WORKBOOK 5

for

Paper 5

LEARNING MATERIAL FOR THE

CERTIFICATE IN MINE

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Acknowledgement is given to Anglogold Ashanti in particular to Chris Cloete who revised the
content of this workbook.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following individuals (showing company affiliation where relevant) are thanked for their
contribution to the compilation of this workbook:

1. Dion Marais, DiAL Environmental Services, cc (Principal author)

2. Craig Bridger, Environmental Control and Radiation Training Services, cc

3. Rodney Fourie, PANARAMA Training Systems, cc (Principal author)

4. Dave Unsted, Envent Environmental Engineering Projects, cc

5. Johann Beukes, DiAL Environmental Services, cc

6. Albert Meets, DiAL Environmental Services, cc

7. Peter Knottenbelt, Technikon Witwatersrand, (Quality Assurance)

COPYRIGHT

The contents of this document may not be rented, leased, loaned, sold, transferred, assigned,
broadcast in any media form, publicly exhibited or used outside the organisation of the purchaser,
or reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior, written authorization by the Mine
Ventilation Society of South Africa. The use of this material for training for which compensation is
received is prohibited unless authorised, in writing, by the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa.

DISCLAIMER

Although the information and recommendations contained in this publication have been compiled
from sources believed to be reliable, the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa makes no
guarantee as to, and assumes no responsibility for, the correctness, sufficiency, or completeness
of such information or recommendations. Alternative or additional safety measures may be
required under particular circumstances.

2
 INDEX

MODULE SUBJECT PAGE

INTRODUCTION 4

OH-1 DEFINITIONS, RESPONSIBILITY 11

OH-2 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY 21

OH-3 ERGONOMICS

OH-4 TOXICOLOGY AND STRESS FACTORS

OH-5 HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

OH-6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

OH-7 MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING

3
 INTRODUCTION

The workbook which you are about to commence has been prepared to enable you to prepare
yourself for the examinations for the Certificate in Mine Environmental Control and to give you a
basic knowledge of the skills that you will require as a competent Environmental Control /
Occupational Hygiene practitioner.

The workbook is based on sound concepts and it is set out in a certain format. This format is very
simple - you are first told precisely what you have to do - this is called an objective. You are also
given the necessary information to enable you to learn what is required, this is called a resource.
You are expected to study the resource and then to do a test when you are ready - this is called a
self-test.

The answers to the calculations, which you are asked to do in the self-tests, are given on the page
following the test. Compare your answers to the calculations with these and check your answers to
the descriptive questions with the notes.

When you are sure that you can answer all the questions in the self-test correctly, you will write a
test, without using references, that your training officer or your supervisor will give you. This test is
called a Criterion test and will determine whether you are ready to attempt the next module.

When you have completed this test successfully, you will be signed off in the personal progress
summary.

The workbook is set out in different modules and you are able to proceed at your own pace.

When learning new subjects you need to become familiar with certain words and their meanings.
The meaning of certain words and phrases used in these modules are described below.

COMMON TERMS

Module:-

A complete unit of instruction. It contains objectives, resource material and a self-test.

Objective:-

A written statement, which describes an intended outcome. It tells you what you are required to do
and the conditions under which you should do it.

Resource:-

The material provided to help you achieve the objective. This includes material, which you will have
to study in addition to the information given in the main resource.

Self-test:-

A test, which finds out whether you are able to achieve the objective. The answers to this test are
given on the page following the test or are contained in the notes.

Criterion Test:-

A test, which is designed to determine whether, you are able to achieve the objectives. The test will
be given by your group training officer or supervisor and should only test what is asked in the
objective.

4
Control documents:-

The document, which you are reading, is a control document. It contains the index and personal
progress summary. It explains the procedures, which should be followed.

Personal progress summary:-

A control document, which serves as your record of progress. Your supervisor, mentor or lecturer
should verify that your work is 100% correct and sign you off for each module completed.

Course map:-

A diagram or chart, which shows the sequence and relationship of the various modules. It tells you
where to start and where to go after completion of a module.

You should start at the bottom and work towards the top. You may go to either the left hand or to
the right hand side of the map, but you must complete the portion below the horizontal line first
before proceeding to the modules above this line.

METHOD OF USE

It is recommended that you use the workbook in the following manner.

1. Study the index and course map and decide where you are going to start.

2. Select the particular module you wish to do.

3. Read the objectives of the module first and make sure you understand what you have to
learn.

4. Study the notes in the module, extracting all the required information as you progress.

5. If you feel you are able to meet all the objectives, do the self-test without referring to any
resources.

6. Check to see that you have answered all the questions correctly. The answers are either
given on the next page or are contained within the notes.

7. If you do not achieve the required standard, repeat steps 3 to 6 again.

8. Ask your training officer or supervisor to provide you with a criterion test. After successful
completion of this test he should sign off your module.

9. Select the next module you wish to attempt.

5
 FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING METHOD OF USE

Study the personal

progress summary

Check the course map

NO and select module

Have you
selected the correct
module?

Study the objectives

Can you
do all the
objectives?

Study the resources,

extracting all the
information
YES

Can you
meet all the NO
objectives?

NO
Do the self-test

Check your answers

Are they
all correct?

Do the criterion test YES

Select the next Module

6
To enable you to become familiar with the method of use you should now study the objective,
which follows and then complete the self-test. You have, of course, already read the resource
material.

OBJECTIVE

Without using references you must, in writing, be able to:

1. Explain the following terms:

a. Module

b. Objective

c. Resource

d. Self-test

e. Criterion Test

f. Course map

g. Personal progress summary

h. Control documents

2. Explain, using a diagram if necessary, the method to be followed when using this
workbook.

RESOURCE

The notes, which you have read in the previous pages.

SELF-TEST

Check if you have understood the resource notes by answering these questions in the space
provided. Do not use references.

1. Describe the following terms.

a. Module:

b. Objective

c. Resource

7
 d. Self-test

e. Criterion Test

f. Course map

g. Personal progress summary

h. Control documents

2. Explain the recommended method of using this workbook. If necessary, give a diagram to
assist with your explanations.

Check your answers by referring to the notes. Are they all correct?

YES - Well done

Select the next module to be done.

NO - Read the notes again, making certain that you pay particular attention to your weak
points. Do the self-test again and if all your answers are correct follow the procedure
given under “YES” above.

8
 COURSE MAP

OH-6 OH-7

OH-3 OH-4 OH-5

OH-2

OH-1

Introduction

9
 PERSONAL PROGRESS SUMMARY

DATE SIGN OFF

OBJECTIVE
ACHIEVED INITIALS

Introduction INTRODUCTION

OH-1 DEFINITIONS, RESPONSIBILITY

OH-2 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

OH-3 ERGONOMICS

OH-4 TOXICOLOGY AND STRESS FACTORS

OH-5 HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

OH-6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

OH-7 MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING

10
 OH-1

DEFINITIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND STRESS FACTORS

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:-

 Define occupational health, occupational hygiene, occupational medicine, anticipation,

recognition, evaluation, control, agent, occupational stress, occupational hazard, occupational
risk, physical hazard, chemical hazard, biological hazard, psychological effect, acute exposure,
chronic exposure, occupational exposure limit (OEL), threshold limit value (TLV)®, time
weighted average (TWA)®, short term exposure limit (STEL)®, biological exposure index
(BEI)®.

 Discuss the responsibilities and accountability of the occupational hygienist with respect to his
duties and functions.

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations (Sections 11, 12 and 102).

 Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa

- Vol. 48, March 1995, p 68, Proposed Code of Professional Conduct

- Vol. 52, April-June 1999, pp 71-72, Mine occupational health and safety, towards a holistic
solution - Gordon L Smith

- Vol. 51, July-September 1998, pp 86-87, Positioning the MVS to meet the challenges of
mining in the 21st century, Presidential Address, Marco Biffi

- Vol. 50, April-June 1997, Occupational Hygiene in the South African mining industry, myth
or reality?, pp 68-69, AJ Kielblock.

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No. 0-87912-171-8 (hc)

 Occupational Hygiene, JJ Schoeman & HHE Schroder (Juta Co), ISBN No. 07021 28775

 Managing the Health of People at Work, AM Coetzee (Lex Patria), ISBN No. 0628 03568 3

 Fitting the Task to the Man, 4th Ed, Etienne Grandjean, ISBN No. 0-85066-380-6 or ISBN No.
0-85066-379-2 (pbk)

11
 OH-1

DEFINITIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND STRESS FACTORS

Occupational Health: Includes occupational hygiene and occupational medicine.

Occupational hygiene: The Mine Health and Safety Act (MH&SA), Act 29 of 1996 defines
occupational hygiene as follows: “means the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of conditions (at the mine or
workplace) that may cause illness or adverse health effects to
persons”.

The American Industrial Hygienists Association (AIHA), in turn,

define it as:

“That science and art devoted to the recognition, evaluation and

control of those environmental factors and stresses arising in or from
the workplace which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-
being or significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or
among citizens of the community”. (Fundamentals of Industrial
Hygiene by Barbara A Plog, et al, 1996 and Occupational Hygiene by
JJ Schoeman and HHE Schröder, 1994)

Although there are marked similarities between these definitions,

there are also marked differences. These are especially apparent in
the following areas:

 The AIHA adds that there is not only a science involved but also
an art, inferring that the skills and competencies required to deal
with occupational health hazards are not only based on the
usually more easily established scientific principles, but that a
degree of intuitive skill, most likely accumulated with significant
experience, may also be required when dealing with those
aspects for which immediately apparent solutions are not
available.

 In addition, the AIHA expands the definition to not only cover

health effects at work but also “among citizens of the community”.

The MH&SA, on the other hand, although initially appearing to ignore

this latter aspect, does deal with adverse health impacts on the
community, specifically in Section 2 (1)(b), where the employer is
instructed to ensure, as far reasonably practicable that the mine is
commissioned, operated maintained and decommissioned in such a
way that employees can perform their work without endangering the
health and safety of themselves or of any other person.

It further addresses this aspect under the duties of the employer in

Section 5(2)(d) where it states that he must ensure “that persons who
are not employees but who may be directly affected by the activities
at the mine, are not exposed to any hazards to their health and
safety”.

The extent to which anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control

must thus be carried out as therefore clearly identified and it is the
duty of the responsible practitioner/s to provide the employer with the
information required to prevent harmful effects to both workers and
the general public alike.

12
Occupational medicine: Means the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness, injury and
adverse health effects associated with a particular type of work.

Anticipation: To expect or to consider before the event or time (of something

occurring)

 Anticipation can therefore be considered to be the process

whereby the occupational hygiene practitioner, by acquiring and
studying the data related to a process, plant or activity,
assembles theoretical tools and knowledge whereby he can infer
the type of hazard and the degree of risk which may be present
as a consequence of that process or activity. Such a plant,
process or activity may, at this stage, exist in a purely theoretical
form or, alternatively, the practitioner may never have seen it,
although it exists.

Recognition: To discover or realise the nature of (a condition).

 Recognition may therefore be considered to be the process

whereby the practitioner detects / identifies and confirms by
observation, whether by direct means or by indirect measurement
techniques, the presence of the anticipated hazard/s. at this
stage the practitioner may already be gaining quantitative data
which would give an assessment of the extent or magnitude of
the risk present.

Evaluation: To appraise, assess, ascertain the value of, or compare to (a

standard, norm or practice)

 During the evaluation process, the data obtained during

recognition is compared to limits or standards, which would give
an indication of the acceptability, or otherwise of the degree of
risk present, i.e. the hazard is quantified. Guidance is usually
sought from legal and technical literature applicable to the hazard
so that conclusions may be drawn on which future decision-
making needs to be based.

Control: To a direct activity

 Control is therefore considered to be any process whereby the

hazard is managed to reduce and maintain the risks at
acceptable levels. Here, once again, guidance as to the process
should be taken from the MH%SA, Section 11 where the
employer is instructed to assess and respond to risk. In so
responding he must, as per Section 11(2):

“Determine all measures, including changing the organisation of

work and design of safe systems of work, necessary to:-

(a) eliminate any recorded risk;

(b) control the risk at source;

(c) minimise the risk; and

(d) in so far as the risk remains-

13
 (i) provide for personal protective equipment; and

(ii) institute a programme to monitor the risk to which

employees may be exposed”

The role and duty of the occupational hygienist (Section 12) is

therefore to devise appropriate measurement systems which will
provide the manager with information which can be used to
determine measures or systems which are applied to eliminate,
control and minimise health risks and hazards [See sub-section
2(a) and (b)]

Agent: Is a harmful or potentially harmful substance, which may enter

the human body by inhalation, ingestion or penetration through the
skin.

Occupational Stress: Can be defined as a physical, chemical, biological or mental

imbalance, resulting in harm or the potential for harm, imposed
on a worker as a consequence of a condition, task or activity
associated with his occupation.

Occupational Hazard: Is defined as a source of or exposure to danger during the course

of performing work,

Occupational Risk: Is the likelihood that occupational injury or harm to persons will
occur.

 It can, therefore, be clearly seen that, in the case of

“occupational hazard”, there is a process of anticipation /
recognition involved whereas in the management of “risk”, the
processes involved are those of evaluation of the extent to
which the hazard is determined to be a danger and to which
control mechanisms must be applied to effectively reduce the
risk to acceptable levels. This is a very important concept and
forms a cornerstone in the practice of occupational hygiene.

Physical Hazard: Is the source of exposure to a danger that can cause physical
harm to an individual.

 Typically, ergonomic stresses such as muscular, skeletal or

impacts on organs such as the skin (e.g. abrasions, lesions,
etc.), or internal organs such as the heart, lungs, hearing
(ears), etc. apply here.

Chemical hazard: Is the source of exposure to a danger that arises as a

consequence of exposure to a chemical substance.

 Usually toxic substances (poisons) are involved here. These

may be general poisons (i.e. poisons that affect virtually all
people) but may also include substances to which only certain
people are allergic (e.g. plant oils, pollen, etc.)

14
Biological hazard: Is the source of an exposure to a danger involving a biological
agent.

 Examples include viruses (such as viral meningitis, influenza,

etc.), bacteria (e.g. bacteria causing food poisoning, colds,
etc.), fungal, e.g. athlete’s foot and parasitical infections such
as bilharzia.

Psychological effect: A detrimental effect on the mental well-being of a worker as a

consequence of an (over) exposure to some hazard in his
working environment.

Acute exposure: A short duration, high dose exposure of which the results may
cause unconsciousness, shock, collapse, sever inflammation of
the lungs or sudden death.

Chronic exposure: Exposure, usually in very small doses over long periods of time,
the results of which may cause adverse health effects ranging
from mild effects to death.

Threshold Limit Value (TLV)©: Is the term applied by the American Conference f Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and is defined as “airborne
concentrations of substances and represent conditions under
which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed day after day without adverse health effects”.

 TLV’s are derived from available information from industrial

experience, from experimental human and animal studies
and, when possible, from all three.

Threshold Limit Value is the time weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour
(Time Weighted Average) workday or 40-hour workweek to which nearly all workers may be
TLV(TWA)©: repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse health
effects.

Threshold Limit Value is the concentration to which workers can be continuously

(Short Term Exposure Limit) exposed for a short period of time without suffering from
(TLV-STEL)©: 1) irritation, 2) chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or 3)
narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of
accidental injury, or to impair self-rescue or to materially reduce
work efficiency, and provided that the daily TLV(TWA) is not
exceeded. It must, therefore, be considered in conjunction with
the TWA limit.

It is further defined as a 15 minute TWA exposure which should

not be exceeded at any time during the workday even if the
TLV(TWA) is not exceeded. The STEL should not occur more
than four times per day and there should be at least 60 minutes
between successive exposures in this range.

Threshold Limit Value is the concentration which should not be exceeded during any
(Ceiling) (TLV-C)©: part of the working exposure.

 Sometimes this value is the only limit that is relevant, e.g.

irritant gases such as nitrous fumes.

15
Occupational Exposure means a limit set by notice in the Government Gazette in terms of
Limit (OEL): the MH&SA Regulations for an occupational exposure factor in
the workplace. (For practical purposes, it is deemed to have the
same meaning as TLV).

Ceiling limit or OEL-Ceiling: is an instantaneous value, which must never be exceeded during
any part of the working exposure. (Considered to have the same
meaning as TLV-C)

Particulates Not Otherwise Are substances for which there is no evidence of specific toxic
Classified (PNOC): effects. These are often referred to as nuisance dusts.

Biological Exposure Indices (BEI): Are advisory biological limit values, usually based on urine,
blood or expired air samples. The limit may apply to the substance itself or may refer to a level of
metabolite and is usually coupled to the value of that determinant obtained from a worker exposed
at the 8-hour TLV(TWA) for the substance in question.

PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AND THE OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENIST

The Mine Ventilation Society to which most South African mine environment control practitioners
belong has a Code of Professional Conduct. A copy of this Code can be found in the Mine
Ventilation Society Journal, Volume 48, March 1995, page 68. You are advised to study this Code
for guidance on what may be regarded as being good practice.

In addition, you are referred to Section 12 of the Mine Health and Safety Act which gives an
indication of the legal requirements for and duties of an occupational hygiene practitioner.

Currently, draft legislation is being prepared which is aimed at defining the tasks, responsibilities
and duties of the occupational hygiene practitioner appointed in terms of the Act and, as soon as
these are gazetted, you are urged to also study those regulations.

16
 OH 1

SELF TEST

Without using references, explain simply, in your own words, the following terms:

1. Occupational Health

2. Occupational Hygiene

3. Occupational medicine

4. Anticipation

5. Recognition

6. Evaluation

7. Control

8. Agent

17
9. Occupational stress

10. Occupational hazard

11. Occupational risk

12. Physical hazard

13. Chemical hazard

14. Biological hazard

15. Physiological effect

16. Acute exposure

17. Chronic exposure

18
18. Occupational exposure limit (OEL)

19. Threshold limit value (TLV)

20. Time weighted average (TWA)

21. Short term exposure limit (STEL)

22. Biological exposure index (BEI)

23. Discuss the duties of an occupational hygiene practitioner with reference to the definition
for “occupational hygiene” and to the MVS Professional Code of conduct.

24. Discuss the human (physical), occupational (activities) and environmental factors which
determine how much of a substance is taken up via either inhalation, ingestion or skin
penetration.

19
20
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

OBJECTIVES:

Without using references you must be able to:

 Define anatomy, physiology and pathology

 The Human Respiratory System

- Describe the anatomy of the human respiratory system

- Define breathing, external respiration, internal respiration, intercellular respiration, tidal

volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, total lung
capacity, inspiratory capacity, vital capacity, functional residual capacity, adsorption and
absorption.

- Briefly discuss the terms atelectasis, emphysema, pleurisy, pneumonitis, bronchitis,

pneumoconiosis.

- Describe simply the passage of inhaled aerosols through the human respiratory system.

- Discuss the physiology of the human respiratory defence mechanism against inhaled
particulate matter.

 The Skin

- Briefly describe the anatomy of the skin.

- Briefly discuss the defence mechanisms of the skin with reference to bacteria, fungi,
parasites and viruses, sunlight, primary irritants, injury, heat and cold stress and chemicals.

- Briefly discuss the pathological effects of exposure to primary irritants, sensitisers, ionising
and non-ionising radiation, injury, extremes of heat and cold, and alkaline or acidic
chemicals, solvents.

 The Human Ear

- Describe the anatomy and physiology of the human ear.

- Describe, in simple terms, the theory of audiometric testing.

- Briefly discuss the potential damage incurred on hearing by physical blockage, traumatic
damage, disease induced damage, hereditary damage, drug induced damage, noise
induced damage, presbycusis and tinnitus.

