3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 27

UNIT 3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

3.0. Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
b. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems using Polya’s
method.
c. Organize one’s method and approach for solving problems.
d. Write clear logical proofs.

3.1. Introduction

Most of us, if not all, do experience having problems. It could be in any

area of our life. It could be a financial, relationships, academic or work-related
problems. Problems exist when we are in a situation that we need to resolve
something but no solution is at hand. Each problem is different. One’s problem
may not be a problem for another. For instance, one person may experience a
problem of finding money to buy some food but, for some, it is not a problem.
It is not because they have so much money, but because they have already
solved that problem beforehand.

Problem solving is the process of finding and providing solutions to a

particular problem. It requires practical knowledge about a particular situation.
In mathematics, problem solving is a mathematical process. It includes
examining the question to find the key ideas, choosing an appropriate strategy,
doing the math, finding the answer and then re-checking.

This unit will help you improve your improve your problem solving
skills. Thus, this aims to make you a better problem solver.

3.2. Problem Solving and Reasoning

3.2.1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

In mathematics, reasoning is a critical skills which enables you to reflect

on solutions to problems and determine whether or not they make sense.
Reasoning is the process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions,
make predictions, or construct explanations. This topic covers the two methods
of reasoning, the inductive and deductive reasoning to form a conclusion.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 28

Before we proceed to the discussion, let’s do something!

Activity 3.1 (Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper and submit it
together with the unit test. All activity will be recorded as part of your
participation.)

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number, multiply by 5, add 4

to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 2.

Example: Pick a number: 4

Multiply by 5: 4 x 5 = 20
Add 4 to the product: 20 + 4 = 24
Divide the sum by 2: 24 / 2 = 12
Subtract 3: 12 – 2 = 10

Repeat the procedure using several different numbers and use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the original number
and the resulting number. (Write your solution and conjecture in a separate sheet of paper.)

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion based on

the examination of specific examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture since it may or may not be correct.

In unit 1, you have already used this method of reasoning in solving problems
on patterns of numbers. When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next
number in the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using
inductive reasoning.

Example 3.1: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.
a. 2, 5, 11, 20, 32, ? b. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Solution:
a. For us to be able to predict the next number, let us examine the difference between
terms. From 2 to 5, the difference is 3. From 5 to 11, the difference is 6, from 11 to
20, the difference is 9. From 20 to 32, the difference is 12. It can be observed that the
differences are increasing by 3. Therefore, the difference from 32 to the next number
is 15. We can now conclude that the next number is 47.
b. In this number list, we can observe that the succeeding term is twice the preceding
term. 1 x 2 = 2, 2 x 2 = 4, 4 x 2 = 8, 8 x 2 = 16. Thus, we can say that the next term is
16 x 2 = 32.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 29

Example 3.2: Use inductive reasoning to solve an application. Use the data below and
by inductive reasoning, answer the following questions.

Earthquake Magnitude Maximum Tsunami Height (meters)

5.9 4
6.0 8
6.1 12
6.2 16
6.3 20

a. If the earthquake has a magnitude of 6.5, how high (in meters) will the tsunami
be?
b. Will there be a tsunami if the magnitude of an earthquake is 5.5 meters? Explain
your answer.

Solution:
a. Based on the table, for every 0.1 increase in the magnitude of an earthquake,
the height of the tsunami also increases by 4 meters. Using the data, we can
make a conjecture that if an earthquake has a magnitude of 6.5, the maximum
height of the tsunami could be 28 meters.
b. No, because based on the data, when the magnitude of the earthquake is 5.8,
there could be a possibility that there will be no tsunami anymore.

Practice 3.1: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.
a. 7, 10, 8, 11, 9 12 ? b. 21, 9, 21, 11, 21, 13, 21 ?

Practice 3.2: Use the data below and by inductive reasoning, answer the following
questions.
The table below shows the number of days a group of hotel cleaners worked
and the number of rooms they cleaned in high rise hotel building.

Number of Working Days Number of Rooms Cleaned

1 6
2 12
3 24
4 42

a. How many rooms would the group clean in 6 days?

b. What conclusion can you give about the number of rooms cleaned in relation
to the number of working days?
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 30

Counterexample

As mentioned earlier, conclusions based on inductive reasoning are not always

correct. Let us take a look at the following example.

Example 3.3: 11 x 1 x 101 = 1111 11 x 2 x 101 = 2222

11 x 3 x 101 = 3333 11 x 4 x 101 = 4444
11 x 5 x 101 = ? 11 x 6 x 101 = ?

Based on the data, we can say that 11 x n x 101 = nnnn. We can say that when
n = 5, the answer is 5555. And when n = 6, the answer is 6666. But what if n = 10, or
11, or 12, can we say that 11 x n x 101 = nnnn is still true? Let’s take a look.

