect moves inward a young flower
in search of nectar,
and forces the fertile anther lobes to strike against its back.
that it brushes against the back
older flowers the style brings the stigma in such a position a
insect from young fHower.
Sect and collect pollen grains brought by the
 Comprehensive Laboratory Manuali
60 Biology
Bi

Closed stigma Fertile

anther lobe

Shedding of
pollen grains
on the back
of insect

Sterile B
A anther lobe Stigma
Nectariferous Mature receiving
disc stigma pollen grains
from the back
of insect

C D
Withering
anther
Fig. 9.3. Pollination in Salvia. A. Flower with mature
anthers, enclosed stigma and short style.
B. Shedding of pollen grains on the back of
entering insect. C. Flower with mature stigma and withening
anthers. D. Stigma receiving pollen grains from the back of entering insect.

Bignonia/Callistemon (Bottle brush) Flowers (Ornithophilous or Bird Pollinate

Flowers)
The flowers of
Bignonia show following adaptations for pollination by birds.
The flowers are usually
brightly coloured-red, orange, yellow or blue.
The floral parts are commonly
leathery.

Humming bird
Fig. 9.4. Pollination in
Bignonia. Humming bird collecting nectar from
Bignonia flower and thus pollinating it.
Core Experiments 61

3, In some cases, the corolla are leathery.

The flowers secrete abundant watery nectar or have edible parts.
4.
5 The nectar is secreted in such abundance that drops of it can be brought dowm by shaking
branches.

6. The flowers are generally odourless or withoutfragrance.

 EXPERIMENT 11.1
AIM: To study and identify the stages of gamete development in mouse (mammal) i.e., T.S. of
testis andL.S. ofovary through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of T.S. of testis and L.S. of ovary, microscope.

PROCEDURE
Fix the permanent slide under the microscope. First observe it under the low power and then
under high power.

OBSERVATION
T.S. of Testis
1. The testis of a mouse (mammal) is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.
2 ne testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.
3 arious types of
germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following sequence.
opermatogonia > Spermatocytes -> Spermatids -> Spermatozoa> Sperms.
Detween the germinal
cells, pyramid shaped cells called sertoli cells are present.
66 Comprchensive Laboratory Manual in Biole
5 sertoli cells
A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded in sertoli cells ar
are
Biology-
lumen of seminiferous tubule. present in th
The interstitial tissue also contain leydigs cells, which produce male sex hormone
ne testosterone
Visceral
peritoneum
Tunica
albuginea
Blood vessel
Seminiferous
Spermatozoa
tubule Spermatid

Sertoli cell Secondary N

spermatocyte
Primary
Connective spematocyte
tissue
Germinal epithelium Sertoli cell
Spermatogonia
Spermatocytes Spermatogoniun
Spermatids
Spermatozoa
Interstitial
cells
B

Fig. 11.1. A. A Part

of transverse section of testis of mouse (mammal).
B. Sectional view of of
a part seminiferous tubule (enlarged)
V.S. of Ovary
1. A solid structure bounded by
mouse ovary is a
germinal epithelium followed by a thick laye
fibrous tissue, the tunica
albuginia.
Cortex Egg nest Anatha
Primary follicle
Secondary
Blood follicle
vessel
Tertiary
follicle

Mesovarium- Visceral
peritoneum

Graafian follicle
Corpus
albicans

Corpus luteum

Ruptured follicle
Medulla

Fig. 11.2. A section of

ovary of mouse (mammal)
Core Experiments
67
The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.

3 The medulla contains many rounded or oval bodies called

ovarian or Graafian follicles at various
stages of development.

4. The medulla also contains blood vessels, nerves fibres and some smooth muscles.
5. Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many
layers of cells.follicle
6. The cortex contains young and mature follicles.
7. The cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termed corpus luteum, formed in an
empty Graafian follicle after the release of its ovum.

PRECAUTIONS
1 First observe the slide under low power and then under the
high power of the microscope.
2 Use fine adjustment of the microscope for focussing the slide under high power.
 EXPERIMENT 13.1

slide.
AIM: To study T.S. of blastula through permanent

REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of blastula, microscope.

PROCEDURE
Fix the slide of T.S. of blastula under microscope. First observe the slide under low power and
then under high power of the microscope.
Inner cell mass
(Formative cells)

Trophoectoderm

Trophoblast)

Blastocoel
Zona
pellucida
Albuminous layer
around the zona

Fig. 13.1. T.S. of blastula.

CoreExperiments
75
OBSERVATIONS

It is a spherical mass of about sixty four cells.

2 It is composed of an outer envelope of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and inner cell
mass (= embryoblast).
Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.
4 The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the embryonic or
animal pole, while the opposite side is the abembryonic pole.
5. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.