 The Human Eye

- Describe the anatomy and physiology of the human eye.

- Define and briefly discuss visual acuity, dark adaptation, colour blindness, night blindness.

- Discuss the terms farsightedness, nearsightedness, astigmatism, conjunctivitis, glaucoma,

cataracts, nightblindness, eyestrain, nystagmus, irradiation and chemical burns.

- Explain, in simple terms, the theory and methods of testing for visual acuity.

21
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations

 Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa

- Vol. 48, August 1995, pp 210-220, Mine Environmental Safety and Health (MESH), DE
Wrigley

- Vol. 50, April-June 1997, pp 57-59, Heat stress management: metabolic rates associated
with tube mill re-lining, PC Shutte, et al.

- Vol. 50, April-June 1997, pp 65-67, Hearing conservation programme, the WAGM way, GJ
Graaff.

- Vol. 51, October-December 1998, pp140-141, Occupational medicine effects of carbon

monoxide, WM Coombs.

- Vol. 52, April-June 1999, pp 76-79, Physical ability analysis: The human factor in risk of
injury and lower back problems can be managed, Prof. Dawie Malan.

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No. 0-87912-171-8 (hc) pp
35-52, 23-81; 83-101; 103-120.

 SABS 083:1996, The Measurement and Assessment of Occupational ?Noise for Hearing
Conservation Purposes.

22
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

A. DEFINITIONS

Anatomy May be defined as the branch of natural science dealing with the structural
organisation of living things (i.e. a study of how living organisms are put
together and how the various parts interact with one another)

Physiology Is the study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in living
organisms during the performance of life functions. (It is concerned with
such basic activities as reproduction, growth, metabolism, respiration,
excitation and contraction as these take place within the fine structure, the
cells, tissues, organs and systems of organs in the human body).

Pathology Is the branch of medicine concerned with determining the nature and
course of diseases by analysing body tissues and fluids.

B. THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

As you will recall form the definitions discussed in the introductory module (and as will be
dealt with again in the module on Toxicology (OH-4) which follows later), the most common
route of ingress into the human body of toxic and hazardous substances in the industrial
environment is via the respiratory tract. Figure OH-2.1 shows the main organs involved in
this process.

Figure OH-2.1 The human respiratory system

23
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

THE NOSE

The nose consists of two parts, the outer (externally visible portion) and an internal portion which
lies within the skull between the base of the cranium and the roof of the mouth (refer Fig. OH-2.2
below). This part of the nose is connected via airways to the outside environment (the nostrils) and
to the nasopharynx (in the rear) via the conchae. It is furthermore split between left and right
passages (Vestibules) by the nasal septum. The vestibule is the enlarged opening just inside the
nostril. The vestibules are lined with hairs that serve as coarse dust filters.

Towards the rear, the vestibules are lined with a mucous membrane, which has several functions.
Because it is sticky, it acts as a trap for impacted smaller particles. Being glandular, it also secretes
moisture, which serves as a pre-conditioner of the air flowing towards the lungs in that the air is
moistened. At the same time, being underlain with a good supply of blood, the blood, which is at
body temperature, serves as the thermodynamic medium, which provides heat to warm the air.
This effect is very marked during winter or when exposed to cold intake air.

The third important role of the mucous membrane is to act as a trap for bacteria.

The mucous membrane is, in turn, covered with fine hair called cilia. These propel all trapped
particles in a co-ordinated fashion towards the nostrils from where it may be ejected.

Finally, the mucous membrane is also the repository for the nerve endings of the olfactory system
(sense of smell). Figure OH-2.2 shows the nose in more detail.

Figure Oh-2.2 The nasopharynx

24
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

THE PHARYNX

This is the tubular passageway (throat) which serves to connect the nose and mouth with the inner
organs (lungs and stomach). It splits into the oesophagus (food tube) and the larynx (voice box).

This portion of the nasal system serves as major defence against infectious diseases through the
actions of the tonsils and the adenoids.

THE EPIGLOTTIS

Just above the larynx is the epiglottis, an organ designed to close off the trachea (windpipe) during
swallowing. This prevents the inadvertent ingress of solids or liquids into the lungs by forming a
slide over the top of the larynx during the swallowing action. An unconscious person may have lost
this semi-automatic ability to operate the epiglottis and for this reason great care should be taken
to prevent choking should there be a solid or liquid substance in the victim’s mouth. This includes
the tongue.

THE LARYNX

This is the voice box and it contains the vocal chords in the form of two membranes, which
resonate with passing air. It also has the ability to operate as a valve to allow for the passage of air
but not of liquid or solid substances. The latter function operates in unison with the epiglottis.

THE TRACHEA

More commonly known as the windpipe, it is a tube which contains concentric rings of cartilage
which hold it open. It is also lined with mucous membrane and cilia which perform the same
function as those found in the nose. Trapped particulate matter is expelled by coughing into the
throat and mouth from where it may be swallowed or expelled to the outside.

THE BRONCHI

The trachea divides into two passages called the bronchi, thus connecting the left and right lungs
respectively to the trachea.

The upper portions of the bronchi are also reinforced by cartilage rings but these disappear further
down towards the lungs.

The bronchi further divide, in a tree like structure, into finer bronchi, called bronchioles. These are
equipped with muscles which can cause them to expand or contract, thus regulating air flow
through the lungs. See Figure OH - 2.3.

25
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

See Figure OH - 2.3 - The Larynx, Bronchi and Lungs

THE LUNGS

These are large, sac like organs designed to exchange gases between the atmosphere and the
body. The right lung is larger than the left, consisting of three lobes, while the left lung has only two
lobes.

The outside of the lungs is protected by thin, skin-like layers called the pleura. These consist of an
inner layer covering the lobes and an outer layer on the inside of the rib cage. Between the two
pleura is a thin layer of fluid acting as a lubricant, preventing the pleura from rubbing against each
other during the movement caused by expansion and contraction during breathing.

On the inside of the lungs, at the ends of the bronchiole, are tiny sacs called alveoli (see Figure
OH-2.4) of which there are approximately 300 million. These are the actual gas exchangers and
they are supplied with a myriad of capillary vessels, which carry the blood, which acts as conveying
medium towards and from the heart.

The combined surface area of the alveoli varies from approximately 28m2 at rest to 93m2 at
deepest inspiration. The inner surface lining of the alveoli is about two cells thick. (The skin surface
area, on the other hand, is about 1,9 m2, thus explaining why the exposure danger by respiration is
so much greater than by penetration through the skin. The skin is also a lot thicker measured in
millimetres).

During a normal working day, the average person breathes about 8,5 m3 of air.

26
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

Figure OH-2.4 The Alveolus

RESPIRATION

This term refers to the enzyme oxidation processes that use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide. It
is subdivided into four components consisting of:

 Breathing - caused by the movement of the chest and lung complex to ventilate the alveoli;

 External respiration - the exchange of gas (O2 and CO2) between alveolar air and blood;

 Internal respiration - exchange of gas between the tissue blood and the tissue cells;

 Intercellular respiration - the ultimate utilisation of oxygen by the cells with the simultaneous
release of carbon dioxide.

The carrier medium in the circulatory system is haemoglobin, a chemical compound consisting of
protein and iron.

The gas exchange process occurs due to a difference in concentration and partial pressure, with
the gas in question flowing from a high to a low concentration / pressure.

27
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

LUNG CAPACITY

This is an important concept as it determines the swept (tidal) volume during the breathing cycle
and therefore influences the capacity of the lung to exchange gas. The following primary lung
volumes are relevant:

 Tidal volume - the volume of gas (air) inspired or expired during each respiratory (breathing)
cycle;

 Inspiratory reserve volume - the maximum volume that can be forcibly inspired following a
normal inspiratory (breathing-in) cycle;

 Expiratory reserve volume - the maximum amount of air that can be forcibly expired following
normal expiration (breathing out);

 Residual volume - the amount of air remaining in the lungs following a maximum expiratory
effort.

In considering lung capacities, the following four capacities are relevant:

 Total lung capacity - the sum of all four of the primary volumes (as discussed above);

 Inspiratory capacity - the maximum volume by which the lung can be increased by maximum
inspiration from a mid position;

 Vital capacity - the maximum amount of air that can be expired from the lungs following a
maximum inspiration;

 Functional residual capacity - the normal volume after a passive exhalation (normal
breathing exhalation).

Typically, the tidal volume is about 1/18th of the total lung capacity, in adults this represents about
350 ml. This volume excludes the “dead” air which is not exhaled from the lungs at the end of the
respiratory cycle, or the air trapped in the nose and trachea following normal inspiration. The vital
capacity is about 4 000 ml.

The typical residual volume is about 1 200 ml.

To measure vital lung capacity, a spirometer is used. This instrument measures the ventilatory
capacity (as volume over time) of the lungs and the breathing cycle applied is that for determining
the vital capacity. Between the ages 20 to 40 years, these capacities range from 4 000 to 4 500 ml.
This reduces with age and between the ages 40 to 60 years, a reduction of up to 20% can occur.

The spirometer is therefore used to determine whether there may be an obstructive or restrictive
ventilatory effect arising form illness such as chronic obstructive airway disease (COAD) - a
blockage or occlusion of the passages of the lung-, pneumoconiosis or asbestosis. In the latter
case (asbestosis), spirometry is a very good initial indicator, often indicating problems even before
radiographic (X-ray) detection is possible. On the other hand, X-ray changes may show with
silicosis before any significant change is detected with the spirometer.

28
 OH 2

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

HEALTH HAZARDS

Some typical health conditions associated with the lungs which could arise from some typical
hazardous substances are discussed below:

 Atelectasis - this means incomplete expansion, usually caused by occlusion (blockage of a

bronchus) by, e.g. a plug of mucus;

 Emphysema - derived from the Greek word meaning over-inflated. The small muscles in the
final bronchioles (tubes) leading to the alveoli are hypertrophied, (meaning loss of elasticity).
The air flows into the alveolus reasonably easily, but is restricted in the outflow cycle. As a
result, the pressure differential leads to the sac becoming stretched and thinner until the wall
eventually ruptures. The available gas exchange surface is thus reduced, eventually to a point
where the sufferer continually experiences shortness of breath and cyanosis (lack of sufficient
oxygen in the arterial blood).

 Pleurisy - this is a condition where the two lung linings (pleura) lose their lubricating properties.
The resultant friction causes irritation and pain in the outer pleura (the inner pleura has no pain
fibres);

 Pneumonitis - any inflammation of the lung;

 Bronchitis - inflammation of the inner lining of the bronchial tubes;

 Pneumoconiosis - this is a general term describing various pulmonary manifestations arising

from exposure to dusty conditions (both inert and poisonous dusts and fibres). The lung
function is usually adversely affected due to the development of fibrotic (stringy) tissue in the
alveolar sacs or at lymph nodes in the lungs.

NATURAL DEFENSES

A number of natural defence mechanisms exist in the respiratory tract. Coarser particles (over 10
m - micrometre or micron - in diameter) impact in the upper airways with the mucous membrane
from where they are mechanically cleared by the cilia. Particles that penetrate into the bronchioles
will usually be cleared within 16 hours in a healthy lung.

Other defence mechanisms involve the contraction of the muscles of the bronchial tubes, thus
reducing the airflow through the affected areas.

The particles that reach the alveolar sacs, on the other hand, are very fine (in the region of 1 m)
and once they have penetrated to here, are not so easily removed. The reason for this is the fact
that the air movement inside the sac is virtually zero and the particle can therefore not be ejected
by air movement. In the sacs, deposition will occur by either Brownian motion (where the
molecules of air push particle around) or by gravitational settling.

These particles may be scavenged by phagocyte cells (White blood cells) from where the cells
may migrate to the bronchia, or pass through the alveolar membrane into the lymphatic system or
they may be destroyed by the poisonous action of the particle. In the latter case, the residue would
remain within the alveolar sac.

Such deposits may, in turn, negatively affect the alveoli and affect the state of health of the lungs.

All these mechanisms are also affected by age and therefore older workers will be more
susceptible to potentially harmful respiratory exposures.

29
 OH 2

SELF TEST OH - 2.1

Without using references, explain simply and in your own words, the following terms:

1. Anatomy:

2. Physiology:

3. Pathology

4. Briefly describe the anatomy of the human respiratory system by describing the main
components under the following headings:

4.1 The Nose:

4.2 The Pharynx:

4.3 The Epiglottis:

4.4 The Larynx:

30
 4.5 The trachea:

4.6 The bronchi:

4.7 The lungs:

5. Define, in your own words:

5.1 Breathing

5.2 External respiration

5.3 Internal respiration

5.4 Intercellular respiration

5.5 Tidal volume

31
5.6 Inspiratory reserve volume

5.7 Expiratory reserve volume

5.8 Residual volume

5.9 Total lung capacity

5.10 Inspiratory capacity

5.11 Vital capacity

5.12 Functional residual capacity

5.13 Adsorption

32
 5.14 Absorption

6. Briefly discuss the following terms:

6.1 Atelectasis

6.2 Emphysema

6.3 Pleurisy

6.4 Pneumonitis

6.5 Bronchitis

6.6 Pneumoconiosis

7. Describe, briefly, the passage of inhaled aerosols through the human respiratory system

33
8. Discuss the physiology of the human respiratory defence mechanism against inhaled
particulate matter (i.e. how does the body defend itself against inhaled dusts):

34
 OH 2

C. THE SKIN

The skin is the latest organ of the body. It is approximately 2m2 in area, less than 2mm
thick, tough, flexible and able to withstand a reasonable degree of cold, heat, moisture,
radiation, bacteria, fungi and penetration.

It is also a sensory organ in that sensations of pain, touch, cold and heat may be elicited. It
is also a thermoregulatory organ (controlling heat flow) and it excretes certain substances.

Figure OH-2.5 gives a view of the components making up the skin.

THE EPIDERMIS

This is the outer layer of the skin, composed of dead cells called the horny or keratin layer
or the stratum corneum. It is generally resistant to chemical attack, with the exception of
alkali, organic solvents and gases.

There are three types of cell in the epidermis, these being:

 Keratinocytes - these make up the bulk of the epidermis, form from below and move
upwards to become the dead, horny cells;

 Melanocytes - the pigment forming cells;

 Langerhans’ cells - a small percentage of the epidermal cells that play an important
role in various immune processes, especially allergic contact dermatitis.

35
 OH 2

Figure OH - 2.5 The Skin

THE DERMIS

The dermis underlays the epidermis, is usually much thicker and contains the connective tissue
composed of collagen elastic fibres and base substance. It is laced with blood vessels, nerve fibres
and receptor organs and contains muscular elements, hair follicles and oil and sweat glands.

In places, the top of the dermis is made up of tiny cone-shaped objects, called papillae. These are
more numerous in areas such as the fingertips. Nerve fibres and special nerve endings are found
in these, hence the increased sense of touch in this case.

The larger component of the dermis (reticular dermis) extends from the base of the papillary
dermis to the subcutaneous fat. This area also contains muscle fibres.

36
 OH 2

THE SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER

This is a layer containing fatty and resilient elements that cushion and insulate the skin above it.
The distinguishing feature is that this layer contains significant quantities of fat. Also present are
the lower parts of the eccrine and apocrine sweat glands and hairs, nerves, blood and lymphatic
vessels and fibrous partitions consisting of collagen, elastic tissue and reticulum. This layer links
the dermis with the underlying muscles and bones.

GLANDS

There are two types of gland in the skin, these being sweat glands (apocrine, imparting smell, and
eccrine, which provide the cooling function) and oil glands (known as sebaceous glands) the
sebaceous glands provide lubrication to the hair shafts and keep the horny layer of the skin soft
and pliable.

BLOOD VESSELS

The skin is richly supplied with blood vessels which act as conduits for the transportation of
sustenance for the skin and also as thermoregulatory mechanism.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

The skin provides a defence mechanism to a number of hazards, such as:

 Bacteria - the skin is host to a number of bacteria which tend to destroy pathogenic bacteria.
Free fatty acids and oils can also have some anti-bacterial value;

 Sunlight - the ability of the skin to form additional pigmentation and to grow thicker (the
stratum corneum) with exposure to sunlight (and more particularly, ultraviolet radiation) assists
in developing defences against this source of non-ionising radiation;

 Primary irritants - The skin resists acids but is sensitive to alkalis. Sweat can act as a dilutant
but can also reduce the resistance to absorption if it softens the skin.

 Injury - the skin provides a degree of protection against forceful impact and also provides
sensory information designed to reduce the risk of injury;

 Heat and cold stress - through its thermoregulatory mechanism, the skin acts as a degree of
protective measure against excesses of heat or cold;

 Chemicals - the stratum corneum, especially, provides a natural barrier against the ingress of
chemical agents into and an egress of water from the body.

INCIDENCES OF OCCUPATIONAL SKIN DISORDERS (PATHOLOGY)

Following respiratory related diseases, the incidence of dermatosis is second in line in terms of
occupationally related diseases. Dermatosis is defined as any abnormal condition of the skin,
(conditions can range from redness and scaling to eczematous, ulcerative, acneiform, pigmentary,
granulamatous or neoplastic disorders). Some of these will be discussed in more detail later.

Occupational skin diseases are largely preventable and a steady decline in the rate in incidence
has been apparent over the last number of years.

37
 OH 2

Unfortunately, data in South Africa on the incidences of dermatosis is not freely available, but the
most hazardous operations involving skin disorders in the USA which is an industrialised country
and whose data can be indirectly compared with our own, industrialised mining industry, are as
follows:

 Use of cutting oils and coolants in machine tool operation (e.g. in fitter shops, at lathes, etc.)
 Plastics manufacturing;
 Rubber manufacturing;
 Food processing;
 Leather tanning and finishing;
 Agriculture;
 Metal plating and cleaning (workshops, acid baths, etc.);
 Construction (usually related with the use of cement and coarse material, such as bricks);
 Printing, and
 Forest products manufacturing (e.g. carpentry).

CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL SKIN DISORDERS

Five broad headings apply:

 Chemical - there are approximately 650 000 known chemical compounds of which a large
portion are hazardous to a greater or lesser extent. These agents may be classified into two
broad bands, namely primary irritants and sensitizers. Table 2.3.1 shows some typical
chemical causes of skin disorders.

Primary irritants are those which affect most or all persons exposed thereto. Examples include
organic and inorganic acids and alkalis (ammonium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, sodium
hydroxide, etc.), metallic salts (arsenicals, chromates, mercurials, nickel sulphate, zinc
chloride, etc.) and organic solvents (chlorinated hydrocarbons, ketones, alchohols, terpenes,
etc.)

Some of the irritants act primarily on the keratin layer through a solvent action (keratin
solvents) whilst others serve as stimulants resulting in growths in the form of tumors or
cancers (keratin stimulants), E.g. coal tar based materials, arsenic and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons - PAH’s - common in diesel exhaust gases.

Another action that occurs is that of dissolving fats and oils in the skin whilst protein
precipitants (typically heavy metal salts) precipitate protein and denature it (i.e. change the
basic form of the protein).

Reducers (e.g. oxalic acid, urea, etc.) reduce the keratin layer until it is no longer protective,
whilst sensitizers result in the skin becoming sensitive to dermatoses resulting even from low
level exposures. This sensitivity usually only develops after long duration, repeated exposures.
Chemical compounds which cause this include epoxy resins, metal compounds containing
nickel and chromium, coal tar products, sunscreens containing p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA),
etc.

