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Exercises 61

2. The Unix utility whois can be used to find the domain name
corresponding to an organization, or vice versa. Read the man
page documentation for whois and experiment with it. Try whois
princeton.edu and whois princeton, for starters. As an alternative,
explore the whois interface at http://www.internic.net/whois.html.

3. Calculate the total time required to transfer a 1000-KB file in the

following cases, assuming an RTT of 50 ms, a packet size of 1 KB
data, and an initial 2 × RTT of “handshaking” before data is sent:
(a) The bandwidth is 1.5 Mbps, and data packets can be sent
continuously.
(b) The bandwidth is 1.5 Mbps, but after we finish sending each
data packet we must wait one RTT before sending the next.
(c) The bandwidth is “infinite,” meaning that we take transmit
time to be zero, and up to 20 packets can be sent per RTT.
(d) The bandwidth is infinite, and during the first RTT we can
send one packet (21−1 ), during the second RTT we can send
two packets (22−1 ), during the third we can send four (23−1 ),
and so on. (A justification for such an exponential increase
will be given in Chapter 6.)

4. Calculate the total time required to transfer a 1.5-MB file in the

following cases, assuming an RTT of 80 ms, a packet size of 1 KB
data, and an initial 2 × RTT of “handshaking” before data is sent:
(a) The bandwidth is 10 Mbps, and data packets can be sent
continuously.
(b) The bandwidth is 10 Mbps, but after we finish sending each
data packet we must wait one RTT before sending the next.
(c) The link allows infinitely fast transmit, but limits bandwidth
such that only 20 packets can be sent per RTT.
(d) Zero transmit time as in (c), but during the first RTT we can
send one packet, during the second RTT we can send two
packets, during the third we can send four (23−1 ), etc.
(A justification for such an exponential increase will be given
in Chapter 6.)

5. Consider a point-to-point link 4 km in length. At what bandwidth

would propagation delay (at a speed of 2 × 108 m/s) equal
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62 CHAPTER 1 Foundation

transmit delay for 100-byte packets? What about 512-byte

packets?

6. Consider a point-to-point link 50 km in length. At what

bandwidth would propagation delay (at a speed of 2 × 108 m/s)
equal transmit delay for 100-byte packets? What about 512-byte
packets?

7. What properties of postal addresses would be likely to be shared

by a network addressing scheme? What differences might you
expect to find? What properties of telephone numbering might
be shared by a network addressing scheme?

8. One property of addresses is that they are unique; if two nodes

had the same address, it would be impossible to distinguish
between them. What other properties might be useful for network
addresses to have? Can you think of any situations in which
network (or postal or telephone) addresses might not be unique?

9. Give an example of a situation in which multicast addresses

might be beneficial.

10. What differences in traffic patterns account for the fact that
STDM is a cost-effective form of multiplexing for a voice
telephone network and FDM is a cost-effective form of
multiplexing for television and radio networks, yet we reject both
as not being cost effective for a general-purpose computer
network?

11. How “wide” is a bit on a 10-Gbps link? How long is a bit in copper
wire, where the speed of propagation is 2.3× 108 m/s?

12. How long does it take to transmit x KB over a y-Mbps link? Give
your answer as a ratio of x and y.

13. Suppose a 1-Gbps point-to-point link is being set up between the

Earth and a new lunar colony. The distance from the moon to the
Earth is approximately 385,000 km, and data travels over the link
at the speed of light—3× 108 m/s.
(a) Calculate the minimum RTT for the link.
(b) Using the RTT as the delay, calculate the delay × bandwidth
product for the link.
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Exercises 63

(c) What is the significance of the delay × bandwidth product

computed in (b)?
(d) A camera on the lunar base takes pictures of the Earth and
saves them in digital format to disk. Suppose Mission Control
on Earth wishes to download the most current image, which
is 25 MB. What is the minimum amount of time that will
elapse between when the request for the data goes out and
the transfer is finished?

14. Suppose a 128-kbps point-to-point link is set up between the

Earth and a rover on Mars. The distance from the Earth to Mars
(when they are closest together) is approximately 55 Gm, and
data travels over the link at the speed of light—3× 108 m/s.
(a) Calculate the minimum RTT for the link.
(b) Calculate the delay × bandwidth product for the link.
(c) A camera on the rover takes pictures of its surroundings and
sends these to Earth. How quickly after a picture is taken can
it reach Mission Control on Earth? Assume that each image is
5 Mb in size.

15. For each of the following operations on a remote file server,

discuss whether they are more likely to be delay sensitive or
bandwidth sensitive:
(a) Open a file.
(b) Read the contents of a file.
(c) List the contents of a directory.
(d) Display the attributes of a file.