Example 3.4: 11 x 10 x 101 = 11110

11 x 11 x 101 = 12221

The result shows that the equation 11 x n x 101 = nnnn is only true if n is a
single-digit number. A statement is true when it is true to all. The fact that we found
an example that shows that the equation is not true to all, therefore, the statement is
false.

Any case that makes a statement false is called counterexample. Example 3.3 is
an example of counterexample as it disproved that the equation 11 x n x 101 = nnnn is
true.

Example 3.5: Verify that each of the following statements is not true by finding a
counterexample.
𝑦
a. 𝑦 2 > 𝑦 b. = 1
𝑦

Solution: Please take note that we only need one counterexample to prove that the statement
is false.
a. If 𝑦 = 1, then 12 > 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a
counterexample.
0
b. For 𝑦 = 0, we have 0 = 1, which is wrong. Thus, the statement is false.

Practice 3.3: Verify if the following statements are false statements.

a. |𝑧| = 0 b. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the opposite of inductive reasoning. It is the process of

reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 31

In Activity 3.1, you were asked to make a conjecture on the relationship

between the original number and the resulting number following the procedure given.
The example given is an example of inductive reasoning where we try specific
examples for us to make a conclusion. This time, we are going the other way around.
We will see how deductive reasoning can be applied in making conclusion on the said
example.

Example 3.6: Consider the following procedure: Pick a number, multiply by 5, add 4
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 2.

Pick a number: n (instead of using a number, we use n to represent the number)

Multiply by 5: 5𝑛
Add 4 to the product: 5𝑛 + 4
5𝑛+4 5
Divide the sum by 2: = 𝑛+2
2 2
5 5
Subtract by 2: 𝑛+2−2 = 𝑛
2 2

Based on the result, we can conclude that the procedure produces a number
that is 5/2 times the original number.

Inductive Reasoning vs Deductive Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive

or deductive reasoning.
a. Two-thirds of the students at this college receive student aid. Therefore, two-
thirds of college students receive student aid.
b. Since all squares are rectangles, and all rectangles have four sides, so all squares
have four sides.
c. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums, every other year. Last year
the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

Solution:
a. This argument uses a specific example to come up with a conclusion, so this is
an example of inductive reasoning.
b. This argument started with a general assumption, this is an example of
deductive reasoning.
c. In this argument, the conclusion was based on the specific observations on the
tree for the past 10 years, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

Solve a Logic Puzzle

Reasoning can be applied in solving a logic puzzle, whether it is inductive or

deductive. Let us try to solve this logic puzzle. Try to challenge yourself.
Each of four best friends, Andrea, Marillac, Mary, and Paula has a different
program (BSN, BSEE, BSAS, and BEED). From the following clues, identify the
program of each person.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 32

1. Andrea enrolled 1 day ahead of her friend whose program is BSAS and 1 day
late than her friend whose program is BSEE.
2. The BSAS student and Marillac enrolled at the same time.
3. The BSEE student and Mary are both of the same age.
4. Marillac, who was the last to enroll, is not a BEED student

Solution: To understand the situation better, the use of a table in determining their programs
is highly advised.

Table 3.1a
Name Program
BSN BSEE BSAS BEED
Andrea X1 X1
Marillac
Mary
Paula

From clue 1, Andrea is not BSEE and BSES as it is her friends who are enrolled
in these programs. In Table 3.1a, we marked BSEE and BSES X1 to signify that Andrea
is not enrolled in these programs and that is according to clue 1

Table 3.1b
Name Program
BSN BSEE BSAS BEED
Andrea X1 X1
Marillac X2 X4
Mary X3
Paula

In this table, we marked X2 and X4 on BSAS and BEED, respectively, which

means that Marillac is not enrolled in these programs because it is her friends who are
enrolled in these programs according to clue 2 and clue 4. This also applies to Mary in
clue 3. Now, here is the tricky part. It seems that we have already used all the clues
but it is still not possible to guess their programs. Looking at clues 1, 2, and 4, it talks
about the order of their enrollment. Based on clue 1, the order of enrollment is:

(Let’s call this clue 5)

BSEE student (Andrea enrolled 1 day late than her friend)

Andrea
BSAS student (Andrea enrolled 1 day ahead of her friend)

Combining this with clue 2: (Let’s call this clue 6)

BSEE student (Andrea enrolled 1 day late than her friend)
Andrea
Marillac and BSAS student (Marillac and BSAS student enrolled at the same time)
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 33

It can be seen from this illustration that Marillac is also not enrolled in the BSEE
program, therefore, Marillac is a BSN student, based on clue 6.