 Mechanical - these are the hazards resulting from friction (formation of blisters and calluses)
sharp objects causing laceration and external forces resulting in bruising, punctures and
tears;

38
 Physical - these are hazards such as heat, cold and radiation. Examples of dermatosis
include heat rash, frost bite (cold), burns (non-ionising radiation) and cancer and
radiodermatitis (ionising radiation i.e. beta, gamma and X-radiation)

 Biological - number of parasitical, fungal, bacteriological and viral organisms can affect the
skin. Examples include anthrax in hide processors, yeast infections in the nails in
dishwashers, bartenders and persons performing wet work, hepatitis B, fung (candida) and
bacteria (staphylococci and tuberculosis), etc. acquired from patients or biological
specimens.

 Botanical - many plants and woods can cause contact dermatitis through allergens or
irritants contained in leaves or other parts of plants, or in the sap. With woods, the highest
occurrence is when wood is sandpapered, polished or cut and burning can also release
allergens leading to dermatosis.

Some Chemical Causes of Skin Disorders

Primary Selected skin Selected occupations, trades,

Chemical Sensitizers or processes where exposures
irritants manifestations
may occur
ACIDS
Hydrochloric Yes - Irritation and ulceration of Bleachers, picklers (metals),
skin refiners (metals), tinners, chemical
manufacturing, masons (cleaning
cement), assay laboratories
Nitric Yes - Severe skin burns and Nitric acid workers, electroplaters
ulcers metal cleaners, acid dippers,
nitrators, dye makers, assay
laboratories
Picric Yes Yes Erythema, dermatitis, Explosives workers, picric acid
scaling yellow makers, dyers and dye makers,
discoloration of skin and tannery workers
hair
Sulphuric Yes - Corrosive action on skin, Nitrators, picklers (metals),
severe inflammation of dippers, chemical manufacturing,
mucous membranes assay laboratories
ALKALIS
Ammonia Yes - Irritation including Ammonia production, fertilizers,
airborne dermatitis of photocopying (blueprint, diazo),
face from vapors gas and liquid forms, refrigeration
plant
Calcium Yes - Irritation and ulceration Fertilizer manufacturing, gold
cyanamide extraction, agricultural workers,
nitrogen compound makers
Calcium oxide Yes - Dermatitis, burns, or Lime workers, manufacturing of
ulceration calcium, salts, glass and fertilizer
Potassium Yes - Severe corrosion of skin, Potassium hydroxide makers
hydroxide deep seated persistent electroplaters paper, soap, and
ulcers, loss of fingernails printing ink makers

39
 Some Chemical Causes of Skin Disorders

Primary Selected skin Selected occupations, trades,

Chemical Sensitizers or processes where exposures
irritants manifestations
may occur
ALKALIS
(Cont.)
Sodium Yes - Severe corrosion of skin, Sodium hydroxide makers,
hydroxide deep seated persistent bleachers, soap and dye makers,
ulcers, loss of fingernails petroleum refiners, mercerizers,
plastic manufacturing
Sodium or Yes - Blisters, ulcers Electroplaters, case hardening,
potassium gold extraction processes.
cyanide
SALTS OR
ELEMENTS
Antimony and its Yes ? Irritation and lichenoid Antimony extraction processes,
compounds eruptions of skin glass and rubber mixers,
manufacturing of various alloys,
fireworks, and aniline colours
Arsenic and its Yes Yes Spotty pigmentation of Leather workers, manufacturing
compounds skin, perforation of nasal insecticides, glass industry,
septum, skin cancer, agriculture, pesticides, tanning,
keratoses especially on taxidermy, alloy, lubricating oils.
palms and soles,
dermatitis, pustules
Bromine and its Yes - Irritation, vesicles, and Bromine extractors, bromine salts
compounds ulceration; acne makers, dye and drug
manufacturing, photographic
trades
Chromium and Yes Yes Pitlike ulcers (chrome Chromium platers, dye industry
its compounds holes) on skin, workers chrome manufacturing,
perforation of nasal leather tanners
septum and dermatitis
Mercury and its Yes Yes Corrosion and irritation of Explosives manufacturing, silver
compounds skin, dermatitis and gold extraction,
manufacturing electrical
appliances and scientific
equipment
Nickel salts Yes Yes Folliculitis, dermatitis Nickel platers, alloy makers
Sodium and Yes - Burns and ulceration Bleaching: detergent, paper,
certain of its glass, tetraethyl lead
compounds manufacturing
Zinc chloride Yes ? Ulcers of skin and nasal Manufacturing chemicals,
septum dyestuffs, paper, disinfectants
SOLVENTS
Acetone Yes - Dry (defatted) skin Spray painters, celluloid industry,
artificial silk and leather workers,
acetylene workers, lacquer and
varnish makers, garage
mechanisms

40
 Some Chemical Causes of Skin Disorders

Primary Selected skin Selected occupations, trades,

Chemical Sensitizers or processes where exposures
irritants manifestations
may occur
SOLVENTS
(Cont.)
Benzene and its Yes - Dry (defatted) skin Chemical and rubber
homologues manufacturing and rubber
(toluene and manufacturing (benzene also
xylene) causes leaukemia)
Carbon disulfide Yes Yes Dry (defatted) irritated Extraction of oils, fats, and a wide
skin range of other materials,
manufacture of rayon, rubber,
rubber, cements, germicides, and
other chemicals
Trichloroethylene Yes - Dermatitis Degreasers, chemical
intermediates
Turpentine Yes Yes Dermatitis Painters, furniture polishers,
lacquerers, artists
Alcohols (such Yes Yes Dermatitis Chemical manufacture, painters
as ethanol)
PETROLEUM
AND COAL-TAR
DERIVATIVES
Petroleum oils Yes - Dermatitis, folliculitis Petroleum workers, machinists,
mechanics
Pitch and asphalt Yes - Dermatitis, folliculitis, Manufacturing pitch and asphalt,
keratoses, skin cancer roofers
Tar (coal) Yes Yes Dermatitis, folliculitis, Tar manufacturing: manufacturing
skin cancer, eye roofing paper and pitch; road
inflammation (keratitis) building and repairing
SOAPS AND Yes Yes Dermatitis, dry skin, Soap manufacturing,
SOAP paronychia (inflammation dishwashers, cleaners and
POWDERS around fingernails), maintenance workers, change
allergy from fragrance house workers, hostel kitchens -
germicides, or dyes all associated with wet work
INSECTICIDES
Arsenic Yes - See above under salts or Manufacturing and applying
elements insecticides, pesticide and wood
preservative.
Creosote Yes Yes Dermatitis, folliculitis, Manufacturing wood
keratoses, preservatives, railroad ties, coal
hyperpigmentation, skin tar lamp black and pitch workers
cancer
Fluorides Yes - Severe burns, dermatitis Manufacturing insecticides,
enamel manufacturing
Phenylmercury Yes Yes Dermatitis Manufacturing and applying
compounds fungicides and disinfectants

41
 Some Chemical Causes of Skin Disorders

Primary Selected skin Selected occupations, trades,

Chemical Sensitizers or processes where exposures
irritants manifestations
may occur
RESINS
Shellac - Yes Dermatitis Coating, cosmetics
Synthetic resins Yes Yes Dermatitis Plastic workers, varnish makers,
such as adhesives, coatings, rubber lining,
phenolformalde- cosmetology
hyde
ureaformalde-
hyde, epoxy,
vinyl,
polyurethane,
polyester,
acrylate,
cellulose esters
EXPLOSIVES
Nitrates, mercury Yes Yes Severe irritation, Explosives manufacturing, shell
fulminate, tetry, dermatitis, skin loading, mining
lead azide, TNT discoloration
nitroglycerine
METAL
WORKING
FLUIDS
Cutting oils Yes - Oil acne (folliculitis), rare Machinists (e.g. metal turning
dermatitis lathes)
Coolants- Yes Yes Dermatitis Machinists
synthetic and
semi-synthetic
OXIDISING
AGENTS
Hydrogen Yes ? Dermatitis Chemical industry, medical
peroxide disinfectant cosmetology
OTHER
Isocyanats such Yes Yes Dermatitis Polyurethane makers, adhesive
as TDI, MDI, HDI workers, organic chemical
synthesizers
Vinyl chloride Yes - Dermatitis, acro- Polyvinyl resin, rubber and
osteolysis organic chemical makers
Formaldehyde Yes Yes Dermatitis Undertakers, biologists, textile
workers, taxidermy.

42
 OH-2

CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONAL SKIN DISEASES

Although skin diseases are easy to recognise, their classification requires a high degree of medical
skill. Once the type is identified, it is usually easier to identify the class of materials involved,
although it would still be difficult to identify a particular causative substance. This process may
require some good detective work on the part of the occupational hygienist, often in conjunction
with a number of other players, including the affected party, the occupational medical practitioner
and, possibly, supervisory personnel. Each case needs to be treated on merit.

Examples of types of dermatitic illnesses include, contact dermatitis (irritant contact dermatitis
and allergic contact dermatitis) contact urticaria (latex allergy, e.g. latex gloves),
photosensitivity (light sensitivity), occupational acne, pigmentary abnormalities, sweat
induced reactions (i.e. heat rash, relatively prevalent in hot, humid environments, such as
mining), cutaneous tumours skin growths), ulcerations (sores), granulomas (wartlike bumps),
alopecia (loss of hair where normally prevalent) and nail diseases.

3.10 Systematic intoxication

It is possible that, besides dermatoses, the compound in question giving rise thereto, are
also absorbed into the body. Some examples and associated effects are given below:

 Aniline - red blood cells and methemoglobineama;

 Benzidine - carcinoma of the bladder;
 Carbon disulfide - nervous system / psychological disorders;
 Carbon tetrachloride - central nervous system (CNS) depressant;
 Dioxane - CNS depressant;
 Ethylene glycol ethers - CNS depressant, pulmonary edema;
 Halogenated naphthalene - neurotoxixity, altered metabolism;
 Methyl butyl ketone - CNS depressant;
 Organophosphates - cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, neuromuscular and pulmonary
toxicity;
 Tetrachloroethylene - CNS suppressant, suspected carcinogen;
 Toluene - CNS depressant.

3.11 Prevention and control

Environment - Good housekeeping to reduce inadvertent contact with substances remains

the first line of defence:

Monitoring and control - This is a difficult area to monitor, but swabs (wipe samples) for
chemical analysis, hand or skin rinses, dermal dosimeters (patches) and sampling of
clothing are some of the mechanisms used to detect and verify the presence of chemical
compounds. Air sampling may have limited application. Colour indicator soaps can be used
in the case of mercury and biological monitoring is also possible;

Personal cleanliness - Lack of personal cleanliness often is one of the most prevalent
causes of dermatoses. Training and education play an important role in preventing this;

Personal protective equipment - Protective clothing, gloves, shoes, masks, suits, etc. all
apply in this area. the PPE selected must obviously suit both the substance and the
associated practice and, once again, education and training forms a key element.

43
Responsibility for control - Management, safety and health departments, medical
departments and purchasing all have a role to play in preventing chemical exposures.
These departments should be co-ordinated in their activities and codes of practice must
cover all roles and areas of responsibility to ensure a continuous chain of control the role of
safety committees and representatives is also very important and cognisance must be
taken of these as well.

44
 OH-2

SELF-TEST - 2.2

Without using references:

1. Briefly describe, with the aid of a sketch, the anatomy of the skin

2. Briefly discuss the defence mechanisms of the skin under the following headings:

2.1 Bacteria

2.2 Fungi

2.3 Parasites

45
 2.4 Viruses

2.5 Sunlight

2.6 Primary irritants

2.7 Injury

2.8 Heat and cold stress

2.9 Chemicals

3. Briefly describe the pathological effects (results of exposure) of the skin to:

3.1 Primary irritants

3.2 Sensitisers

3.3 Ionising radiation

3.4 Non-ionising radiation

3.5 Injury

46
3.6 Extremes of heat

3.7 Extremes of cold

3.8 Alkaline chemicals

3.9 Acids

47
 OH 2

4. THE EAR

The ear is a particularly sensitive and complex organ. Figure OH-2.6 below shows
diagrammatically the physiology of this organ.

The ear is divided into three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each
section performs its own separate function in a process that converts sound waves into
nerve impulses, which are then transmitted to the brain.

The outer ear has two parts; the pinna and the external auditory canal. The outer ear
collects and channels sound via the auditory canal towards the middle ear.

The middle ear, or tympanic cavity, is a tiny cavity hollowed out of the temporal bone. It is
an intermediary in the processing of sound energy. It is responsible for increasing the
intensity of incoming sound waves and transforming them into mechanical vibrations that
can easily travel through the inner ear. This is achieved by three small bones inter linked
with one another and with the outer ear drum and the opening (oval window) leading to the
inner ear respectively.

These bones are called the auditory ossicles and are the incus, malleus and stapes
respectively. Their Latin names describe their shapes. The incus is shaped like an anvil, the
malleus like a hammer and the stapes like a stirrup. They are the smallest bones in the
human body. They are connected to each other like hinges and act as mechanical levers to
carry and “push” the vibrations towards the flexible membrane of the oval window. The
leverage of these bones result in a magnification of about 22:1 (p. 89, “Fundamentals of
Industrial Hygiene”) by the time it reaches the oval window.

The inner ear has two parts. One is made of bone, the other of a membrane that lies inside
the bone. Both have complicated shapes, and for this reason they are called labyrinths.
Each labyrinth has three parts: vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea. The inner
ear contains the receptor cells, which receive the mechanical vibrations and transmit them
to the brain.

PINNA (OUTER EAR)

EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL

EAR DRUM
MIDDLE EAR (containing malleus, incus and stapes)

TYMPANIC MEMBRANE

SEMI CIRCULAR CANALS

ORGAN OF CORTI
INTERNAL ACCOUSTIC MEATUS
(Containing cochlear, vestibular and facial nerves)

EUSTACHIAN TUBE

Figure OH - 2.6 The physiology of the ear

48
 OH 2

The cochlea is a minute, bony, spiral-shaped tube of two canals and a duct subdivided by a
thin partition called the cochlear partition, which runs the entire length of the spiral. The
basilar membrane lies on one side of the partition and the vestibular membrane lies on
the other side. Sound vibrations reaching the inner ear are transmitted through the fluid of
the cochlear canals (the tympanic canal and the vestibular canal) and round the cochlear
duct which divides them. As the pressure of the waves flows over the basilar membrane,
which is the vibrating wall of the cochlear duct, the fluid inside the duct is agitated. This
movement of the fluid stimulates the organ of corti, which sits on the membrane inside the
cochlear partition. The organ of corti is a hearing sense organ and performs the actual
transformation of mechanical vibrations into nerve impulses. It has a gelatinous membrane
and two sets of hair cells (receptor hair cells). The two sets of receptor hair cells, the inner
and outer receptor cells, are located between the basilar and gelatinous membrane of the
organ of corti. When the basilar membrane vibrates it pushes the hair cells against the
gelatinous membrane, causing the hair cells to produce a chemical that converts the
movement into electrical impulses, which are transmitted to the adjacent nerve fibres. There
are approximately 30,000 nerve fibres in each ear transmitting signals to both the brain
stem and the brain’s auditory cortex.

4.2 Pathology

The human ear is subject to a number of potential disorders. From the industrial
perspective, the most important is noise induced hearing loss. Other important causes of
disorder are:

 Physical blockage of the auditory canal;

 Traumatic damage, including barotrauma (e.g. ruptured eardrum);
 Disease induced damage (mumps, infection of the inner ear);
 Hereditary damage;
 Drug induced damage (streptomycin or quinine);
 Presbycusis (natural hearing loss with age), and
 Tinnitus (a symptom represented by the perception of sound arising in the head).

Non-industrial exposure to excessive noise levels obviously also give rise to noise induced
hearing loss and, as such, the occupational hygienist and occupational medical practitioner
should also be on the look-out for such potential exposures, especially in light of potential
health compensation claims.

4.3 Audiometric testing

Medical surveillance and a formal, routine audiometric examination becomes mandatory for
all workers exposed to an equivalent, continued A-weighted sound pressure level (Laeq,8h)
exceeding 85 dB. (This will become 82,5 dB(A) once the new Guideline on hearing
conservation, to be issued by the Department of Minerals and Energy, comes into force)

The main purposes of industrial audiometry are:

 To establish quantitatively the hearing status of an individual and to monitor hearing

during the period of employment in order to control the risk of occupational hearing loss.

 Industrial audiometry also provides the ultimate test of success of a hearing

conservation programme in that it demonstrates the benefit of personal hearing
protection in maintaining hearing acuity.

In essence, the audiometric programme consists of pre-employment tests followed by tests

at regular intervals and / or at the termination of employment.

49
Audiometric tests should be performed at regular intervals on all employees who enter
areas which exceed or whose workplaces exceed the LAeq,8h (equivalent noise level over an
8-hour shift) of 85dB. During the first three years of such noise exposure, the period
between the tests should not exceed 12 months. After three years the period between tests
may be extended to a maximum period of two years at the discretion of the occupational
medical practitioner (OMP), provided no significant change in hearing level is evident, i.e.
no category change for the worse, or if the employee’s noise exposure conditions have not
bee intensified. If a category change for the worse did not take place, or if noise exposure
conditions did not deteriorate, than audiometry will only be required every two years.

Note: Once the new Guideline is issued, it should be carefully studied to see whether the
above still applies!

Where the LAeq,8h exceeds 105 dB, employees must undergo audiometric tests at intervals
not exceeding six months until the OMP is satisfied that no permanent change in hearing
level (i.e. hearing threshold shift) has taken place.

New employees

All new employees have to undergo pre-employment audiometric testing to determine

whether they comply with the pre-employment medical examination standards.

Returnees

All prospective employees returning to the mining industry after a period of absence of
more than three years are considered as ‘new employees’ as described above.

All other prospective employees returning to the mining industry after a period of absence
of three years or less have to undergo initial audiometry.

All employees will undergo audiometry at 12-monthly intervals during their first three years
of employment. If the audiogram recorded at the end of the third year shows a significant
change, i.e. the categorization of the employee changes for the worse, audiometry is
repeated annually until the category does not change i.e. employee has stabilised. If the
employee’s noise exposure condition intensifies, i.e. LAeq,8h intensifies by 5 dB or more,
audiometry is repeated at 12-monthly intervals until the situation stabilizes with respect to
LAeq,8h. If on the other hand, the noise exposure conditions have not been intensified,
audiometry is then repeated every two years. If the employee’s category and noise
exposure remains stable, audiometry is repeated every two years until his employment is
terminated, after which a final audiogram is recorded.

Procedure

The following stipulations must be adhered to:

Test environment

Audiometric tests should be performed in a room complying with the requirements specified
in SABS 0182 (screening audiometry). The maximum sound pressure level at the given
octave band centre frequency is given in the table on the next page.

50
 Octave band Centre Maximum sound pressure levels, dB
frequencies, Hz Screening audiometry Diagnostic audiometry
125 52 34,5
250 38,5 23
500 22 22
1 000 24 24
2 000 32 32
4 000 41 41
8 000 38,5 38,5

Measuring equipment (screening audiometer)

An audiometer complying with the requirements for Type 4 audiometers specified in IEC
Publication 645, calibrated in accordance with SABS 0154, should be used. A minimum
hearing level of at least 0 dB and a maximum level of at least 70 dB is acceptable. The
measuring frequencies should include at least 500 Hz, 1 000 Hz, 2 000 Hz, 4 000 Hz, 6 000
Hz and 8 000 Hz.

Audiometrist

The audiometric examination must be conducted by a registered medical practitioner or

other person holding one of the following qualifications:

i. a medical specialist in otorhinolaryngology,

ii. a graduate in speech therapy and audiology, or

iii. a person holding a certificate in audiometry issued by the Chamber of Mines or a

Technikon

Timing of tests

Each test should be preceded by an adequate period (at least 16 hours) during which time
the employee has had no exposure to noise in excess of 80 dBA. The wearing of hearing
protectors complying with SABS 1451 may not be taken to satisfy this requirement.