16. Calculate the latency (from first bit sent to last bit received) for
the following:
(a) 100-Mbps Ethernet with a single store-and-forward switch in
the path and a packet size of 12,000 bits. Assume that each
link introduces a propagation delay of 10 µs and that the
switch begins retransmitting immediately after it has finished
receiving the packet.
(b) Same as (a) but with three switches.
(c) Same as (a), but assume the switch implements “cut-
through” switching; it is able to begin retransmitting the
packet after the first 200 bits have been received.
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64 CHAPTER 1 Foundation

17. Calculate the latency (from first bit sent to last bit received) for:
(a) 1-Gbps Ethernet with a single store-and-forward switch in
the path and a packet size of 5000 bits. Assume that each link
introduces a propagation delay of 10 µs and that the switch
begins retransmitting immediately after it has finished
receiving the packet.
(b) Same as (a) but with three switches.
(c) Same as (b), but assume the switch implements “cut-
through” switching; it is able to begin retransmitting the
packet after the first 128 bits have been received.

18. Calculate the effective bandwidth for the following cases. For
(a) and (b) assume there is a steady supply of data to send; for
(c) simply calculate the average over 12 hours.
(a) 100-Mbps Ethernet through three store-and-forward
switches as in Exercise 16(b). Switches can send on one link
while receiving on the other.
(b) Same as (a) but with the sender having to wait for a 50-byte
acknowledgment packet after sending each 12,000-bit data
packet.
(c) Overnight (12-hour) shipment of 100 DVDs that hold 4.7 GB
each.

19. Calculate the delay × bandwidth product for the following links.
Use one-way delay, measured from first bit sent to first bit
received.
(a) 100-Mbps Ethernet with a delay of 10 µs.
(b) 100-Mbps Ethernet with a single store-and-forward switch
like that of Exercise 16(b), packet size of 12,000 bits, and 10 µs
per link propagation delay.
(c) 1.5-Mbps T1 link, with a transcontinental one-way delay of
50 ms.
(d) 1.5-Mbps T1 link between two groundstations
communicating via a satellite in geosynchronous orbit,
35,900 km high. The only delay is speed-of-light propagation
delay from Earth to the satellite and back.

20. Hosts A and B are each connected to a switch S via 100-Mbps

links as in Figure 1.21. The propagation delay on each link is
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Exercises 65

A S B

■ FIGURE 1.21 Diagram for Exercise 20.

20 µs. S is a store-and-forward device; it begins retransmitting a

received packet 35 µs after it has finished receiving it. Calculate
the total time required to transmit 10,000 bits from A to B
(a) As a single packet.
(b) As two 5000-bit packets sent one right after the other.

21. Suppose a host has a 1-MB file that is to be sent to another host.
The file takes 1 second of CPU time to compress 50% or 2 seconds
to compress 60%.
(a) Calculate the bandwidth at which each compression option
takes the same total compression + transmission time.
(a) Explain why latency does not affect your answer.

22. Suppose that a certain communications protocol involves a

per-packet overhead of 50 bytes for headers and framing. We
send 1 million bytes of data using this protocol; however, one
data byte is corrupted and the entire packet containing it is thus
lost. Give the total number of overhead + loss bytes for packet
data sizes of 1000, 10,000, and 20,000 bytes. Which size is optimal?

23. Assume you wish to transfer an n B file along a path composed of

the source, destination, 7 point-to-point links, and 5 switches.
Suppose each link has a propagation delay of 2 ms and a
bandwidth of 4 Mbps, and that the switches support both circuit
and packet switching. Thus, you can either break the file up into
1-KB packets or set up a circuit through the switches and send
the file as one contiguous bitstream. Suppose that packets have
24 B of packet header information and 1000 B of payload,
store-and-forward packet processing at each switch incurs a
1-ms delay after the packet had been completely received,
packets may be sent continuously without waiting for
acknowledgments, and circuit setup requires a 1-KB message to
make one round trip on the path, incurring a 1-ms delay at each
switch after the message has been completely received. Assume
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66 CHAPTER 1 Foundation

switches introduce no delay to data traversing a circuit. You may

also assume that filesize is a multiple of 1000 B.
(a) For what filesize n B is the total number of bytes sent across
the network less for circuits than for packets?
(b) For what filesize n B is the total latency incurred before the
entire file arrives at the destination less for circuits than for
packets?
(c) How sensitive are these results to the number of switches
along the path? To the bandwidth of the links? To the ratio of
packet size to packet header size?
(d) How accurate do you think this model of the relative merits
of circuits and packets is? Does it ignore important
considerations that discredit one or the other approach? If so,
what are they?

24. Consider a network with a ring topology, link bandwidths of

100 Mbps, and propagation speed 2 × 108 m/s. What would the
circumference of the loop be to exactly contain one 1500-byte
packet, assuming nodes do not introduce delay? What would the
circumference be if there was a node every 100 m, and each node
introduced 10 bits of delay?

25. Compare the channel requirements for voice traffic with the
requirements for the real-time transmission of music, in terms of
bandwidth, delay, and jitter. What would have to improve? By
approximately how much? Could any channel requirements be
relaxed?

26. For the following, assume that no data compression is done,

although in practice this would almost never be the case. For
(a) to (c), calculate the bandwidth necessary for transmitting in
real time:
(a) Video at a resolution of 640 × 480, 3 bytes/pixel,
30 frames/second.
(b) Video at a resolution of 160 × 120, 1 byte/pixel,
5 frames/second.
(c) CD-ROM music, assuming one CD holds 75 minutes’ worth
and takes 650 MB.
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Exercises 67

(d) Assume a fax transmits an 8 × 10-inch black-and-white

image at a resolution of 72 pixels per inch. How long would
this take over a 14.4-kbps modem?