PRECAUTIONS
First focus the slide under low power and then under the
high power of the microscope.
2. Use fine adjustment while focussing the slide under high power of the microscope.
 1 TO STUDY AND IDENTIFY ASCARIS AND sYMPTOMS OF DISEASE CAUSED BY IT
or roundworm is one of the common parasites found in the intestine of human beings.
Ascaris o r r o u n d w o r m

Aim
To study and identify Ascaris and symptoms of disease caused by it.

Materials Required

Permanent slides and specimen jars of Ascaris

Compound microscope

Theory/Principle
Ascaris lumbricoides is the giant growing to a length of up to 35 cm. It is one of several species
roundworm of humans,

af Ascaris. An Ascaris Lumbricoides of the phylum Nematoda, it is the most common parasitic worm in humans. This
ascariasis.
organism is responsible for the disease

Procedure
Observe the permanent slide of Ascaris under compound microscope.
.Note down the featuresof organism in the practical record book.
.Draw labelled diagram of the Ascaris observed.

Observations

Classifcation
Phylum Nemathelminthes
Class Nematoda
Order Ascaroidea
Genus Ascaris
Species Iumbricoides

Comments
Ascaris is a common endoparasite of man found in the small intestine.
h is elongated, cylindrical, wormiform, yellowish or pinkish in colour and tapering at both the ends.
Size: Male - 15-30 cm x 3-5 mm

Female- 20-40 cm x 6-8 mm

Mouth is triradiate at anterior end and surrounded by 3 lips (1 mid dorsal +2 ventrolateral).
FOSsess 4 longitudinal epidermal lines in the entire length of the body (1 dorsal, 1 ventral and 2 lateral lines).
Amphid (chemoreceptor) gustatory helps in feeding.
Possess well-marked sexual dimorphism.
1 is curved ventrally in male while straight in female.
Male is smaller
than female.
ital aperture in female is at mid-ventral from anterior end.
Spicule, cloaca, pre anal and post anal papillae are present in male but absent in female.

ACICAL SKILLS IN
BIOOGY-12 165
 9 to 12 months.
Life span
I t causes Ascariasis.

Mouth bounded by lips

Excretory pore

Lateralline
Gonopore

Cuticle

Penial setae

or spicules

Cloacal aperture
Anus
(a)
Tail

(b)
Female
Ascaris lumbricoides (a) Male, (b)

Mode of Infection

water contaminated with embryonated

eggs.
Food and

Second stage rhabditiform

larva is infective stage of parasite.
Symptoms of Ascariasis

Loss of appetite
Insomnia

Colic pain
Abdominal discomfort.
Iregular bowel movement

Occasional vomiting
Anaemia

Result
Various identification characteristics of Ascaris has been studied.

PRACTICAL SKILLS IN BiOLOGY-I2

166
Aim
To study and identify Entamoeba histolytica and comments on the disease caused by it.
Materials Required
Permanent slides of Entamoeba
Compound microscope
 Procedure
. Observe the permanent slide of Entamoeba under compound microscope.
.Note down the characteristics ofthe organism in the practical record book.
Draw labelled diagram ofthe Entamoeba histolytica observed.

Observations
Classification
Phylun Protozoa
Class Rhizopoda or Sarcodina
Order Lobosa
Genus Entamoeba
Species histolytica

Comments
I t is a monogenetic endoparasite of man found in the upper part of large intestine (colon).
I t occurs in two distinct forms:
Trophozoite form/Magna form
Precystic form/Minuta form.
Food vacuoles

Nucleus
Plasmalemma

Ectoplasm

Endoplasm-

Nucleus

Pseudopodium

Ingested bacteria Ingested red blood cells

Trophozoite form Minuta form

Polymorphic Forms of Entamoeba histolytica

Trophozoite form
I t is active and feeding stage which is pathogenic in nature.
Contractile vacuole is absent.
Monopodial condition is present and pseudopodia is lobopodia type.
Precystic form
I t is spherical and inactive stage.
I t encysts only in the lumen of intestine and not in tissues.
I t causes amoebiasis (amoebic dysentry)

168 PRACTICAL SKILLS IN B1OLOGY-12

Mode o f I n f e c t i o n

Food
and water contaminated
with cysts of Entamoeba. Tetranucleate cyst is the infective stage.
Symptoms
Constipation

.Abdominal pain and cramps

Stools with excess mucous and blood clots.