Test frequencies

Measuring frequencies of at least 500 Hz, 1kHz, 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, 6 kHz and 8 kHz
should be used for the audiometric tests

Records

Complete records of the tests on each employee should be kept in order to establish a case
history. The results of the very first test (which serves as a baseline) should appear on each
sheet of the audiometric record form.

All audiometric records should be carefully preserved during the employee’s period of
employment and for three years subsequent to the last date of employment. After three
years the employee’s initial and exit audiogram only must be kept for possible future
reference.

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 OH 2

SELF-TEST - OH 2.3

1. Describe, with the aid of a simple sketch, the anatomy of the ear

2. Describe the physiology (how it works) of:

2.1 The outer ear

2.2 The middle ear

2.3 The inner ear

52
3. Describe, in simple terms, the theory of audiometric testing

4. Briefly discuss the potential damage caused to hearing by:

4.1 Physical blockage

4.2 Traumatic damage

4.3 Disease induced damage

4.4 Hereditary damage

4.5 Drug induced damage

4.6 Noise induced damage

4.7 Presbycusis

4.8 Tinnitus

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 OH 2

5. THE HUMAN EYE

This organ is one of the most vulnerable in terms of potential damage in an industrialised
environment. The eyelid gives little protection against fragments of solid or even liquid
material moving at high speed or of the potential ingress of a solid object into the eye
socket.

5.1 Anatomy

Figure OH 2.7 shows the anatomy of the eye

The eyeball lies nestled in fat within the orbital cavities (two bony sockets) of the
skull, where it is situated above and lateral to the centre. Of all the senses, eyesight
is often considered most important. According to one estimate, four-fifths of
everything we know reaches the brain through our eyes. The eyes transmit constant
streams of images to the brain by electrical signals. The eyes receive information
from light rays. The light rays are either absorbed or reflected by surfaces. Objects
or surfaces that absorb all of the light rays appear black, whereas those that reflect
all the light rays appear white. Coloured objects absorb certain parts of the light
spectrum and reflect others - the reflected light is the “colour” of the object, e.g.
blue, yellow, red, etc. When you look at something, the light rays reflected from the
object enter the eye. The light is refracted by the cornea and passes through the
watery aqueous humor and pupil to the lens. The iris controls the amount of light
entering the eye. The lens focuses the light through the vitreous humor onto the
retina, forming an image in reverse and upside down. Light-sensitive cells in the
retina transmit the image to the brain by electrical signals. The brain “sees” the
image right side up.

5.2 Pathology

Nearly one in two (40%) of the population suffers from some or other visual defect.
Three of the most common are farsightedness, nearsightedness and astigmatism.

 In farsightedness the eyeball is too short. The light rays are therefore focussed
at a point somewhere behind the retina. Distant objects are clear whilst close-up
objects appear unfocussed and blurry. This condition may develop as a
consequence of age (presbyopia) due to the lens losing its elasticity and its
power of thickening.

 In nearsightedness, the eyeball is too long and the focal point is somewhere in
front of the retina. In this instance objects close to the eye can be focussed on
but distant objects are blurred.

 Astigmatism is the condition where the curvature of the cornea is irregular

causing light rays to be bent in one direction than another. This can lead to
vision being wavy or double. Correction is effected by fitting unidirectional
correcting lenses.

54
 OH 2

Figure OH - 2.7 The Eye

Other eye disorders encountered are:

 Conjunctivitis, which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye,

usually developing beneath the eyelid. Causes can be viral, e.g. herpes simplex
or due to inflammation of the interior eye or uveal tract (the uveal tract is the
middle coat of the eye).

 Glaucoma, the most common form of which is when the fluid that normally fills
the eye fails to drain properly, resulting in a pressure build-up which damages
the optic nerve;

 Cataracts are opaque spots that form on the lens and can have natural or
induced causes. In the second instance, exposure to ionising radiation,
ultraviolet radiation infrared radiation (the latter two typically caused by arc
welding) and some chemicals can cause cataracts;

 Night blindness, can be the result of a failure in the eye or in the optic system.
It cannot be diagnosed with current technology and reliance is placed on the
sufferer to inform his physician of difficulties in discerning objects under poor
illumination conditions;

 Eyestrain which can lead to severe irritation, headaches, fatigue, vertigo and
digestive and psychological reactions. It is usually caused by an uncorrected
eye condition, poor illumination or fatigue;

 Nystagmus, which is an involuntary movement of the eyeball, usually caused

by subjecting the eye for long periods to unaccustomed movement. It results in
headaches, dizziness and fatigue and in an occupational sense, is most
commonly diagnosed amongst miners;

55
 OH 2

 Irradiation burns are caused by excessive exposure to bright light, varying from
visible light (e.g. lasers) to ultraviolet (welding) and infrared radiation. Repeated
exposure may lead to permanent lens or corneal damage;

 Chemical Burns, arising from exposure to acid or alkali substances. In the case
of acid burns, the damage is usually immediately visible, whereas in the case of
a caustic burn, damage may occur progressively over an extended period. Initial
evaluation may be that the damage is not severe but the eye may deteriorate
significantly with time (sometimes days). Damage can be on the exterior
(cornea) or even internal where it may affect the iris (chemical iritis).

5.3 Visual conservation programme

This is a programme designed to assist workers in retaining the highest level of

visual acuity for the longest time possible. It consists of four elements:

 An environmental survey of all aspects associated with the control programme

referred to above. This includes illumination surveys, hazard detection and risk
assessment, measuring of viewing angles and distances and ergonomic design
factors (these will be dealt with again in the section dealing with ergonomics);

 The vision screening programme is the deterioration of the visual status of the
workforce. This is particularly related to the vision screening and visual acuity
testing performed by trained medical/health staff;

 The remedial programme which is based on the remedial measures to be applied

to those individuals identified as having significant visual deficiencies. In conjunction
with this is the determination of the relevant recommendations on required protective
eyewear required by the task/s to be performed by that individual.

 Professional fitting which, once again, is the task of persons trained in the correct
sizing and fitment of eyewear. Should protective equipment prove to be
cumbersome or ill fitting the result would, most likely, be that the individual in
question would discard the equipment and, consequently, expose him to additional
risk.

The following guidelines for good practice apply to a visual acuity conservation
programme:

 Include all employees in the programme and involve unions in the process;

 Ensure that eyewear is properly fitted;

 Incorporate eye care solutions for first aid purposes and also for cleaning lenses
into the programme;

 Control the hazards at source by fitting proper guards and install enclosures to
capture and remove hazardous mists, dusts, vapours, etc.;

 Ensure all work and travelling areas are well illuminated with appropriate
colouration and special care to avoid stroboscopic effects (i.e. synchronised
flickering with moving parts, making those parts appear to be standing still);

 Use appropriate signage where required;

56
  Provide all employees with pre-placement eye examinations with periodic follow-
up, especially for employees over 40 years.

OH 2

SELF TEST - SECTION OH-2

1. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the anatomy of the human eye.

2. Briefly describe the physiology (how it works) of the human eye.

3. Define and briefly describe:

3.1 Visual acuity

3.2 Dark adaptation

3.3 Colour blindness

57
58
 3.4 Night blindness

4. Discuss the terms:

4.1 Farsightedness

4.2 Nearsightedness

4.3 Astigmatism

4.4 Conjunctivitis

4.5 Glaucoma

4.6 Cataracts

4.7 Eyestrain

59
4.8 Nystagmus

4.9 Irradiation burns

4.10 Chemical burns

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ERGONOMICS

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able (under the following headings), to:

Fatigue and Stressors

 Describe the metabolic process of work.

 Define static muscular effort and dynamic muscular effort.

 Discuss the following physical effects on the human physiology:

- high static loading and
- optimal of muscle strength

Anthropometry

 Define anthropometry.

 Briefly discuss the factors which most affect body size and work rate ability.

Workstation Design

 Briefly discuss work station design under the following headings:

- working heights,
- visual considerations,
- seating at work; and
- visual display terminals.

Heavy Work

 Briefly discuss heavy work under the following headings:

- work category and energy consumption,
- measuring work load,
- handling heavy loads,
- rest periods, and
- nutrition.

Man / machine systems

 Define a man / machine system

 Briefly discuss man / machine systems under the following headings:

- displays,
- design of scale graduations, and
- information exchange, and
- design of controls.

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ERGONOMICS
Mental activity

 Briefly discuss mental activity under the headings:

- mental activity in the narrow sense, and
- information processing

Fatigue

 Briefly describe how muscular fatigue is determined.

 Briefly discuss the following types of fatigue:

- visual fatigue,
- bodily fatigue,
- mental fatigue,
- nervous fatigue,
- chronic fatigue,
- circadian fatigue, and
- fatigue brought about by monotonous activity.

 Briefly discuss the symptoms of fatigue.

 Briefly discuss the causes giving rise to fatigue.

 Briefly discuss how fatigue is measured.

 Define occupational stress and discuss the symptoms and causes of occupational stress.

 Briefly discuss design factors to be considered when designing for boredom.

Working hours and eating habits

 Briefly discuss the effect on productivity of different working hours.

 Briefly discuss the types of rest pauses on productivity.

 Briefly discuss the conversation of nutrients to energy in the human system.

Night Work and Shift Work

 Define circadian rhythm.

 Briefly discuss the effects of shift work on workers under the following headings:
- eating habits and digestive system disorders,
- substance abuse,
- chronic fatigue,
- occupational sickness,
- age, and
- psychosomatic disorders.

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ERGONOMICS
Sound, Noise

 Discuss the following characteristics of sound:

- generation,
- properties (wavelength, cycle, frequency, speed, intensity, sound pressure, sound power,
equivalent noise level).

 Define decibel and explain why decibel units are used to express sound levels.

 Describe the basic principles and the methods of reducing the level or the effects of noise.

 Calculate the equivalent noise level, Leq, when given the necessary information.

 Use graphs or tables to determine the effects of combining sound levels

 Calculate sound power and sound pressure levels for a fan being tested in a duct when given
the necessary information.

Vibration

 Define vibration

 Discuss the physics of vibration under the following headings:

- point of application to the body,
- frequency,
- acceleration of oscillations,
- duration of effect,
- natural frequency / resonance,
- damping, and
- flutter.

 Briefly discuss the physiological effects of vibration on the human physique under the
headings:
- visual perception,
- psychomotor performance,
- effects on skeletal,
- circulatory,
- muscular,
- digestive and respiratory systems, and
- mental performance.

 Briefly discuss vibration induced illnesses under the following headings:

- Raynaud’s Syndrome,
- bone antrophication,
- arthritis, and
- tendonitis.

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ERGONOMICS
 Briefly discuss the following:
- criterion for comfort,
- criterion for the maintenance of efficiency, and
- criterion for safety as applied in designing for vibration exposure.

 Briefly describe how vibration levels are measured.

 Discuss the safety controls that may be used to reduce the effect of vibration.

Indoor Climate

 Briefly discuss the following factors when considering comfort levels in indoor working places:
- air temperature,
- temperature of adjacent surfaces,
- air humidity, and
- air movement.

 Briefly enumerate the ventilation volume and fresh air intake requirement when designing for
indoor climate control.

Illumination

 Define and discuss lux, lumen, luminous flux, luminous intensity, illuminance, luminance,
luminaire, discomfort glare, disability glare, stroboscopic effect.

 Perform calculations involving the characteristics of light.

 Describe the various light sources generally used in mines and in industry.

 Describe methods of improving illumination.

 Explain a method of testing light installations.

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow.

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations.

 Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa

- Vol. 48, August 1995, pp 210-220, Mine Environmental Safety and Health (MESH), DE Wrigley.

- Vol. 50, April-June 1997, pp 57-59, Heat stress management: metabolic rates associated
with tube mill re-lining, PC Schutte, et al.

- Vol. 50, April-June 1997, pp 65-67, Hearing conservation programme,the WAGM way, FJ Graaff.

- Vol. 51, October-December 1998, pp 140-141, Occupational medicine effects of carbon

monoxide, WM Coombs

- Vol. 52, April-June 1999, pp 76-79, Physical ability analysis: The human factor in risk of
injury and lower back problems can be managed, Prof. Dawie Malan.

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ERGONOMICS

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No. 0-87912-171-8 (hc),
pp 347-401.

 Occupational Hygiene, JJ Schoeman & HHE Schroder (Juta Co) ISBN No. 07021 28775

 Managing the Health of People at Work, AM Coetzee (Lex Patria) ISBN No. 0628 03568 3

 Fitting the Task to the Man, 4th Ed, Etienne Grandjean ISBN No. 0 85066 380 6 or ISBN
No. 0 85066 379 2 (pbk)

 Mine Ventilation Practitioner’s Data Book, Second Edition, Volume 1, subsection Il-IL, pages 1
to 14.

 Mine Ventilation Practitioner’s Data Book, Second Edition, Volume 1, subsections N-H 1 to 2,
N-S 1 to 6, N-LC 1 to 7, N-HP 1 to 7, N-GA 1 to 2.

 Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, Chapter 36, Illumination in Mines

 Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, Chapter 37, Noise Control.

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1. INTRODUCTION

The term “ergonomics” has its origins in a meeting of a group of scientists in the United
Kingdom and was used to describe their efforts at equipment and work task design aimed
at suiting operators and was derived from the Greek roots “ergon”, referring to human work
and strength and “nomos”, indicating rule of law.

Ergonomics is defined as “the study of human characteristics for the appropriate design of
the living and work environment” (Reference: Plog - Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene,
Chapter 13, page 347).

It has also been defined as: “a multidisciplinary activity dealing with interactions between
humans and their total working environment plus stresses related to such environmental
elements as atmosphere, heat light and sound as well as tools and equipment of the
workplace”.

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ERGONOMICS

Important points which play a role in the understanding and application of ergonomics to
the workplace (and any other) environment are:
 The role of fatigue and stressors
 Anthropometry (study of the human physique i.t.o. dimensions, strengths and weaknesses)
 Work physiology and the expenditure of energy.
 Design of workstations
 Visual rules with respect to line of sight, etc.
 Posture
 Tactile feedback
 Environmental conditions and stressors
 Load handling
 Skilled work requirements
 Man / machine interfaces
 Muscular fatigue
 Boredom / job design in monotonous tasks
 Working hours and eating habits
 The effects of nightwork and shiftwork
 Illumination
 Noise and vibration
 Indoor climate with reference to comfort levels
 The effect of daylight, colour and music.

From the above, it can be seen that, in order to take cognisance of all potential and meaningful
aspects impacting on the worker in his work environment, a detailed level of knowledge is required
in at least each of the aspects listed. In addition, as with many other disciplines, the role of
experience cannot be discounted in deriving apt and cost effective solutions to problem areas that
may impinge negatively on the worker’s well-being or ability to perform at desired levels of output
and quality.

In this module, each of the above will be briefly dealt with to familiarize you with the fundamentals
involved. Once again, it is stressed that the occupational hygienist need not necessarily be a
specialist in the area, but it is considered essential that the hygienist has a basic understanding of the
principles involved so that he / she may, at least, be able to produce meaningful input and perform in
terms of recognition of potentially adverse situations so that corrective action may be implemented.
This does not, of course, prevent the hygienist from dealing with the obvious and more elementary
aspects of ergonomics as these are encountered in his sphere of work.

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3. MUSCULAR WORK

3.1 Muscular work

The average muscle can be contract to approximately half its extended length. The
force that can be applied by a muscle usually ranges form 0,3 to 0,4 Newton per
square millimetre of muscle cross-sectional area. muscles are at their strongest in
the extended position and are weakest at the fully contracted position. The
conversion or transformation of chemical energy into mechanical energy results in
the performance of work.

Muscle consists of two types of fibre, namely actin and myosin. Figure OH-3.1
below shows a model of the action that takes place within the muscle as it contracts
and extends.

Relaxation

Contraction

Actin Myocin
fibres fibres

Figure OH 3.1 Diagrammatic representation of relaxation and contraction of a

muscle.

Figure OH 3.2 below shows diagrammatically the processes that take place during
muscular work, both during oxygen rich processes when glucose is converted to pyruvic
acid and eventually the by products of heat and carbon dioxide are given off, and without
oxygen, w hen the pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid and deposited in the muscle fibre.

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 OH 3

Glucose Energy-rich
Without oxygen phosphate

Lactic acid Pyruvic acid

ENERGY
With oxygen OUTPUT
Paying off
oxygen debt

Water and Low-energy

carbon dioxide phosphate
(wastes)

Energy flow
Chemical reactions

Figure OH - 3.2. Diagram of the metabolic processes during muscular work.

3.2 Muscular effort

There are two types of muscular effort, namely static effort and dynamic effort.

Dynamic effort is described as a rhythmic alternation of contraction and extension,

tension and relaxation, whilst static effort is described as a prolonged state of
contraction of the muscles usually implying a postural stance.

Once again, a diagram better explains the various states of muscular effort as well
as the blood supply requirement in order to sustain the effort and this is shown in
figure OH - 3.3 below.

Most of the time, tasks are such that they require a combination of static and
dynamic effort. The static component is usually more significant as it results in the
greatest degree of stress. Examples of such mixed tasks are:

 Bending the back forwards or sideways

 Holding thins in the arms

 Manipulation of levers, etc. whilst holding the arms horizontal

 Weight on one leg while the other works

 Standing still for long

 Pushing or pulling objects

 Tilting the head strongly forwards or backwards

 Raising the shoulders for long periods of time.

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Resting Dynamic effort Static effect

Blood Blood Blood Blood Blood Blood

needed flow needed flow needed flow

Figure OH - 3.3 Effects of dynamic and static muscular effort

High static loads on muscles (and the skeletal system) can lead to:

 Higher rates of energy consumption

 Raised heart rates

 The requirement for longer rest periods

The risks associated with static muscular work can result in:

 Arthritis

 Tendinitis

 Inflammation of tendon attachment points

 Arthrosis (degeneration of joints)

 Painful muscle spasms

 Intervertebral disk problems

3.3 Nervous control of movements

Muscular control is effected through the transmission of nervous energy in the form
of electric pulses via nerve bundles. There are three fundamental types of nerve,
namely:

 Motor nerves (ending in the muscle)

 Sensory nerves (ending in the brain)

 Visceral nerves (automatic, e.g. heart beat)

The motor nerves and sensory nerves together form the somatic nervous system.

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 OH 3

The function of nerves is to transmit signals and the mechanism is by means of

impulses (nerves cannot carry a continuous current). The nervous system’s function
is essentially that of a control system and they play a vital role in both automatic
(e.g. blinking the eye) and conditional (e.g. skilled movements such as writing)
reflexes.

3.4 Optimal use of muscle strength

This process involves organising the work in such a fashion as to allow muscles to
develop maximum power. Where static is involved, the rule is to incorporate as
many muscle groups as possible into the task. Where possible, work should be
performed at extended positions.

Some practical guidelines for designing work layouts are:

 Bending sideways is more harmful than bending forward.

 Avoid arms being stretched forwards or sideways.

 Work sitting down as much as possible.

 Arm movements should be either in opposition or symmetrical.

 The working field should be at the best visual distance for the operator.

 Handgrips, levers, tools and materials should be so positioned as to allow for

bent-elbow operation

 Forearms or hands should be supported with raised work.

4. ANTHROPOMETRY

Anthropometry is the measurement of human dimensions.

Natural postures and natural movements are an essential parts of efficient work. The same
applies to fitting the dimensions of the workplace to body sizes of operators.

