PROCESS OF RESEARCH

However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful

procedural guideline regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalisations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
1. Formulating the Research Problem
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of
nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very
outset, the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like
to inquire into. Initially, the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then
the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.
Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a
specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
Essentially, two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view. The best way of understanding the problem
is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise in
the matter. In an academic institution, the researcher can seek the help from a
guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in
mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the
researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In
private business units or in governmental organisations, the problem is usually
earmarked by the administrative agencies with which the researcher can discuss as
to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in
its possible solutions.

2. Extensive Literature Survey

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is
compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval.
At this juncture, the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals
and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic
journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc. must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered
that one source will lead to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be
carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of Working Hypotheses
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such, the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since
they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which
tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data
which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of
working hypothesis plays an important role.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his
thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using
the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater
insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject,
examination of the available data and material including related studies and the
counsel of experts and interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful
when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem
where we do not need working hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory or
formulative researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general
rule, specification of working hypotheses is another basic step of the research
process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the Research Design
The research problem having been formulated in clear-cut terms, the researcher
will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of
such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and
(iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the
research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an
accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the
suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the
data collected and analysed.
5. Determining Sample Design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known
as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items
are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice, this may not be true.
Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as
the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not
only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances.
For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often, we
select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so
selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must decide
the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design.
6. Collecting the Data
In dealing with any real-life problem, it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably
in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements,
or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis.
7. Execution of the Project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in
a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of
structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a
situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to
be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper
selection and training of the interviewers.
The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which clearly
explains the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be
made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and
efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to
keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that
steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that
the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of
accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods
should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-
response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-
sample of them, and then with the help of experts, vigorous efforts can be made for
securing response.
8. Analysis of Data
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical
inferences.
The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and
tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that
improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding, the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the
form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal
of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save
time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem
simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc. by applying various well-defined statistical formulae. In the
process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or
new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
9. Hypothesis Testing
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses
or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-test, etc. have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one
or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.
Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If
the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the
basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in
times to come.
10. Generalisations and Interpretation
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the
real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.
11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) The preliminary pages,
(ii) The main text, and
(iii) The end matter.
In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the
research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the
research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be
stated in this part.
(b) Summary of Findings: After introduction, there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main Report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final
summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc. consulted, should also
be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research
report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.