27. For the following, as in the previous problem, assume that no

data compression is done. Calculate the bandwidth necessary for
transmitting in real time:
(a) High-definition video at a resolution of 1920 × 1080,
24 bits/pixel, 30 frames/second.
(b) POTS (plain old telephone service) voice audio of 8-bit
samples at 8 KHz.
(c) GSM mobile voice audio of 260-bit samples at 50 Hz.
(d) HDCD high-definition audio of 24-bit samples at 88.2 kHz.

28. Discuss the relative performance needs of the following

applications in terms of average bandwidth, peak bandwidth,
latency, jitter, and loss tolerance:
(a) File server.
(b) Print server.
(c) Digital library.
(d) Routine monitoring of remote weather instruments.
(e) Voice.
(f ) Video monitoring of a waiting room.
(g) Television broadcasting.

29. Suppose a shared medium M offers to hosts A1 , A2 , . . . , AN in

round-robin fashion an opportunity to transmit one packet;
hosts that have nothing to send immediately relinquish M. How
does this differ from STDM? How does network utilization of this
scheme compare with STDM?

30. Consider a simple protocol for transferring files over a link. After
some initial negotiation, A sends data packets of size 1 KB to B; B
then replies with an acknowledgment. A always waits for each
ACK before sending the next data packet; this is known as
stop-and-wait. Packets that are overdue are presumed lost and
are retransmitted.
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Solutions to Select
Exercises
CHAPTER 1
4. We will count the transfer as completed when the last data bit
arrives at its destination
(a) 1.5 MB = 12582912 bits. 2 initial RTTs (160 ms) +
12,582,912/10,000,000 bps (transmit) + RTT/2 (propagation)
≈ 1.458 seconds.
(b) Number of packets required = 1.5 MB/1KB = 1536. To the
above we add the time for 1535 RTTs (the number of RTTs
between when packet 1 arrives and packet 1536 arrives), for a
total of 1.458 + 122.8 = 124.258 seconds.
(c) Dividing the 1536 packets by 20 gives 76.8. This will take 76.5
RTTs (half an RTT for the first batch to arrive, plus 76 RTTs
between the first batch and the 77th partial batch), plus the
initial 2 RTTs, for 6.28 seconds.
(d) Right after the handshaking is done we send one packet.
One RTT after the handshaking we send two packets.
At n RTTs past the initial handshaking we have sent
1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n = 2n+1 − 1 packets. At n = 10 we have
thus been able to send all 1536 packets; the last batch arrives
0.5 RTT later. Total time is 2 + 10.5 RTTs, or 1 second.

6. Propagation delay is 50 × 103 m/(2 × 108 m/s) = 250 µs.

800 bits / 250 µs is 3.2 Mbps. For 512-byte packets, this rises to
16.4 Mbps.

14. (a) Propagation delay on the link is (55 × 109 )/(3 × 108 ) = 184
seconds. Thus, the RTT is 368 seconds.
(b) The delay × bandwidth product for the link is
184 × 128 × 103 = 2.81 MB.
(c) After a picture is taken, it must be transmitted on the link and
be completely propagated before Mission Control can
interpret it. Transmit delay for 5 MB of data is 41,943,040
801
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802 Solutions to Select Exercises

bits/128 × 103 = 328 seconds. Thus, the total time required is

transmit delay + propagation delay = 328 + 184 = 512
seconds.

17. (a) For each link, it takes 1 Gbps / 5 kb = 5 µs to transmit the

packet on the link, after which it takes an additional 10 µs for
the last bit to propagate across the link. Thus, for a LAN with
only one switch that starts forwarding only after receiving
the whole packet, the total transfer delay is two transmit
delays + two propagation delays = 30 µs.
(b) For three switched and thus four links, the total delay is four
transmit delays + four propagation delays = 60 µs.
(c) For cut-through, a switch need only decode the first 128 bits
before beginning to forward. This takes 128 ns. This delay
replaces the switch transmit delays in the previous answer
for a total delay of one transmit delay + three cut-through
decoding delays + four propagation delays = 45.384 µs.

27. (a) 1920 × 1080 × 24 × 30 = 1, 492, 992, 000 ≈ 1.5 Gbps.

(b) 8 × 8000 = 64 Kbps.
(c) 260 × 50 = 13 Kbps.
(d) 24 × 88, 200 = 216, 800 ≈ 2.1 Mbps.

CHAPTER 2
3. The 4B/5B encoding of the given bit sequence is the following:
11011 11100 10110 11011 10111 11100 11100 11101

Bits 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

NRZ

7. Let ∧ mark each position where a stuffed 0 bit was removed.

There was one error where the sever consecutive 1s are detected
(err) At the end of the bit sequence, the end of frame was
detected (eof ).
01101011111∧101001111111err 0 110 01111110eof
19. (a) We take the message 1011 0010 0100 1011, append 8 zeros
and divide by 1 0000 0111 (x8 + x2 + x1 + 1). The remainder