Anthropometric studies to determine average body dimensions have been conducted for all
kinds of industries, tasks and systems. The factors which most affect body size are sex,
age and ethnic diversity.

As an example of the effect of age on body size, the outcomes of a study showed that
people in the 45 to 65 year age group had changed by the following dimensions when
compared to a 20 year age group:

Body length (men and women) -40mm

Body weight (men) +6kg
Body weight (women) +10 kg

The figures below (OH - 3.4 a to c) show the static dimension points that are applied in
Anthropometric studies (refer to E Grandjean, Fitting the Task to the Man, pp 29-35) whilst
the table (OH - 3.1) reflects some dimensions associated with these measurement points.

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OH - 3.4a - Static dimensions, standing

OH - 3.4b - Static dimensions, seated

OH - 3.4c - Static dimensions, seated - overhead reach

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Anthropometric data in mm of British adults aged 19-65 years

th th th th th th
Dimension 5 % 50 % 95 % SD 5 % 50 % 95 % SD*
tile tile tile tile tile tile
1. Stature 1625 1740 1855 70 1505 1610 1710 62
2. Eye height 1515 1630 1745 69 1405 1505 1610 61
3. Shoulder height 1315 1425 1535 66 1215 1310 1405 58
4. Elbow height 1005 1090 1180 52 930 1005 1085 46
5. Hip height 840 920 1000 50 740 810 885 43
6. Knuckle height 690 755 825 41 660 720 780 36
7. Fingertip height 590 655 720 38 560 625 685 38
8. Sitting height 850 910 965 36 795 850 910 35
9. Sitting eye height 735 790 845 35 685 740 795 33
10. Sitting shoulder height 540 595 645 32 505 555 610 31
11. Sitting elbow height 195 245 295 31 185 235 280 29
12. Thigh thickness 135 160 185 15 125 155 180 17
13. Buttock-knee length 540 595 645 31 520 570 620 30
14. Buttock-popliteal length 440 495 550 32 435 480 530 30
15. Knee height 490 545 595 32 455 500 540 27
16. Pipliteal height 395 440 490 29 355 400 445 27
17. Shoulder breadth (bideltoid) 420 465 510 28 355 395 435 24
18. Shoulder breadth (biacromial) 365 400 430 20 325 355 385 18
19. Hip breadth 310 360 405 29 310 370 435 38
20. Chest (bust) depth 215 250 285 22 210 250 295 27
21. Abdominal depth 220 270 325 32 205 255 305 30
22. Shoulder-elbow length 330 365 395 20 300 330 360 17
23. Elbow-fingertip length 440 475 510 21 400 430 460 19
24. Upper limb length 720 780 840 36 655 705 760 32
25. Shoulder-grip length 610 665 715 32 555 600 650 29
26. Head length 180 195 205 8 165 180 190 7
27. Head breadth 145 155 165 6 135 145 150 6
28. Hand length 175 190 205 10 160 175 190 9
29. Hand breadth 80 85 95 5 70 75 85 4
30. Foot length 240 265 285 14 215 235 255 12
31. Foot breadth 85 95 110 6 80 90 100 6
32. Span 1655 1790 1925 83 1490 1605 1725 71
33. Elbow span 865 945 1020 47 780 850 920 43
34. Vertical grip reach (standing) 1925 2060 2190 80 1790 1905 2020 71
35. Vertical grip reach (sitting) 1145 1245 1340 60 1060 1150 1235 53
36. Forward grip reach 720 780 835 34 650 705 755 31

*SD = Standard Deviation

Table OH - 3.1: Anthropometric Data

5. WORKSTATION DESIGN

In designing (or evaluating) workstations, a number of aspects need to be considered form

an anthropometric point of view to ensure that best performance with least stress can be
achieved.

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5.1 Working heights

When work is performed at too high an elevation, this results in shoulder and neck
stress and cramps, whilst workstations that are too low result in lower back
problems. Besides the Anthropometric design considerations, considerations must
also allow for the nature of the work, e.g.:

 For delicate work, elbows must be supported to reduce the load on the back.

 Tools, materials, containers, etc. should be handled at an elevation

approximately 100 to 150 mm below elbow height, and

 For heavy work where the upper body mass is used, the working surface must
be lowered.

Ideally, workstations should be adjustable for height to suit a particular individual

but, where this is not possible, the station should be set up for the tallest operator
and raised platforms should be provided for shorter operators.

Figure OH - 3.5 below shows typical dimensions applicable to the above scenarios.

20 cm
- 10 cm
0
- 10 cm
- 20 cm
- 30 cm

100-110 90-95 75-90 cm Men

95-105 85-90 70-85 cm Women

Precision Work Light Work Heavier Work

Figure OH - 3.5 Recommended heights for standing work

Note: The reference line (0cm) is the height of the elbows above floor elevation,
Typically 1 050mm for men and 980mm for women.

In the case of sedentary work, highest operator speeds are achieved when working
in front of the body with the elbows at the side and the arms bent at 90o.

The table height may be restricted due to insufficient knee room and the following
dimensions are useful when designing for seated workstations:

 Lowest table top level (underside) - 680 mm for men

 Lowest table top level (underside) - 650 mm (women)

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5.2 Visual considerations

Head and neck postures should be such that the forward inclination of the head
should be approximately 15o from the horizontal with the upper and lower limits being
10o to 30o whilst the line of sight should be in the vicinity of 34o below the horizontal
(according to studies conducted by NASA). Figure OH - 3.6 demonstrates this.

The viewing cone for regular visual tasks should be within a 30o arc from the normal
line of sight.

Figure OH - 3.6 Visual considerations for desk work

5.3 Seating at work

Incorporating seating at workstations has the following advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

 Weight is taken off the legs

 Energy consumption is reduced
 Lower demands on the blood circulatory system
 Unnatural body postures are avoided

Disadvantages:

 Slackening of abdominal muscles

 Curvature of spine leads to poor digestion and impacts on breathing efficiency
 Increased pressure on the intervertrebal disks (up to 190% higher in bent over
postures when compared to standing)

The figures below (OH - 3.7 to 9) indicate typical distances involved when
performing work whilst seated. The dimensions include the 5th%tile, i.e. these also
apply to smaller than average men and woman.

(Usually designs cater for a group of persons between the 5th and 95th percentile of
a group, i.e. those dimensions that cover 90% of the entire group studied. Where
persons outside those ranges are employed, special design considerations are
usually needed to deal with the specific requirements of the situation).

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Figure OH - 3.7 Arc of vertical grasp in the sagittal plane

Figure OH - 3.8 Horizontal arg of grasp and working area, table top height

Figure OH - 3.9 Range of operation of the feet

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5.4 Visual display terminals / PC’s

In designing for visual display terminals (VDT’s), the following factors should be
taken into account:
 The furniture conceived should be as flexible as possible, taking account of
keyboard height, screen height, screen inclination to horizontal and screen
distance from table edge.
 The keyboard height and screen distance must be adjustable with adjusting
controls easily operated.
 Leg room should be 800mm measured horizontally.

6. HEAVY WORK

6.1 Work categories and energy consumption

Heavy work can be described as work requiring significant physical exertion and
results in large stresses being placed on the cardiovascular system (heart and
lungs). The body’s metabolism (conversion of nutrient intake into mechanical and
heat energy with by-products) needs to cope with these loads.
Figure OH - 3.10 below is a diagrammatic representation of the metabolic process.
Nutrients Oxygen

Stomach
Lungs
intestines

Liver

Metabolism

Heat Mechanical
energy

Figure OH - 3.10 Conversion of nutrients

The following table (OH - 3.2) reflects the average energy consumption at various
work loads:

Work category Work type Energy consumption Energy consumption

(males) kJ/day (females) kJ/day
Light (sitting) Book keeper 9 600 8 400
Heavy (manual) Tractor driver 12 500 9 800
Moderate (body) Butcher 15 000 12 000
Heavy (body) Shunter 16 500 13 5000
Extreme (body) Miner/lumberjack 19 000 N/A
Table OH - 3.2. Energy requirements for various work loads

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Most physiologists consider 20 000 kJ/day (averaged over a year) as a reasonable

maximum for heavy work applicable to healthy workers which equates to 1 300 kJ/h
over an 8-hour shift. In addition, the rate quoted implies that, under certain
circumstances, work loads can be as high as 22 000 to 30 000 kJ/day for a few
consecutive days without ill effects.

Loads varying form 50 to 60 kg are the most efficient where these have to be carried.

The relationship of different types of work and also the effect of temperature on
work are demonstrated graphically below in figure OH - 3.11.

Figure OH - 3.11 Increase in heart rate under various types of work and stress

You are also referred to the chapter entitled “Heat Stress” in the Mine Ventilation
Practitioner’s Data Book, second edition, Volume 2, pages HS-UW 1 to 3 and pages
HS-SW 2 and 3 where several examples of work load and metabolic rates are
given, both for underground and surface work tasks and activities.

6.2 Measuring work load

Several methods are used to determine the rate of work, including metabolic,
temperature and heart rate measurement.

Table OH - 3.3 below reflects some of the rates in a comparative way showing how
these relate to one another.

Oxygen Lung Rectal

Assessment of Heart rate
consumption, ventilation temperature
work load o Pulses/min
litres/min rate, litres/min C
Very low (resting) 0,25 - 0,3 6-7 37,5 60 - 70
Low 0,5 - 1,0 11 - 20 37,5 75 - 100
Moderate 1,0 - 1,5 20 - 31 37,5 - 38,0 100 - 125
High 1,5 - 2,0 31 - 43 38,0 - 38,5 125 - 150
Very high 2,0 - 2,5 43 - 56 38,5 - 39,0 150 - 175
Extremely high 2,5 - 4,0 60 - 100 >39,0 >175

Table OH - 3.3 Various indices for determination of work load.

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 Acceptable limits to heart rate are considered to be those where the heart rate does
not increase continually but levels off and where the recovery time is less than 15
minutes. Typically for males, this equates to a pulse rate 30 beats per minute higher
than normal rate.

6.3 Handling loads

The main area of concern in handling heavy loads is the potential to harm the back,
especially the intervertrebal disks, which are damaged through compression. The
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety, USA) recommended
limit is 3 500 N on the L5/S1 disk. For most applications, this would equate to
approximately 50 kg over short distances.

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Answer the following questions without referring to your notes.

1. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the metabolic process of work.

2. Define static muscular effort

3. Define dynamic muscular effort.

4. Discuss the following physical effects on the human physiology:

4.1 High static loading

4.2 Optimal use of muscle strength

5. Define Anthropometry.

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6. Briefly discuss the factors which most affect body size and work rate ability.

7. Briefly discuss working station design under the following:

7.1 Working heights

7.2 Visual considerations

7.3 Seating at work

7.4 Visual display terminals

8. Briefly discuss heavy work under the following:

8.1 Work category and energy consumption

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8.2 Measuring work load

8.3 Handling heavy loads

8.4 Rest periods

8.5 Nutrition

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7. MAN / MACHINE SYSTEMS

A man / machine system is defined as being a system where man and machine have a
reciprocal relationship.

The interface has two ergonomic elements to it, namely the perception of data and the
operating controls. The sketch below (Figure OH - 3.12) shows this schematically.

Operator Machine
(“Man”) Display instrument

Interpretation Perception
decision

Production

Control instrument
Handling of
controls

7.1 Displays

There are three types of display to consider, each having a specific application and
advantage, depending on the purpose. These are:

 Figures read in windows (usually digital), which are best suited to processes
where it is necessary to read off a value (e.g. chilled water leaving temperature
from a refrigeration plant).

 Circular scale with moving pointer (analogue) which is usually best suited to
process control, (e.g. a speedometer or revolution counter in a car) and;

 Fixed marker with a moving scale (usually these are difficult to use when it is
necessary to ascertain a degree of change, i.e. you can’t see what the minimum
and maximum values are, so it is difficult to judge where in the process you are or
by how much, in relation to the overall potential change, the process has changed).

7.2 Design of scale graduations

A number of factors need to be considered when designing or selecting scale

graduations. These are:

 The height, thickness and distance apart between markings (especially

important in poor lighting conditions).
 The information shown must reflect the information that is wanted.
 Scale graduations should be easy to interpret.
 Subdivisions either in ½ or 1/5, the others are more difficult to interpret.
 Numbers should be confined to major graduations

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 The tip of the pointer should not obscure the graduations

 The letter sizing should be correct for the required visual distance
 The pointer should be as close to the plane of the scale as possible, and
 The letter colouring and contrast should be suited to the visual environment

7.3 Design of controls

There are essentially two types of control, these being “light” controls, e.g. push
buttons and “heavy” controls such as wheels and levers.

Some guidelines for design or selection of controls are:

 Account must be taken of the contours of hands and fingers (e.g. shaped grips)
 Controls to be easily reachable and clearly visible
 Distance between controls to be anthropometrically correct (i.e. you should be
able to comfortably move from one to the other, such as motorcar pedals, etc.)
 The correct control type for the task at hand (“light” vs “heavy”) as well as the
sensitivity that would be required
 Levers should be used for high force controls
 Controls should be colour coded in distinguishing colours, e.g. red = “hot” and
blue = “cold”
 Controls to provide tactile feedback where important
 The relative speed of movement should match the required adjustment fineness,
and
 Reactions should be according to stereotype for the type of control used.

8. MENTAL ACTIVITY

Mental activity in terms of a work environment is where incoming information has to be

processed by the brain. There are two categories, namely:

 Mental activity in a narrow sense - requiring specific thought processes, often involving
creativity, such as writing a report, making recommendations, etc. and

 Information processing, relying on perception, interpretation and processing of incoming

information, e.g. driving a motor car under “normal” conditions. Obviously, driving a car
during a race will require a lot more of the activity in the “narrow sense” as discussed
above.

The mental load, in turn, is dependent on:

 The degree of alertness required

 The need to take responsible decisions
 The monotony of the task to hand, and
 Degree or lack of human contact, usually the less the contact, the more easily bored
you become.

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9. FATIGUE

9.1 Muscular fatigue

Muscle fatigue can be determined in one or more of the following ways:

 The muscle contraction distance decreases

 The contraction / relaxation speed reduces, and
 The interval between stimulus and response increases.

As a consequence of muscle fatigue, a loss of power occurs, accompanied by

slower movement which in turn, leads to impaired co-ordination and an increased
tendency to accidents and errors.

Several types of fatigue occur. Some are:

 Visual fatigue
 Bodily fatigue
 Mental fatigue
 Nervous fatigue (central nervous system)
 Chronic fatigue (as a consequence of long term accumulations)
 Circadian fatigue, (i.e. fatigue resulting from lack of sleep) and
 Fatigue brought about by monotonous activity.

Symptoms of fatigue are:

 A subjective feeling of weariness

 Sluggish thinking
 Reduced awareness
 Poor and slow perception
 An unwillingness to work (loss of motivation), and
 A general decline in bodily and mental performance.

Causes giving rise to fatigue are usually one or more of the following:

 High intensity and long duration of physical or mental work

 Environmental stressors, e.g. noise and heat
 Physical problems, worries and conflicts
 Pains and illnesses
 Circadian rhythm stress, and
 Poor or inadequate nutrition

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The measurement of fatigue is usually based on:

 The quality and quantity of work delivered

 Subjective impressions (i.e. you just “feel tired”)
 Electroencephalography (measurement of brain wave activity)
 Subjective frequency of flicker-fusion of the eyes (the more tired you are, the
more noticeable the eyes flicker)
 Psychomotor tests (muscle performance tests) and
 Mental performance tests (solving problems or puzzles)

9.2 Occupational stress

Stress is defined as being the reaction of an organism to a threatening situation.

The physiology applicable to such circumstances is a secretion of adrenaline and
similar hormones resulting in a heightened state of alertness.

Measuring for this condition relies on urine analysis for increased levels of the
hormones secreted.

As a consequence of this type of stress, symptoms that appear are:

 Functional disorders, e.g. of the gastro-intestinal tract, and

 Cardiovascular system degeneration.

If the exposure is long enough, the above symptoms will become organic illnesses.

In terms of occupational stress, the definition is that it is the emotional state

resulting from the demands of the work and the individual’s ability to cope.

Some stressors in the work environment are:

 Lack of job control

 Lack of social support

 Job dissatisfaction

 Task and performance demands

 Job security

 Responsibility (for others and for equipment)

 Physical environmental stressors, and

 Complexities associated with the job.

9.3 Boredom

Boredom is the result of a monotonous environment with little, if any, stimuli. It

results in decreased awareness and suppressed state of activation of the higher
nervous centres.

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It is usually caused by prolonged, repetitive work that is not particularly difficult but
does also not allow for full freedom of thought. It may also be brought about by
continuous supervisory tasks calling for continuous vigilance.

In designing for boredom, the following factors should be addressed:

 Increase the variety of tasks

 Broaden the scope of tasks

 Provide more information

 Provide more responsibility

 Facilitate participation in decision making

 Provide higher degree of control over the work process

 Increase the degree of social contact

 Have more frequent short stops

 Provide the opportunity for physical activity during stops, and

 Provide a more stimulating environment (e.g. music, colouring and lighting)

When addressing job design for supervisory work, the following aspects also need
to be considered:

 Provide clear, decisive alarm signals

 Signal frequency should be from 100 to 300 signals per hour

 Ensure that the operator is well rested - especially when switching from one shift
cycle to another

 Provide a stimulating environment

 Change work regularly where dangerous lapses can occur

 Provide for short pauses, exercise, etc. and

 Alternate the task between two or more people during the shift.

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10. WORKING HOURS AND EATING HABITS

10.1 Productivity vs working hours

A balance can be struck between higher production rates and the number of hours
worked for certain tasks. Figure OH - 3.13 below reflects the outcome of some studies
performed in Great Britain to ascertain the impact of longer and shorter working hours
on output (refer to E Grandjean, Fitting the Task to the Man” pages 200 & 201).

160 8000
Number of units per hour

Total units per day

140 7600

120 7200

8028
169
100 6800
131
7178

7126
108

80 6400

66.0 54.4 47.5 Hours per week

Turning a shell-case (hand operation)
Number of units per hour

Number of units per day

140 7400

120 7000

100 6600
133
121
100

80 6200
6631
6490

6397

64.9 54.8 48.1 Hours per week

Milling a screw-thread (mainly
operating the machine)

Figure OH - 3.13 The effect of working hours on productivity

From the above, it can be seen that under certain circumstances, reducing working
hours can have a beneficial effect. Reducing the working day length below a certain
minimum will, obviously, result in a reduction in production capacity (of the
individual) simply because there would not be sufficient time to do the job. Due to
limitations to how fast you can work. The challenge is to get to the optimum point.

In terms of rest pauses, studies have indicated that there are four types of rest
break, these being:

 Spontaneous breaks (determined by the worker himself, if he has the freedom to

do so)

 Disguised breaks (resting, although the appearance is given that the worker is
still busy with what he is required to do)

 Breaks incorporated into the job, (where there is a natural break between tasks)
and

 Prescribed pauses (e.g. lunch time, tea breaks)

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The effects of breaks lead to:

 Prevention of fatigue
 Allowing for opportunity for refreshment, and
 Social contacts

10.2 Nutrition

Figure OH - 3.10 discussed before in section 6, “Heavy Work” schematically shows

how nutrients are converted to heat and mechanical energy. As was previously
discussed, energy demand varies with the type of work being performed. In the
same way, the type of sustenance consumed also needs to differ. In the case of
sedentary work, diets need to be low in kilojoules whilst they should be high in
vitamins and minerals. At the same time, the volumes ingested need to be
restrained to balance with energy demand in order to avoid unnecessary weight
gain.