Result
Various identification characteristics of Entamoeba histolytica has been studied.
 Aim
To study and identify Plasmodium and comment on the disease caused by it.
Materials Required
Permanent slides of Plasmodium
Compound microscope
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN BIOLOGY-12 169
Procedure
Observe the permanent slide
of Plasmodium under compound microscope.
Note down the features of
organism in the practical record book.
Draw well labelled diagram of
the Plasmodium observed.
Observations
Classification
Phylum Protozoa
Class Sporozoa
Order Haemosporidia
Genus Plasmodium

Comments
I t is a digenic endoparasite of man.
I t completes its life eycle in two different hosts:
Man- Primary host
Female Anopheles -

Secondary host.
I t s asexual cycle is completed in man while its sexual cycle is completed in female Anopheles mosquito.
I t causes malaria.

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Spindle-shaped sporozoites of Plasmodium

Mode of Infection
Bite of female Anopheles. Sporozoite is the infective stage of Plasmodium for humans while gametocytes is the
infective stage for female Anopheles mosquito.

Symptoms
Chill and high fever recurring atter every 3 to 4 days.
Pain in bones and joints.
Headache

170 BIOLOGY-12
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN
 Metacryptozoites
Cryptozoites or Merozoites
Infective sporozoites Schizont or Merozoites Schizont
Liver cell
R.B.C

N Pro-erythrocytic Liver cell Trophozoite

Exo-Erythrocytic
-Relapse
Sporogony In Man
Signet
ring
Sporozoites Vacuole
Schizont
Salivary gland
Fission in Oocyst

Sporogony in Mosquito
- Merozoites
Sporoblasts Liver cell
Sporocyst Haemozoin
or Oocyst
Schuffner's¥

Oocyst
Stomach
Megagamete
dots
Gametocytes R.B.C

SOuter

Zygote Gametes

Ookinete passes out

with faeces
Microgamete
Life cycle of Plasmodium Vivax

Result
anous identification characteristics and life cycle of plasmodium virax have been studied.
Aim

To study various features of ringworm.

Materials Required
Preserved specimens/permanent slides of ringworm fungus
Compound microscope

Theory/Principle
Ringworm also known as dermatophytosis is a fungal infection of the skin. Ringworm is a misnomer. The infection
is not caused by worm. It is caused by a fungus. Three different types of fungi can cause this infection. They are
called trichophyton, microsporum, and epidermophyton. Ringworm infection can affect both humans and animals.
The infection initially presents itself with red patches on affected areas of the skin and later spreads to other parts of
the body. The infection may affect the skin of the scalp, feet, groin, beard, or other areas
Procedure
Observe the specimen/permanent slides of ringworm fungus.
Note down the features of organism in the practical record book.
Draw well labelled diagrams of the ringworm fungus observed.

Observations
Classification
Kingdom Fungi
Class Deuteromycetes
Genus Trichophyten
Species rubrum

Comments
Ringworm is the most common infectious disease in man.
I t is caused by fungi belonging to genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton.
I t causes skin infection.

172 PRACTICAL SKILLS IN BIoLOGY-I2

 present in soit and can be transmitted from infected animals humans.
The fungi are or

The disease is
characterised by appearance of dry, scaly lesions in various parts of body like skin, nails and scalp
by intense itching.
accompanied

The fungus grows

under the skin and produce large number of spores which cause infection.
Mode of I n f e c t i o n

with infected persons, or their belongings like scissors, clips may spreadinfection.
Dhvsical contact

Symptoms

of skin is itchy, red, raised, scaly

patches.
area
lnfected like appearance.
red on the periphery than in the center creating a ring
Itis more

Result
studied.
Features of ringwornm fungus have been
Aim
To study homologous and
analogous organs.

Materials Required
.Models of wings of insect and birds
.Forelimbs of frog and man

Theory/Principle
Homology refers to similar structures with dissimilar functions, but with similar
origin and architecture. The forelimbs
of higher vertebrates are examples of
homologous organs. The forelimbs of a bird, whale, cat, a horse, a bat, a monkey
and a man are doing different functions but
they have similar anatomy in all the animals. Organs with different origin
but the same functions are known to be
analogous. Wings of insects, birds and bats are meant for flying but with
different origin.

Procedure
Carefully observe all the models and mention its various features.

Observations
Wings of an insect and bird
The wings of birds are supported by flesh and skeleton.
The wings of insects are thin and membranous.

Forelimbs of Frog, Bird and Man

The forelimbs of frog, bird and man have the same basic pentadactyl structure of bones.

Result
T h e wines of insects are membranous fold of body wall while the wings of birds are modified forelimbs

Since, the functions of both of them are same i.e. tlight s0 they are analogous organs.

ACTICAL SKILLS IN B1oLOGY-12 215

Forelimbs of frogs are modified for jumping while that of birds are modified for flying and of man for use
in prehension but since all of them have same basic structure and are modified for various functions so are
homologous organs.

****
Insect's wing
******* .

**

Bird's wing Forelimb of bird Forelimb of man

Analogous orans Homologous organs