Table 3.1c
Name Program
BSN BSEE BSAS BEED
Andrea X1 X1
Marillac ̸ X2 X4
Mary X3
Paula

Just by looking at Table 3.1c, we can now identify the program of each person
by completing the table. Since Marillac is the BSN student, we can mark X to the other
three persons. And the only person that can be enrolled in BSEE is Paula. Table 3.1.d
shows the identified program for each person.

Table 3.1c
Name Program
BSN BSEE BSAS BEED
Andrea X X1 X1 ̸
Marillac ̸ X X2 X4
Mary X X3 ̸
Paula X ̸ X X

3.2.2. Problem Solving with Patterns

One of the problem solving strategies that is often used in math is look
for a pattern as mathematical patterns can be found everywhere – in nature,
numbers and in shapes. When a pattern is established, it is easy to predict what
comes next.

Sequence

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers than follows a pattern. In Unit 1, you

have been introduced to number sequence and how to predict the next term by
looking at its pattern. Without looking at the next page, answer the following activity.

Activity 3.2 Predict the next term of a sequence.

a. 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16
b. 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41, 47, 53
Questions:
1. Which between the two sequences is easier to solve? What technique
did you use to predict the next term for each sequence? Discuss.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World
34

Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a sequence. The
numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence.

In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second term, 27 is the third
term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term.

The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is
the last written term. It is customary to use the subscript notation an to designate the
nth term of a sequence. Applying the notation in the sequence above, 𝑎1 = 5, 𝑎2 =
14, 𝑎3 = 27, and so forth.

In finding the next terms of a sequence, we often construct a difference table,

which shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. This technique
will help you determine the next term especially in sequences where the pattern is not
easily observable.

Example 3.7: The following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the two
closest numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper left number). The
differences in row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence. In this case, the
first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict
the next number in the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the
sequence. This prediction might be wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first
differences seems to indicate that each successive term is 3 larger than the preceding
term.

Example 3.7: The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44,
65, ...

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is
often helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are
shown in row (2). These differences of the first differences are called the second
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 35

differences. The differences of the second differences are called the third differences.
To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of
differences.

Practice 3.4: Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

3.2.3. Problem Solving Strategy

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

One of the most recent mathematicians to make a study on problem solving
was George Polya (1887-1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United
States in 1940. He designed a four-step method to solve all kinds of problems. This
includes the following:

Step 1: Understand the problem

To understand fully the problem, Polya taught to teachers to ask questions such
as:
 Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand
the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?

Step 2: Devise a plan

Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The
skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. A
partial list of strategies is included:

 Guess and check Make an  Draw a picture

orderly list  Consider special cases
 Eliminate the possibilities  Work backwards
 Solve a simpler problem  Use direct reasoning
 Use symmetry  Use a formula
 Use a model  Solve an equation
 Look for a pattern  Be ingenious

In this step, you have to find the connection between the data and the
unknown. You may be obligated to consider auxiliary problems if an immediate
connection cannot be found. You should obtain eventually a plan of the solution.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World
36

Step 3: Carry out a plan

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is
care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that
you have chosen. If it continues not to work, discard it and choose another.

Step 4: Review the solution

Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look
back at what you have done, what worked, and what did not. In other words, you to
have to examine the solution you obtained. Doing this will enable you to predict what
strategy to use to solve future problems.

Example 3.8: Apply Polya’s Strategy (Making an organized list)

A basketball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different
orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. There are many different orders. The team may have won
two straight games and lost the last two. Or may the other way around. Or they
alternately won and lost their last four games. There are many possibilities.

Devise a Plan. We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. This is to
ensure that all possible orders will only be listed once.

Carry Out the Plan. As the situation states, there must be two wins and two losses, so
each order in our list must have two W’s and two L’s.

1. WWLL (Winning the first two games and losing the last two games)
2. WLWL (Alternately winning and losing their last four games)
3. WLLW (Won the first, lost the next two, and won the last)
4. LWWL (The next three order are the opposite of the first three orders)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW

Review the Solution. Looking at the organized list, we are confident that there are
only six orders as we already have listed all the possibilities and there are no
duplicates.

Example 3.9: Apply Polya’s Strategy (Guess and Check)

When you are not sure how to start, you can use the guess and check technique
until you come up with the correct answer.
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 37

Mary Joy bought books and CDs as gifts. Altogether she bought 12 gifts and spent
P840. The books cost P60 each and the CDs cost P90 each. How many of each gift did
she buy?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. The situation tells us that the total number of gifts is 12 and
spent a total of P840 pesos. Our task is to find how many CDs and books were bought
for that amount considering the price for each item.

Devise a Plan. This problem can be solved algebraically. But if you are not into
algebra, you can solve this problem by making guess until you come up with the right
answer.