For hard manual labour, the intake needs to be in a high energy, low bulk format.
Foods should be protein rich and fatty. Carbohydrates are generally too bulky to
provide in the dietary requirements (e.g., to consume 15 000 kJ, a person would
have to eat 5 kg of potatoes). A 70 kg man would, on the other hand, need to only
consume 100 to 110 grams of protein and a similar amount of fat to meet the same
physical demands. In addition, hard physical work requires additional uptake of
phosphates and vitamin B1 (as found in milk, brown bread and nuts) and this should
be consumed in addition to the foodstuffs mentioned above.

Meal intakes should occur five times daily in the sequence of breakfast, snack,
lunch, snack and supper.

11. NIGHTWORK AND SHIFTWORK

Circadian rhythm is the wakened / sleeping cycle on a daily average basis. During daylight
hours, organs are ready to operate (called the ergotropic phase) whilst at night-time they
are recuperating (the trophotropic phase).

Studies of the effects of shiftwork show that:

 Shift workers generally have more digestive and nervous system disorders
 Nightshift workers more often misuse drugs
 Nightshift workers more often suffer from chronic fatigue, and
 They tend to have poor eating habits.
 In terms if occupational sickness, they more often exhibit symptoms of weariness,
mental irritability, depression, loss of vitality and disinclination to work.
 Psychosomatic disorders also show increased risk in the form of loss of appetite, sleep
disturbances, digestive problems and stomach and duodenal ulcers.

Older workers more readily suffer from the above stresses and they have a lower ability to
recuperate.

In terms of social aspects, there is a reduced social interaction, poor family contact and
fewer friends. Shift workers more often find themselves on the fringes of society.

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In addressing the above, the latest findings indicate that shift rotation should be short term
and the following criteria apply:

 Loss of sleep should be as little as possible, and

 There should be as much time as possible for social and familial contact.

The best shift cycles are those with single, isolated nightshifts with subsequent 24 hour rest
cycles.

In light of the foregoing, the following recommendations apply to nigh and shift work:

 Nightshift workers should preferably be between 25 and 50 years of age

 People exhibiting a preponderance for ailments / emotional instability / psychosomatic

illness should not be employed on night work.

 Single persons, living alone and far from the job in noisy environments are not suitable
for nightshift work

 Short term rotation of shifts is preferable

 Scattered, single night shifts with subsequent 24 hour rest cycles are preferable

 Whether the shift cycle calls for one, two or three consecutive night shifts, the
subsequent rest cycle should be 24 hours

 Off weekends of two days duration should be included into the shift cycle, and

 During every shift, there should be at least one break for a hot or high energy meal.

From the above it is apparent that a universal application of a day / night shift cycle without
due cognisance of a significant number of potential stressors could result in specific
problems, both physiological and psychological. The potential thus furthermore exists that
conditions that are less safe than should be the case could also develop if not considered
within the context of the nature of the work to be performed, giving further cause for due
care to be exercised.

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Self TEST OH - 3.2

Without using references:

1. Define a man / machine system

2. Briefly discuss man / machine systems under the following headings:

2.1 Displays

2.2 Design of scale graduations and information exchange

2.3 Design of controls

3. Briefly discuss mental activity under the headings:

3.1 Mental activity in the narrow sense

3.2 Information processing

4. Briefly discuss the factors affecting mental load

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5. Briefly describe how muscular fatigue is determined

6. Briefly discuss the following types of fatigue:

6.1 Visual fatigue

6.2 Bodily fatigue

6.3 Mental fatigue

6.4 Nervous fatigue

6.5 Chronic fatigue

6.6 Circadian fatigue

6.7 Fatigue brought about by monotonous activity

7. Briefly discuss the symptoms of fatigue

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8. Briefly discuss the causes giving rise to fatigue

9. Briefly discuss how fatigue is measured

10. Define occupational stress and discuss the symptoms and causes of occupational stress.

11. Briefly discuss design factors to be considered when designing for boredom.

12. Briefly discuss the effect on productivity of different working hours.

13. Briefly discuss the types of rest pauses on productivity.

14. Briefly describe the conversion of nutrients to energy in the human system.

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15. Define circadian rhythm.

16. Briefly discuss the effects of shift work on workers under the following headings:

16.1 Eating habits and digestive system disorders

16.2 Substance abuse

16.3 Chronic fatigue

16.4 Occupational sickness

16.5 Age

16.6 Psychosomatic disorders

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12. VISION

Vision is defined as the transformation of light energy into biological energy which is
decipherable by the brain. This transformation occurs within the eye through cells known as
rods and cones. The rods detect variance in the level of light whereas cones are colour
sensitive.

The fields of vision of the eye is as follows:

c
b a

o
a = zone of sharp vision: angle of view of 1 .
o o
b = middle field: vision unsharp: angle of view from 1 to 40 .
o
c = outer field: movements perceptible: angle of view from 41 to
o
approximately 70 .

Figure OH - 3.14 The visual field

Clear distinction occurs within a very narrow field of approximately 1o of arc. The “middle”
field covers approximately a 40o arc whilst the outer field covers another approximately 40o.
Figure OH - 3.14 above demonstrates this.

The implication of the above is that critical visual displays should be placed within a
reasonably moderate distance around the normal line of sight.

In terms of ergonomic principles, the following rules apply when considering lighting and vision:

 To avoid dazzle effects, all surfaces within the visual field should be of the same order
of brightness, and
 The general level of illumination should not fluctuate rapidly.

Glare occurs in three forms, namely:

 Relative glare, caused by contrasts in brightness

 Absolute glare, too bright for the eye to adapt to, and
 Adaptive glare, which is temporary and to which the eyes can adapt.

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Visual acuity is defined as the ability to perceive two lines or points or to apprehend the
form of shape where the distance between the lines or points or the size of form or shape is
the determinant.

The following factors influence visual acuity:

 Visual acuity improves with illumination and is best at levels in excess of 1 000 lux
 It improves with contrast
 It is better with dark symbols on a light background, and
 It decreases with age.

13. ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHTING

13.1 Design

In designing illumination systems the following factors apply:

 All objects and major surfaces in the visual field should, as far as possible, be
equally bright
 Where brightness contrasts occur, objects in the middle of the field should be
less than three times as bright as objects towards the outer edges
 Contrasts between the middle field and the outer field should be less than ten
fold
 The working field should be brightest in the middle
 Excessive contrasts are less bothersome at the top of the field
 Light sources should not contrast with the background at a ratio greater than
20:1, and
 The maximum range of brightness contrast should not exceed 40:1

A stroboscopic effect occurs when the flicker speed of luminaires match the
moving speed of rotating objects, thus leading to an impression that the rotating
objects are stationery. In designing lighting systems this effect should be considered
where people work, work with or travel in close proximity of such rotating equipment
and either the illumination source or, if impossible, the speed of the equipment
should be changed.

In arranging lighting in general, the following rules apply:

 Avoid glare by placing the luminaires out of the line of sight

 Avoid light sources in the visual field
 Provide shades to reduce the luminance to less than 200 cd/m2
 The arc from the line of sight to the source should exceed 30o above the
horizontal
 Fluorescent tubes should be arranged at 90o to the line of sight
 Preferably use more luminaires of lower power than few luminaires of high
power to achieve desired illumination levels, and
 Avoid the use of reflective colours and surfaces on machines, table tops, etc.

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In designing illumination where good vision is required, consideration should be given to:
 The level of illumination in the work place
 The distribution of light sources
 The size of the objects to be handled
 The reflectivity of the objects to be handled
 The contrast of such objects
 The time available to see the objects, and
 The age of the persons required to perform the work.

The following recommendations apply to fine work:

 Use frontal lighting
 Screen the lamps
 Use diffusers or diffusive lamps
 Lighting should emit from a large source
 Use broad and deep diffusers, and
 Use phase-shifted fluorescent lamps in preference to ordinary fluorescent units.

13.2 Control

Control rests on three basic legs. These are good illumination, controlling the
potential hazard at source and protection of the worker by means of the correct
personal protective equipment.

Selection and provision of protective wear can be a reasonably specialised area.

These measures range from chipper’s cup goggles and gauze masks to protect
against flying matter to chemical splash goggles. Specially tinted goggles and
masks are required for protection against ionising and non-ionising radiation (often,
because of the potential of skin damage due to ultraviolet radiation, full-face masks
are required for welding operations).

13.3 Illumination

The theory of light has much in common with the theory of sound. Light is also a
form of energy and its propagation is best explained by means of wave motion,
entailing the concepts of wavelengths and amplitude. The waves are also absorbed
or reflected by different materials.

Light travels only through transparent media and at its best, i.e. furthest and fastest,
through a vacuum. The reason is that light consists of electromagnetic waves, which
do not entail the vibration of physical particles.

The wavelength of visible light varies between about 400 and 700 nanometers, i.e.
0,4 to 0,7 micrometers.

White light, such as sunlight, consists of a mixture of light waves of various lengths.
When this light is passed through a prism it is broken up into a spectrum or rainbow
of different colours, always starting with violet (shortest waves) and proceeding
through blue, green, yellow, orange and red (longest waves) as shown in Figure OH
- 3.15.

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 OH 3

Light entering the eye falls onto the retina (refer Section OH - 1 Physiology of the
eye). The retina is not equally sensitive to the various wavelengths of visible light: the
light adapted eye being most sensitive to the wavelengths of 550 nm (yellow-green)
and least sensitive to the longest and the shortest wavelengths i.e. 650 nm (red) and
400 nm (violet) respectively. All light meters must take account of this phenomenon.

Light waves also travel very much faster than sound. The speed of all
electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is almost exactly 300 000 km/s.

The following summarises the characteristics of light:

 For all practical purposes, light travels in straight lines;
 The velocity of light in a medium such as water is less than in air (by factor of 1,33);
 A beam of light carries energy which is converted into heat when it is absorbed
by a body, or into electricity when it is absorbed by a thermocouple;
 Light is reflected at a smooth surface such as a mirror, the angle of reflection
being equal to the angle of incidence;
 Light is refracted (deflected or bent) when it passes from one medium to
another of different density, such as from air to water or glass, the sine of the
angle of incidence bearing a constant relationship to the sine of the angle of
refraction in each case; and
 The colour of an object signifies the ability of the object to reflect light of that colour
while absorbing light of other colours. Thus a green cloth probably reflects mainly
green light waves but it could also be true that it actually absorbed green and red
light while reflecting blue and yellow, and the mixture of these two would appear as
green light to the human eye. The colour-rendering property of a light does not
depend only on its appearance but on the same proportion of the various colours
that go into making it up. It is therefore wrong to assume that because a light looks
white it will have the same colour-rendering effects as day-light.

10oHz Cosmic rays

10oHz Ultraviolet
1pm Gamma rays 350nm
X-rays
o Violet 400nm
10 Hz
1nm
Blue 450nm
Ultra-
violet 500nm
10oHz Visible Green Wavelength
1um
Yellow 550nm
Infra red Orange
o 600nm
10 Hz
1mm
Micro Red 650nm
Waves 700nm
1GHz
1m Radio
frequencies Infra-red
1MHz
1km

Audio
1KHz
frequencies

1Hz
Sub-audio
Frequency Wavelength
DC

Figure OH - 3.15: Electromagnetic spectrum

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 OH 3

The ability of a person to see what he needs to see in order to do his job
safely and efficiently, is determined by three general classes of variables:

 Individual differences;
 The nature of the visual task, and
 Illumination.

Individuals differ with respect to visual acuity (sharpness of vision), colour blindness
and various other aspects (see Section OH-1, Physiology of the eye). One factor which
is important in mining, indoor work and nighttime work is dark adaptation, which is the
process of change which occurs in the eyes when the environment changes from
bright to dark. These changes take time and every time a person moves form a
brighter to a darker place, there is a period during which his eyes are not fully adapted
and he is consequently more prone to accidents. The only way of reducing this
problem is to grade the lighting between very bright and very dark areas.

Visual discrimination can be improved by providing colour contrast or brightness

contrast and by avoiding glare. There is a distinct relationship between brightness
contrast, size of details to be discriminated and the time for seeing.

Illuminance is a measure of the brightness of the light failing on an object. It

depends on the intensity of the light source, the distance from the source and the
angle of impact of the light on the object.

Figure OH - 3.16 demonstrates this. The candela (cd) is the unit of luminous
intensity. It is approximately equal tot he old unit of candle power, but it is much
more strictly defined.

The lumen (lm) is the unit of luminous flux or rate of flow of light from a source. A
point source of 1 candela emits a flux of 1 lumen through each steradian of solid
angle - or a total of 12,6 lumen.

The lux (lx) is the unit of illuminance. It is equal to a flux of 1 lumen onto an area of
1 m2. Illuminance on a surface and decreases as the square of the distance from
the light source.

The common 40 watt lamp produces light of an intensity of about 35 cd, a 100 W
lamp about 130 cd and a 40 W fluorescent lamp about 200 cd.

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1 m Radius

Area on a
Pinpoint
Sphere
light source = 1 m2
1 candela
(cd) Flux
= 1 lumen (lm) Illumination
= 1 Lux(lx)
= 1 lm/m2

Solid angle one

steradian (sr)

Sphere

Figure OH - 3.16: Light Terminology

The illuminance level on a desk illuminated by a 100 W light could thus be expected
to be:

130 lm if the light was 1 m away

130
= 33 lm if the light was 2 m away
22

130
= 14 lm if the light was 3 m away etc.
32

however, in practice the illuminance of the desk would probably be increased

considerably by the use of a reflector behind the lamp to concentrate most of the
light in a downward direction, and by the reflection of some light form the walls and
ceilings of the room.

However, if the light is not directly above the desk but strikes it at an angle of say 35
degrees off the vertical, the illuminance is reduced in proportion to the cosine of this
angle. In this case cos 35o = 0,82 and the illuminance level of the desk will be only
82% of what it would otherwise have been.

The four most common types of electric light are:

Filament lamps, which are also called incandescent lamps because their
filaments (usually of tungsten) are heated to incandescence, i.e. until they are
glowing with heat. Only about 10% of the electricity used by these lamps is
converted into visible light. Their average life is about 1 000 by 5% above its design
value, the light output is increased by 18% while the power consumption is
increased by only 7%, but the life of the lamp is halved.

Fluorescent lamps consist of long glass tubes with heated electrodes at both ends.
The tubes contain a little mercury and argon at low pressure, which emit invisible
ultra-violet light when an electric current is flowing. The insides of the tubes are
coated with a fluorescent powder, which produces light of a desired colour when

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exposed to ultraviolet waves. Fluorescent lamps are very much more efficient than
filament lamps and they also last much longer - about 8 000 hours of operating time.
However, each time a lamp is switched off, its operational life is reduced and it
consequently does not pay to switch it off for less than (say) half-an-hour at a time.
On the other hand it is quite uneconomical and wasteful of energy to leave it burning
continuously at places such as sub stations, which are only visited intermittently.

Mercury vapour lamps produce light through the passage of an electric current
through mercury vapour. Although they are expensive, they are used in high places
where they would be difficult to replace, because they have a life of about 8 000
hours.

Sodium vapour lamps have a very high efficiency but their light is almost
monochromatic yellow, so that all objects are seen as yellow or various shades of
grey to black and it is impossible to distinguish any colour. They are often used for
street lighting and lighting of outdoor areas.

The purpose of lighting is obviously to promote safety and efficiency. it has been
demonstrated both in laboratory tests and in the work situation that, starting from a
low level of illuminance, visual performance first rises rather sharply as illumination
is improved, then increases more gradually (the area of diminishing returns) and
then levels off (the area of negative returns).

It is difficult to decide on practically acceptable standards for a mine for various

reasons. Firstly a mine is too big for high standards to be maintained everywhere. At
the working places where good illumination is most desirable, daily blasting and
rock handling activities make permanent installation impractical and each man
wears his own cap lamp with an intensity of 3,5 cd and a concentrated beam of 45
lm. At shaft stations and in hoist and pump chambers standards are normally high
but in the thousands of metres of travelling way between the shafts and the
working places, there appears to be no agreed policy. Most of them are either not
illuminated at all, or illumination may vary from one 40 W lamp every 10 m to a 100
W lamp every 3 m. presumably either good lighting or no lighting could be justified
but a compromise probably means a complete waste of money because no useful
purpose is served.

Wherever the cost of permanent lighting is justified, lamps must obviously be kept
clean as this can improve illumination by 20% and more.

Where glare can be a problem, frosted lamps should be used.

The science of measuring light is known as photometry. Illuminance is measured

directly in lux by means of a luxmeter, which is activated by a photovoltaic cell
commonly activated by selenium. Such a meter should not only be colour corrected
i.e. a luxmeter, but also cosine corrected.

It is presently recognised that current legislation giving guidance on illumination

levels is inadequate an you are therefore referred to an additional resource to obtain
the necessary information on recommended illumination levels. This is the section
on illumination in the Mine Ventilation Practitioner’s Data Book, second edition,
Volume 1, subsection IL-IL, pages 1 to 14. The levels quoted here were, in turn,
sourced from the Occupational Health and Safety Act (the old Machinery and
Occupational Safety Act) and is one of the most exhaustive listings locally available.

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Once the “Guideline for the Compilation of a Mandatory Code of Practice for an
Occupational Health Management Programme” dealing with illumination levels is
released by the Department of Minerals and Energy’s Mine Health and Safety
Inspectorate, you will need to carefully study that guideline and your own employer’s
code of practice based on that guideline for the relevant details.

Controlling the hazards at source refers to any potential (occupational) hazard the
worker may be exposed to. Control measures range for eye protection ranges from
personal hygiene (eye care) and good house keeping to hazardous substance
control and correct use of equipment and substances. The supply of good
illumination levels through the selection and installation of appropriate lighting
(luminaires) has also been discussed. Often common sense is all that is required for
the occupational hygienist to determine the most appropriate control mechanism.

For additional information on illumination, you are referred to Le Roux’s Notes on

Mine Environmental Control (4th edition) Chapter 16 and Environmental Engineering
in South African Mines, 1982, Chapter 36.

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SELF TEST OH 3.3

Without using references:

1. Define and discuss the following terms:

1.1 Lux

1.2 Lumen

1.3 Luminous flux

1.4 Luminous intensity

1.5 Illuminance

1.6 Luminance

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 1.7 Luminaire

1.8 Discomfort glare

1.9 Disability glare

1.10 Stroboscopic effect

2.1 A light shines perpendicular to a working surface from a distance of 3 m and gives a
reading of 50 lux. This light is moved so that it shines at an angle of 60o to the horizontal
onto the working surface from a distance of 1,5 m. what is the luminance on the surface?

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2.2 The luminance level on the surface of a desk from a light source, which is 1 metre away, is
measured at 72 lux. If the light source is moved perpendicularly to 2 m and 3 m,
respectively, from the desk, what will the luminance level be at each distance?

2.3 If the desk is now moved horizontally by 35o from the light source, what will the luminance
be at 3 m from the light source?

3. Describe the various light sources generally used in mines and in industry (and where you
would preferably use them)

4. Describe methods of improving illumination.

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5. Explain a method of testing light installations

6. List 7 factors you would consider when designing illumination systems

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14. NOISE

The physiology of hearing was dealt with in Module OH-2 and will not be repeated here.

Noise has been defined as unwanted sound, but a more accurate definition would be that
“sound only becomes burdensome if the person affected feels that it is discordant, i.e. if it
does not harmonise with his intentions at that particular moment” (Hawel - translated from
the German text).

Hearing has two primary functions, namely to serve as a basis for communication and to
serve as an alarm system.

Noise load is determined by measurement of the sound power level and can be used in one
of two ways, i.e. as an expression of the summary of frequency levels or as an expression
in terms of an equivalent exposure for a given time period.

14.1 Physics of Sound

Sound is a form of energy carried by waves through an elastic medium. The energy
is eventually converted into heat through internal friction of the medium or when the
sound is absorbed by some obstruction.

Wave motion can best be visualised by considering waves on the surface of water.
When a pebble is dropped into a pond it initiates a series of waves, which move
outwards from the point of impact. The distance between successive waves is
called the wavelength and the vertical distance that a cork floating in the water
would be moved up above its position of rest is called the amplitude of the waves.
Figure OH - 3.17 below illustrates the concepts of wavelength and amplitude.

Wavelength

Amplitude

Figure OH - 3.17 - Wavelength and amplitude

The amplitude is a measure of the energy content of the wave motion. The number
of waves passing a point per second (or the number of times the cork would move
up and down) is called the frequency of the waves. The unit of cycles per second
the hertz - symbol Hz. The frequency multiplied by the wavelength (in metres) gives
the distance that the wave travels in one second, thus the speed in metres per
second.

The speed of sound depends on the medium through which it travels and also on
the condition of this medium. Sound waves cannot exist in a vacuum. At 20oC the
velocity of sound is approximately.

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 OH 3

344 m/s in air

1 410 m/s in water

3 400 m/s in wood

5 000 m/s in rock

and 5200 m/s in steel

The speeds are not affected by either the frequency or the amplitude of the sound
wave.

Sound waves with frequencies above 16 kHz, which cannot be heard by the human
ear, are called ultrasonic waves. Such waves with frequencies of up to 1 000 000
kHz are used in such diverse scientific and technological applications as the
homogenisation of milk, the assessment of the quality of thickness of concrete in
place, and the taking of sonar photographs of unborn babies.

Sound energy therefore has a number of properties, these being:

 Wavelength, , (metres)
 Cycle (which is the travel from one peak position to the next, or one complete
vibration)
 Frequency, f, (the number of cycles or waves passing a fixed point per unit time,
cycles / second or Hertz, Hz)
 Speed, c, as discussed above, in m/s
 Intensity, I, (amount of energy passing through a unit area per unit time, in Watt /
square metre, W/m2)
 Pressure, p, (or SPL - sound pressure level) (which is defined as force per unit
area, in N/m2)
 Power, SWL - sound power level - (which is the power per unit area, in W/m2)

The relationship between wavelength (), speed (c) and frequency (f) is expressed as:

c
 =
f

There is also a relationship between intensity and sound pressure level, with
intensity (l) being directly proportional to the square of the pressure (p), thus:

l  p2

Sound level instruments measure the root mean square value (See Fig OH - 3.18
and discussion) of the fluctuating wave pressure in units of decibel (dB). The
decibel is defined as ten times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio between two
quantities of power. This means that if the sound pressure level at one place is 10
dB more than at another, the sound intensity is actually 10 times greater at the one
place than at the other. Table OH - 3.4 gives some typical sound pressure levels.

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 OH 3

Sound pressure is the instantaneous value of the amplitude of the pressure wave.
The pressure change follows a cyclic wave, varying from a position of peak value,
through zero, to a negative peak value and back again. This is best explained in the
Figure OH - 3.18 below.

Figure OH - 3.18 Sound Pressure Measurement

The measure of the sound is the root mean square (RMS) value of the pressure, Pi.

Pi1  Pi 2  Pi3  Pin

2 2 2 2
Thus PRMS =
n

This is the value of the pressure measured by sound-level instruments.

Since sound intensity is proportional to the square of sound pressure, the sound
pressure level (SPL) can be derived from the formula:

(sound pressure)2
SPL = 10 log10 dB
(reference pressure)2

or

(sound pressure)
SPL = 20 log10 dB
(reference pressure)

Where the reference pressure is the sound pressure at the threshold of hearing, i.e.
2 x 10-5 Pa.

If we refer to table OH - 3.4 we note that the sound pressure level of a low voice is
50 dB, whereas that for a typical office is 60 dB. This means, in fact that the sound
in the office is 10 times greater than that of a low voice, not 20% greater.

Similarly, if the sound emitted by a jackhammer can be reduced from 120 dB to 110
dB, the sound has been reproduced by a factor of 10.

Sound power

As in the case of a cork floating on water, the energy creating a wave is passing
under the cork is on from one molecule to the next, etc.

Obviously this energy requires a source, which imparted this energy to the fluid in
the first instance.

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 OH 3

In the case of sound, this energy is known as sound power, and can be simply
defined as the nett amount of power emitted by a source (such as a fan or motor) to
the surrounding medium in the form of sound waves.

If there are no losses in the medium, all of this radiated power must pass through
any surface that encloses the source. The larger the enclosing surface, the less
power per unit area (W/m2), will pass through any element of the surface. The total
sound power is the sum of the products of the intensity through each incremental
area.

Sound power level (SWL) can be derived from the formula:

(sound power)
SWL = 10 log10 dB
(reference power)

Where the reference power is 10-12 W.

Once again the unit in this instance is decibel.

Sound intensity and sound power are also discussed on page 924 of Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines. You should read this section to ensure that you
have a better understanding of these concepts.

Sound Pressure Sound Source Subjective Description

level dB
0 Threshold hearing
20 Broadcast Studio Very quiet
50 Low voice
60 Typical office
70 Conversational speech
80 Heavy street traffic Noisy
100 Boiler factory
115 Rockdrill Very noisy
130 Pneumatic riveting (at operator)
140 Jet engine Intolerable

Table OH - 3.4: Typical sound pressure levels

Because normal sounds consist of a mixture of many frequencies and because the
human ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies, a full description of a sound
entails the measurement of the SPL (sound pressure level) in each octave band, or
even in smaller bands, which is a tedious job requiring a very sophisticated
instrument. The internationally accepted octave band midband frequencies are 63,
125, 250, 500, 1 000, 2 000, 4 000 and 8 000 Hz. For routine purposes, however, it
is sufficient to use a simpler instrument to determine the response of the human ear
to the total noise. Several composite scales have been devised, the most generally
accepted being the so-called A-scale which measures sound as heard by the
human ear by under measuring the very low and very high frequencies.

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There are two main sources of noise from machines, namely vibrating surfaces and
air disturbances. When buying new machines, preference should be given to those
causing less noise, but with existing machines some reduction of noise can often be
obtained by improving bracing and support and using vibration insulators or pads or
by applying noise absorbing covers. Where there is not sufficient, the machine
should be installed as far as possible from the workers as is often practical in the
case of fans. Fans can also be fitted with silencers and ducts can be lagged (lined
with sound absorbing substances, such as mineral wool, etc.)

High frequency sounds are more easily absorbed than low frequency sounds, but it
must be remembered that absorbent materials lose much of their effect when
allowed to become wet or dirty.

14.2 Physiological and psychological effects of noise.

Humans have the ability to hear selectively, e.g. listening to one voice within a room
full of noise. The level of understanding varies with several factors, ranging from the
individual’s knowledge of the language being spoken, the level of intelligence,
subject knowledge and hearing acuity.

The degree of contrast between the sound emission and the background is also
important in allowing discernment, e.g. when lecturing (at between 70 to 80 dB) the
background noise should not exceed 55 to 60 dB.

The frequency of the sound waves determines the pitch of the sound by setting up a
vibration of the same frequency in a person’s eardrum, from which a message
regarding the type of sound is sent to the brain. A sound with a high frequency
(short wavelength) has a high tone, while a sound with a low frequency (long
waves) has a low tone. Middle C on the piano has a frequency of 256 Hz (a
344
wavelength of = 1,34m) and each octave (8th note on the piano) has twice the
256
frequency of the octave below it. Most sounds in our environment, however, do not
consist of pure tones, but rather consist of combinations of frequencies.

Exposure to noise has little effect on manual work performance, whereas mental
concentration requires subdued noise levels. Learning certain kinds of dexterity is
also adversely affected by noise whilst non-continuous or unexpected noise can
impair mental performance. In the case where intense physical training in
association with coaching occurs, it has been noted that athlete’s performance is
adversely affected by noise.

Under certain circumstances, noise can be beneficial to performance, e.g. where

the work is boring or where there are many other distractions.

Noise has several physiological effects, some of which are:

 Raising blood pressure

 Accelerated heart rate
 Contraction of the blood vessels of the skin
 Increased metabolism
 Slowing down of the digestive organs
 Increased muscular tension

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14.3 Noise engineering

In designing for noise, the following apply:

 Protective planning (in the design phase of environments, equipment and machinery),

 Reduction of the noise at source, and

 Insulation against reflection and scattering.

In protective planning the following data (Table OH - 3.5) serves as an example as

to how a division between two rooms can be affected by the selection of the dividing
materials.

Reducing the noise at source is often the most logical way in tacking the problem. In
this case re-engineering the sound source through the selection of alternative
materials, improved maintenance and replacement of worn parts, loading resonating
plates, stiffening them, making them curved or changing the materials are all
examples of how the problem can be tackled.

In addition, where the noise is transmitted through structures, isolating or damping

the source from the point of contact also contributes to lowering noise emission and
transfer levels.

Item Damping effect (dBA) Remarks

Normal single door 21-29 Speech clearly
understandable
Normal double doors 30-39 Loud speech understandable
Heavy, special doors 40-46 Loud speech audible
Window, single glazing 20-24
Window, double glazing 24-28
Double glazing with felt packing 30-34
Dividing wall, 6-12 cm, brick 37-42
Dividing wall, 25 - 38 cm, brick 50-55
Double wall, 2 x 12 cm, brick 60-65

Table OH - 3.5 The damping effect of some building materials

14.4 Hearing conservation

Current legislation places the limit for South African mines at 85 dB(A) for a 40-hour
workweek.

You are specifically directed to the (soon to be released) “Guideline for the
Compilation of a Mandatory Code of Practice for an Occupational Health
Management Programme - Noise Exposure” in which the expected maximum
equivalent noise exposure level will be set. In addition, the requirements of your
mine or place of work’s noise control and management programme will be spelt out
in that document. YOU MUST ALSO STUDY THESE AND BE ABLE TO ANSWER
QUESTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ABOVE GUIDELINE.

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As discussed before, control measures include:

 Reduction at source,
 Screening,
 Isolation,
 Attenuation, and
 Personal protection equipment.

Hearing conservation measures are also well documented and described in

COMRO User Guide No 11, September 1988 and the SABS Code 083.

Outcomes of SIMRAC Project GEN 011 “Develop Means to Enhance the

Effectiveness of Existing Hearing Conservation Programmes” indicate that hearing
protection devices should be carefully selected on the basis of intended application.
This means that, where it is required to reduce noise levels to a greater extent than
the device is capable of attenuating, another, more effective device should be
selected. Also available from this report is a series of results on occupational
exposures, surface and underground, coal and metalliferous mining, which will be,
useful in designing and refining hearing conservation programmes.

In light of the above, these notes will not expand further on this aspect and you are
referred to the documents listed for further information.

14.5 Acceptable Noise Levels

It is obvious that if persons are exposed to excessive noise for a long period of time
during the normal working shift, the risk of hearing damage is consistently greater
than if they are exposed for a shorter period.

Table OH - 3.6 and Figure OH - 3.19 below give the permissible noise level as a
function of time as defined by American Health Standards and South African
Standards. The South African Standards are given in the SABS 083 standard and
are applicable to factories. SABS 083 recommends that the equivalent noise level
shall not exceed 85 dB(A). This is also currently the legal standard for mines.

Noise level dB(A)

Duration per day, hours U.S.A South Africa
8 90 85
6 92 86
4 95 88
3 97 89
2 100 91
1½ 102 92
1 105 94
½ 107 95
¼ 110 97
¼ or less 115 100

Table OH - 3.6 Comparative Noise Exposure Times

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You should also read pages 931 to 934 in ‘Environmental Engineering in South
African Mines’, where this aspect is covered more fully.

14.6 Weighting and Equal Loudness Curves

Equal loudness curves

The response of the ear to sound intensity change is logarithmic, not linear. The ear
is also very frequency-sensitive. The lowest frequency, which can be detected by a
person with a normal hearing, is about 20 Hz. The highest frequency that the ear
can detect varies considerably with factors such as age and health; normally the
maximum is about 16 kHz.

The ear can detect sounds at all frequencies within this range, but it does not attach
the same importance to each. As mentioned above, the ear is frequency-sensitive.
A number of experiments have been conducted to demonstrate that the ear is
sensitive to frequency and a set of curves as equal loudness has been derived.
These curves are shown in Figure OH - 3.20 below.
Source Pressure Level, dB

Permissible exposure time per day, hours

Figure OH - 3.19: Comparative exposures

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 OH 3

Marked on each curve are a number of units, called “phons”. The phon is a unit of
loudness, and the rating of any curve in phons is defined as the value of the sound
pressure level (SPL) of that curve at 1 000 Hz.

The dotted curve is particularly significant because it represents the average

threshold of hearing. It will be seen that the value of the sound pressure level at 2
000 Hz is zero, and referring to the section on sound pressure, we know that this
pressure is 2 x 10-5Pa.

These curves of equal loudness enable some interesting information on human

hearing to be deduced. For example, for sounds of a generally low amplitude
(loudness) there is a very marked frequency sensitivity, a sound at 30 Hz would
have to be about 50 dB higher than a sound at 1 000 Hz to be judged to be equally
as loud. However, this apparent insensitivity to low frequency sound is dependent
upon the amplitude (loudness). For example, when the sound pressure level is
about 90 dB at 1 000 Hz, the level at 30 Hz which would be judged to be equally as
loud is about 108 dB, that is, only 18 dB higher.

Figure OH - 3.20: Equal Loudness Curves

The point, which should be fully understood here is that the ear, does not respond
only to the sound pressure level, but also to the frequency. It weights the level of
sound according to its frequency content and gives it a certain loudness. This means
that if we wish to know how a person judges, or is affected by, noise, it is necessary
to combine sound pressure level and frequency content into a subjective unit.

Weighting curves

It was previously mentioned that a person judges the loudness of sound according
to the sound pressure level and the frequency. In order to combine these two units
into a single meaningful index a method known as “weighting curves” has been
adopted. This principle is incorporated in most, if not all, sound level meters.

The purpose of these weighting curves is to reflect, in some manner, the sensitivity
of the ear. In other words, they have to reduce the effect (strength) of the low-
frequency components before adding to the high-frequency components. Three
weighting curves, known as ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ curves, have been accepted
internationally. Sound levels measured by means of these curves are expressed as
dB(A) or dB(C), depending upon which curve was used. The shapes of the various
curves are shown in Figure OH - 3.21.

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 OH 3

By comparing these weighting curves with the equal loudness curves described in
the previous section, it will be seen that there is a certain resemblance between the
equal loudness curves and the ‘inverted’ ‘A’ curve. It is because of this resemblance
that national and international standards for noise measurements and evaluation
recommend that the ‘A’ weighting curve be used.

Weighting networks and noise rating curves are also discussed on pages 930 and
931 in ‘Environmental Engineering in South African Mines’. You should read this
section to ensure that you understand all the aspects involved with these curves.

It must, however, be emphasized at this stage that when excessive noise is

measured and noise control measures are a more sophisticated set of measurements
must be made and these must include sound pressure levels and frequency analysis.

Figure OH - 3.21: International Standard A, B and C Weighting Curves for

Sound Level Meters

14.7 Calculations (From Environmental Engineering in South African Mines,

Chapter 37)

The relationship between frequency, wavelength and velocity is given below:

c
= 
f

Where c = velocity of sound (m/s)

f = frequency (Hz)

 = wavelength (m)

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Sound Intensity and power

The movement of pressure waves away from a source means that there is a net
flow of momentum or energy. The amount of energy flowing through unit area in unit
time is known as the intensity and is usually expressed as W/m2. The magnitude of
the pressure variation of a sound wave is known as the sound pressure or acoustic
pressure. The intensity is directly proportional to the sound pressure squared and
can be obtained from the equation below.

p2
I =
c

Where I = intensity (W/m2)

P = sound pressure (Pa)

 = density (kg/m3)

c = velocity of sound (m/s)

The ear is very sensitive and responds to intensity i.e. sound pressure squared
rather than pressure in a non-linear manner. Although the actual sound pressures
are very small the range is very large and a linear scale would be cumbersome. The
response to changes of intensity can be represented by a logarithmic scale and
related to a datum value to avoid negative values. If the datum is taken as the
threshold of hearing i.e. 2 x 10-5 Pa the unit of sound becomes:

(pressure)2
Log
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

This unit is known as a bel. To avoid the excessive use of decimals it is normally
multiplied by 10 and the resultant unit of sound is the decibel of dB. Sound pressure
and sound power are defined in the two equations below. The reference level (as
previously referred to) for the sound power level of 10-12 watt corresponds to the
lowest intensity the ear can normally detect i.e. 10-12 W/m2.

As previously discussed, the equations for sound pressure and sound power levels,
respectively, are:

(Pr essure)2
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) = 10 log dB, and
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

(Pr essure)2
Sound Power Level (SWL) = 10 log dB
10 -12

Example 1

A fan is located in the centre of a large flat area free of obstructions. Measurements
taken on the surface of an imaginary hemisphere of radius 5 m centred at the fan
indicated a sound pressure of 0,8 Pa. Calculate the sound pressure level on the
surface of the hemisphere and the sound power level of the fan.

Using the sound pressure level equation,

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(Pr essure)2
SPL = 10 log
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

0,82
= 10 log
4 x 10-10

= 10 x 9,20

SPL = 92 dB

To obtain the sound power level of the fan it is necessary to calculate the acoustic
power of the fan. Since the intensity is the amount of energy flowing through unit
area in unit time and the area is known to be the surface of a hemisphere (half of a
full sphere), the power can be determined. (This assumes that the found is a perfect
reflector and thus all the acoustic energy radiated by the fan flows through the
surface of the hemisphere.)

Using the sound intensity equation:

p2
I = (assuming a density of 1,2 kg/m3)
c

0,82
I =
1,2 x 344

= 0,001 55 W/m2

The surface area of a hemisphere of radius 5 m = 2  52

= 157 m2

The acoustic power therefore is 0,001 55 x 157 = 0,243 5 W

Using the sound power level equation:

Power
SWL = 10 log
10 12

0,243 5
= 10 log
10 12

= 10 x 11,39

SWL = 114 dB

Providing that the duty of the fan does not change materially this sound power level
can be assumed to be constant.

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Example 2

The fan of example 1 is moved and installed at the bottom of an outside wall of a
high building. Calculate the sound pressure level 2,5 m and 5 m from the fan
assuming that there are no other obstructions and that the wall and ground do not
absorb any sound energy.

The acoustic power of the fan is unchanged i.e. 0,243 5 W.

The wall of the building and the ground constrain the propagation of the sound
waves to a quarter sphere.

(i) For 2,5 m distance from the fan:

Surface area of the quarter sphere =  x 2,52

= 19,6 m2

The intensity at the surface of the sphere is therefore:

0,234 5
=
19,6

= 0,012 4 W/m2

The pressure at this point can be obtained by re-arranging the sound

intensity equation.

P = lwc

= 0,012 4 x 1,2 x 344

= 2,26 Pa

Using the sound pressure level equation,

(Pr essure)2
SPL = 10 log
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

2,26 2
SPL = 10 log
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

= 10 x 10,11

= 101 dB

(ii) For 5 m distance from the fan:

Surface area of the quarter sphere =  52

= 78,5 m2

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0,243 5
I =
78,5

= 0,003 1 W/m2

p = 0,0031 x 1,2 x 344

= 1,13 Pa

1,13 2
SPL = 10 log
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

= 95 dB

This example serves to illustrate an important point. The sound power level of a
piece of equipment is unlikely to be changed by changing the location but the sound
pressure level depends on the geometry of the new environment.