Carry Out the Plan. Let us make our first guess using an equal number for each item.

First Guess: 6 CDs Check: 6 x 90 = P540

6 books 6 x 60 = + P360
P900
The checking process shows that our first guess is not correct and so we have
to make another guess. Let’s reduce the number of CDs to bring the total cost down.

Second Guess: 5 CDs Check: 5 x 90 = P450

7 books 7 x 60 = + P420
P870
Second guess is still not correct, let’s reduce the number of CDs once more.

Third Guess: 4 CDs Check: 4 x 90 =P360

8 books 8 x 60 =
+ P480
P840
We found the answer. Mary Joy bought 4 CDs and 8 books.

Review the Solution. By comparing the result of our guesses to the statement of the
problem, our third guess satisfies the condition that Mary Joy bought 12 gifts for an
amount of P840.

Example 3.9: Apply Polya’s Strategy (Use of Logical Reasoning)

The following problem does not involve numbers. It can be solved by using
logical reasoning.

Paula has a dog, a horse, a bird, and a cat. Their names are Uno, 2D, Thirdy, and 4G.
Thirdy and 2D cannot fly or be ridden. The bird talks to Uno. 2D runs from the dog.
What is each pet’s name?
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 38

Solution:

Understand the Problem. The situation says that there are four pets and we are asked
to find the name of each.

Devise a Plan. We can use a table to make an analysis based on the clues given. We
can mark the table with X indicating that the name does not belong to the pet, and Y
indicating that it is the names pet.

Carry Out the Plan. Make a table to organize the clues.

Dog Horse Bird Cat Reason

Uno X Uno cannot be a bird
2D cannot fly or be ridden
2D X X X
and run from the dog
Thirdy cannot fly or be
Thirdy X X
ridden
4G is the only option for
4G Y
the bird

Complete the table using logical reasoning.

Dog Horse Bird Cat Reason
2D is the cat, Thirdy
Uno X Y X X is the dog, and 4G is the
bird
2D cannot fly or be ridden
2D X X X Y
and runs from the dog
Thirdy cannot fly
Thirdy Y X X X or be ridden and 2D is the
cat
4G is the only option for
4G X X Y X
the bird

Answer: Uno is the bird, 2D is the cat, Thirdy is the dog, and 4G is the bird.

Review the Solution. The reasons in the table are clear and do not conflict
with each other, thus, we are confident that the answer is correct
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 39

(Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.)

Unit Test:

I. Determine whether the following argument is an example of deductive or

inductive reasoning. (1 point each)
1. All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends
with a 5, so it must be divisible by 5.
2. The population of Philippines has risen steadily for the past 40
years. It is logical to predict that the population of Philippines will
also rise next year.
3. Red meat has iron in it, and beef is red meat. Therefore, beef has
iron in it.
4. The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is pink. The second lipstick I
pulled from my bag is pink. Therefore, all the lipsticks in my bag
are pink.
5. All cats have a keen sense of smell. Fluffy is a cat, so Fluffy has a
keen sense of smell.

II. Solve the logic puzzle. (15 points)

Noella, Niel, Noriel, and Novil all had a summer vacation on a resort, where
they can cook, kayak, hike, and zip-line. Each child has a different favorite
activity.
a. Noella’s favorite activity is not hiking.
b. Niel is afraid of heights.
c. Noriel can not do her favorite activity without a harness.
d. Novil likes to keep his feet on the ground at all times.
Can you figure out who likes what?

III. Solve the following problem applying Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy.

1. Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that number.
Find the number. (5 points)

2. Mr. Cruz has a total of 25 chickens and cows on his farm. How many of
each does he have if all together there are 76 feet? (15 points)
 3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 40

3.3. References

Airth, M. (n.d.). Reasoning in Mathematics: Inductive and Deductive

Reasoning. Retrieved from Study.com:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/reasoning-in-mathematics-
inductive-and-deductive-reasoning.html#partialRegFormModal

Aufmann, R.N., Lockwood, J.S., Nation R.D., Clegg, D.K., and Epp, S.S. (2018).
Mathematics in the Modern World. Philippine Edition. Sampaloc, Manila:
Rex Books Store, Inc.

Bradford, A. (2017, July 25). Deductive Reasoning vs Inductive Reasoning.

Retrieved from Live Science: https://www.livescience.com/21569-
deduction-vs-induction.html

Quintos, R. T. et al. (2019). Mathematics in the Modern World. Plaridel, Bulacan:

St. Andrew Publishing House.

Polya’s Problem Solving Technique. (n.d). Retrieved from scimath.unl.edu:

Retrieved from https://scimath.unl.edu/conferences/documents/K-
2ProblemSolvers.pdf

3.4. Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module

were taken from the references cited above.