Frequency bands

Sound pressure waves from a source are rarely of one frequency and are usually
very complex. The different frequency components generally have different pressure
levels. Plotting a frequency spectrum is simplified by using the total sound pressure
level in a band of frequencies. The preferred frequency bands are given in table OH
-3.7 below. These are the widest bands used in frequency analysis and are known
as the octave bands where in each band the upper frequency limit is double the
lower frequency limit. Each octave band is known by its mid-band frequency, which
is the geometric mean of the upper and lower frequency limits.

Table OH - 3.7: Octave Bands And Mid-Band Frequencies

There are other accepted bands, which are also used in frequency analysis. The
one-third octave bands divide each octave band into three bands, while a narrow
band analysis may be carried out where the band can be as little as 3 to 5 Hz wide.

Adding Sound Levels

Because the scale for reporting sound levels is logarithmic, we cannot simply add
two levels together arithmetically to obtain the overall level. The example below
demonstrates how this is done.

Example 3

In example 1 a second identical fan is installed next to the original fan. Calculate the
sound pressure level at 5 m and the sound power level of both fans.

The total acoustic power produced by both fans is 2 x 0,243 5 = 0,487 W

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Using the sound power level equation:

Power
SWL = 10 log
10 -12

0,487
= 10 log
10 -12

= 10 x 11,69

SWL = 117 dB

In example 1 the area of the surface of the hemisphere of 5 m radius was calculated
as 157 m2.

The intensity at 5 m from the two fans therefore:

power
=
area

0,487
=
157

= 0,003 1 W/m2

Using the sound intensity equation, the acoustic pressure at 5 m can be obtained

P = lwc

= 0,0031 x 1,2 x 344

= 1,13 Pa

Using the sound pressure level equation:

(Pr essure)2
Sound Pressure Level SPL = 10 log dB
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

1,132
= 10 log
4 x 1010

= 10 x 9,51

SPL = 95 dB

Both the sound pressure level at 5 m and the sound level of the source only
increased by 3 dB (117 - 114 and 95 - 92) as a result of installing the second
identical fan.

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Example 4

If the second fan of example 3 produces a sound pressure level of 86 dB at 5 m

when operating by itself calculate the sound pressure level of both fans operating
together.

(Pr essure)2
Sound Pressure Level SPL = 10 log dB
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

2
p1
For fan 1 SPL1 = 10 log
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

= 92

2
p1
Therefore log = 9,2
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

2
p1
and = 109.2
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

2
p1
For fan 2 SPL2 = 10 log = 8.6
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

2
p2
and = 108.6
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

Because it is the intensities, which must be added when two, or more sound sources
exist it can be shown, by using the sound intensity and sound pressure level
equations, that the total sound pressure level:

p  p2
2 2
SPL1+2 = 10 log 1
(2 x 10 - 5 )2

= 10 log(109.2 + 108.6)

= 10 log (1,983 x 109)

= 10 x 9,30

SPL1+2 = 93 dB

In this case the second fan only increased the overall sound pressure level by 1 dB
(93-92) although it produced 6 dB less than the first fan.

As an alternative, the following table (OH - 3.8) or figure (OH - 3.22) may be used to
determine the outcome of adding two or more sound sources.

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Difference between Amount to be added

the two levels, dB to the higher level, dB
0 3
1 2,5
2 2
3 2
4 1,5
5 1
6 1
7 1
8 0,5
9 0,5
10 or more 0

Table OH 3.8: Addition of sound levels

Figure OH - 3.22: Graphical addition of sound levels

14.8 Calculation of Equivalent Noise Levels (Leq)

The equivalent noise level is the level of a steady noise that is reputed to cause a
stated amount of hearing impairment to individuals who are exposed to it over a
period of 40 hours per week. SABS 083 states that the equivalent noise level shall
not exceed 85 dB(A). This is also the legal limit for mines.

To calculate the equivalent noise level, Leq, it is necessary to determine the noise
energy that is created during the time of exposure and then to determine the noise
level, which will result in the same energy radiation if it occurs for 40 hours at a
constant level.

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The formulae, which can be used, are given below:

Leq for a steady noise level

Leq = La + Ci

Where Leq = equivalent noise level, dB(A)

LA = measured level of steady noise, dB(A)

Ci = impulse correction factor which is +10 dB where the noise is

of a repetitive nature (e.g. riveting or hammering) or where it
occurs in single bursts (e.g. a drop forge hammer), and 0 dB
in all other cases.

Leq for a fluctuating noise level.

Leq = LA(av) + Ci

Where Leq and Ci are as above.

 1 
LA(av) = 10 log10  fi 10L ai /10 
 100 

Where Lai = noise level at the mid-point of the I-class dB(A)

f = duration of the I-class sound level exposure expressed as a

percentage of the total analysis time (normalized to a 40 hour
total period)

Another formula is:

L1 L L
Leq = 10 log10 (F1 antilog + antilog 2 + .. . fn antilog n ) + CI
10 10 10

Where f1 to fn = the ratios in relation to 40 hours of the duration of exposure to

the sound levels L1 to Ln

L1 to Ln = the sound levels in dB(A) of the exposures for the duration

ratios f1 to fn

Ci = as above.

Calculations using these formulae are laborious and to assist a graph showing
equivalent noise level plotted against an exposure factor has been compiled. The
calculation of the exposure factor is relatively simple and will now be explained
because in practice mine personnel are more likely to determine the “exposure
factor” (D) to determine whether persons are exposed to excess noise and to use
this exposure factor to determine the equivalent noise level.

The formula for determining the exposure factor is:

C1 C2 Cn
D = + +
T1 T2 Tn

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Where Ci to Cn = total time of exposure permitted at noise levels L1 to Ln

T1 to Tn = total time of exposure permitted at noise levels L1 to Ln

Table OH - 3.6 or figure OH - 3.23 below indicate the permitted value of T for
various noise levels.

Example 5

A workman is exposed to the following noise levels during the course of a 40 hour
week.

85 dB(A) for 4 hours

86 dB(A) for 20 hours

88 dB(A) for 10 hours

94 dB(A) for 6 hours

Calculate the equivalent noise level (Leq) to which the workman has been exposed.

Given C1, C2, C3 and C4 equal 4, 20, 10 and 6 respectively, and using the table or
nomogram (Figure OH - 3.23).

T1 = 40

T2 = 40

T3 = 40

T4 = 40

Then the exposure factor, D, is found from the formula

C1 C2 C3 C4
D = + + +
T1 T2 T3 T4

4 20 10 6
D = + + +
40 30 20 5

= 0,1 + 0,67 + 0,5 + 1,2

D = 2,47

From figure OH - 3.23, when D = 2,47

Leq = 88,8 dB(A)

If the maximum permissible equivalent noise level is 85 dB(A) for a 40 hour week
then the workman is exposed to risk.

It is interesting and important to note that if any single term in the exposure factor
formula, i.e.

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C1 C
or 2 etc.
T1 T2

is greater than unity (1) then the actual equivalent noise level must be greater than
the permissible level.

Similarly, it will be apparent from the figure that if the exposure factor, D, is less than
unity (1), then the person is not exposed to risk.

Figure OH - 3.23: Equivalent Noise Level

14.9 Noise Level Prediction

Certain techniques exist whereby noise levels produced by machinery may be

predicted.

Some of these, i.e. fans, rockdrills and diesel driven machinery, are discussed in the
chapter on Noise Control, pages 940 to 943, “Environmental Engineering in South
African Mines”.

It is important that you study this section, as well as the equations given, ensuring
that you will be able to answer questions based on these equations and the notes.

15. VIBRATION

Vibrations are mechanical oscillations, produced by either regular or irregular periodic

movements of a body around its resting position. They are called mechanical oscillations
because it is small changes in position that are important.

15.1 Physics of vibration

The following physics apply:

 Point of application to the body - ergonomically the two points at which

vibrations enter the body are the feet / buttocks, as when driving or riding in a
vehicle and the hands, when operating vibrating machines or tools. Most often
the direction of vibration is either vertically or along the plane of the hand and
arm.

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 The frequency of the oscillations. The extent of physiological effect depends

on frequency. Or specific importance is those frequencies, which are inside the
range of the natural frequencies of the body or organs, thus causing resonance.
The threshold lies between 30 and 50 Hz.

 The acceleration of oscillations. This being the measure of the vibrational load
within the frequency range of significance (e.g. at natural body frequency, etc.).

 The duration of the effect, the severity of which increases rapidly with time.

 The individual or natural frequency or resonance. Every mechanical system

possesses elementary properties of mass and elasticity and is capable of being
set in oscillatory motion (caused to vibrate). The force, which sets the structure
in motion, is known as the inducting force and the resultant oscillations are
known as forced vibrations. When the structure achieves its natural frequency it
is said to be in harmonious oscillation. Each system has its own natural
frequency and, as the frequency of the inducing force gets closer to this, the
greater will be the amplitude of the forced vibrations. For example, a pendulum
of 1 meter long has a natural frequency of 0,5 Hz. Thus, if the pendulum is set in
motion and struck lightly at the end of its swing every two seconds, the
movement will increase gradually until the amplitude of the oscillation is very
large.

To counteract oscillations, a process called damping is applied. This is when an

isolating material or system is installed between the inducing agent and the
mechanical structure.

Frequencies above 30 Hz are particularly heavily dampened by the tissues of the

human body. For an inducing agent and the mechanical structure.

Frequencies above 30 Hz are particularly heavily dampened by the tissues of the

human body. For an inducing frequency of 35 Hz the amplitude of oscillation is
reduced to ½ in the hands, 1/3 in the elbows and 1/10 in the shoulders.

A particularly dangerous type of vibration is the sudden, violent oscillating motion

known as flutter. This is most frequently encountered in the control surfaces of
aircraft and on other surfaces where wind movement plays a role. One of the most
famous examples of destructive flutter was the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
bridge in Tacoma, Washington, USA in 1940 as result of a gale blowing at a speed,
which set up a destructive oscillation in the bridge structure.

15.2 Oscillatory characteristics - human body

The human body does not vibrate as a simple mass and studies have shown that
different parts have different natural frequencies. The body of a sitting person reacts
to vertical vibrations as follows:

3-4 Hz: strong resonance in cervical vertebrae

4 Hz: peak of resonance on lumbar vertebrae

5 Hz: very strong resonance in shoulder girdle
20-30 Hz: resonance between head and shoulders
60-90 Hz: resonance in the eyeballs
100-200 Hz: resonance in lower jaw

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In general, the most effective inducing frequency is in the 4 to 8 Hz range. More

specifically:

 Vibrations between 2,5 and 5 Hz generate strong resonance in the vertebrae of

the neck and lumbar region, up to 240% increase in intervertebral pressures,

 From 4 to 6 Hz strong resonance is set up in the trunk, shoulders and neck (up
to 200%), and

 20 to 30 Hz sets up the strongest resonance between the head and shoulders

(up to 300%)

The smaller parts of the body usually resonate at higher frequencies but data on the
frequency ranges are not readily available.

The figure below serves to illustrate some frequencies at which the human body
oscillates.

Figure OH - 3.24: Mechanical vibration of the human body

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15.3 Physiological effects

A number of physiological effects to exposure to vibration are known. Examples are:

 Vibration seriously affects visual perception and psychomotor performance.

Visual acuity is adversely affected, as the image in the visual field becomes
blurred and unsteady. These are worst in the range 10 to 30 Hz.
 The skeletal, circulatory, muscle and respiratory systems are affected to a lesser
extent. Strong vibration affects the psychomotor skills, especially in carrying out
delicate and skilled tasks.
 Mental performance is adversely affected by vibration.
 Breathing is affected in the range 1 to 4Hz.
 Pains in the chest, abdomen, rattling of the jaw, muscular reactions and severe
discomfort occur from 4 to 10 Hz.
 Backache from 4 to 10 Hz.
 Muscular tension, headaches, eyestrain, throat pain, disturbance of speech,
intestinal irritation and bladder all occur between 10 and 20 Hz.

15.4 Illnesses

A specific illness which is potentially damaging in industrial applications where hand

tools are used in “white finger disease” medically known as Raynaud’s Syndrome or
vibration syndrome which results from insufficient blood supply to the fingers. These
turn white, go numb and sensation and control over the fingers are lost. The
condition is due to a closure of the digit’s arteries due to vibration induced vascular
spasms. Exposure to cold enhances the onset of this disease.

Arthritis is another disease resulting from degenerative destruction of bones, joints

and tendons, usually associated with the use of hand tools operating below 40 Hz.
A classical example quoted is the operation of pneumatic or jackhammers.

Atrophy (drying out) of the bones, leading to de-calcification and, in severe cases,
fracture of the affected bones. Again, pneumatic hammers are quoted.

In some countries, limits have been placed on vibration and specifically in the
following ranges:

 Below 2 Hz: at accelerations of 3 to 4 g (g = gravitational acceleration, 9,8 m/s2)

 From 2 to 14 Hz: accelerations of 1,2 to 3,2 g, and
 Above 14 Hz: at accelerations from 5 to 9 g.

ISO guidelines have been compiled on the Standard (ISO 2631) distinguishes
between three criteria, envisaging three levels of limiting values:

 The criterion for comfort (applicable generally to the automotive industry)

 The criterion of the maintenance of efficiency (fatigue-decreased proficiency
boundary). See figure OH - 3.25 below for threshold limit values applicable to
heavy vehicle operators, and
 The criterion of safety where protection against damage to health is the
determining factor.

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Figure OH - 3.25: Nomogram for determination of exposure to vibration before

efficiency is affected - ISO 2631 & ACGIH TLV’s

The criterion for comfort is determined by dividing the acceleration by 3,15.

The criterion for safety is determined by multiplying the acceleration by 2.

In addition to these notes, you should also read the article “Ergonomics: A-nice-to-
have for the South African mining industry or a potential time-bomb”, by AJ
Kielblock, pages 119 and 120, Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society,
July/September 1999.

15.5 Engineering controls and solutions

From an ergonomic perspective, heavy vehicle operators and pneumatic drill

operators are the most at risk. To protect them against the potential of damage the
following considerations apply:

 Driving seats should be dampened through the vertical plane so that vertical
oscillations are reduced to within safety limits.

 Damping elements should be built into hand power tools and especially into the
hand grip to reduce vibration. It may also be advisable to, under certain
circumstances, provide workers with damping gloves and also to ensure that
operating these tools with bare hands under extremely cold conditions is
avoided.

Where the above measures are not sufficient, administrative exposure duration
control must be resorted to.

15.6 Measuring vibration

Vibration is usually measured using a sound level meter with an acceleration meter
or integrator. The transducer most frequently used is a piezo-electric acceleration
meter, which produces a small alternating electric current, which is proportional to
the acceleration it measures.

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The frequency of the alternating current is proportional to the frequency of the

source being measured. As vibrations are across a wide spectrum, electric filters
are used to produce frequency analysis.

Calibration is carried out using a small vibrating table, which has a controlled peak
acceleration of 1 g. the output is converted to decibels and is read off the sound
level meter.

The accelerometer can be held against the vibrating surface for an instantaneous
measurement or may be glued, waxed, bolted or magnetically attached to the
surface being measured.

As this equipment is usually very expensive, and the measurement and

interpretation of vibration levels is highly skilled, it is standard practice to rather
employ specialist consultants to do this work.

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SELF TEST OH - 3.4

Without referring to the notes:

1. Discuss the following characteristics of sound:

1.1 Sound generation

1.2 Wavelength

1.3 Cycle

1.4 Frequency

1.5 Speed

1.6 Intensity

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1.7 Sound pressure

1.8 Sound power

1.9 Equivalent noise level

2. Define decibel and explain why decibel units are used to express sound levels.

3. Describe the basic principles and the methods of reducing the level or the effects of noise.

4. Answer the following questions using the graphs, tables, figures and formulae referred to in
the notes. Do not look at the worked examples again as you will only fool yourself.

4.1 Three main fans are installed on surface, each producing 60 dB of sound. What will
the combined sound pressure level be with all three fans operating simultaneously?

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4.2 Two rockdrills operating simultaneously produce 114 dB(A). What will the sound
pressure level be if one machine is stopped?

4.3 If a fan was operating close by, and it produced a sound pressure of 105 dB(A) in
the form of background pressure, and the overall pressure was still 114 dB(A), what
is the sound pressure produced by the two rockdrills?

4.4 A fan undergoing test in a large, flat, obstacle free area, produces a sound pressure
of 0,7 Pa, with the measurements taken on the surface of an imaginary hemisphere
with a radius of 5 m. Determine the sound pressure and sound power levels of the
fan.

4.5 The fan in (3) is moved and installed at the bottom of the high building. The acoustic
power of the fan is unchanged. The wall of the building and the ground constrain the
propagation of the sound waves to a quarter sphere. Calculate the sound pressure
level 6 a and 9 a from the fan assuming that there are no other obstruction and that
the wall and ground do not absorb any sound energy.

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4.6 If a second identical fan is installed next to the original fan in (3), calculate the
sound pressure level at 5m and the sound-power level of both fans.

4.7 If the second fan installed produces a sound pressure level of 88,1 dB(A) at 5 m
when operating by itself, calculate the sound pressure level of both fans operating
together.

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4.8 Define the term “equivalent noise level, Leq” and state two methods by which it may
be obtained.

4.9 Determine by graphs and tables the exposure factor (D) and equivalent noise level
(Leq) of a workman who is exposed to the following noise levels during a week.

85 dB(A) for 22 hours

91 dB(A) for 11 hours

95 dB(A) for 7 hours

Comment on whether this person is exposed to risk or not.

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5. Given that:

a. SWL = 97 + 10 log kW + 10 log P dB

b. SWL = 100 + 10 log Q + 20 log P dB

c. SWL = 95 + 20 log kW - 10 log Q dB

Where: SWL is the overall sound power level in the octave frequency bands 31,5 to
8 000 Hz,
kW is the rated motor power
P is the fan static pressure (kPa)
Q is the fan delivery quantity (m3/s)

d. SWL = 140 + 10 log Q dB

Where Q is the free air consumption (m3/s)

e. SWL = 110 + 10 log kW dB

Where kW is the rated power of the diesel

f. SWL = 100 + 8 log kW dB

Where kW is the rated power of the diesel;

Determine the anticipated noise levels for the following:

i) A fan with a rated motor power of 15 kW and a static pressure of 2 110 Pa.

ii) A fan designed to deliver 6 m3/s at a static pressure of 1 420 Pa.

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iii) A fan designed to deliver 15 m3/s with a rated motor power consumption of 41 kW.

iv) An unmuffled rockdrill consuming 0,9 m3/s of free air

v) The engine noise anticipated from a diesel engine rated at 250 kW

vi) The exhaust noise from the engine discussed in (v) above.

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6. Define vibration

7. Discuss the physics of vibration under the following headings:

7.1 Point of application to the body

7.2 Frequency

7.3 Acceleration of oscillations

7.4 Duration of effect

7.5 Natural frequency / resonance

7.6 Damping

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7.7 Flutter

8. Briefly discuss the physiological effects of vibration on the human and physique under the
headings:

8.1 Visual perception

8.2 Psychomotor performance

8.3 Effects on the:

 Skeletal system

 Circulatory system

 Muscular system

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 Digestive system

 Respiratory system

 Mental performance

9. Briefly discuss vibration induced illnesses under the following headings:

9.1 Raynaud’s Syndrome

9.2 Bone atrophication

9.3 Arthritis

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9.4 Tendonitis

10. Briefly discuss the following as applied in designing for vibration exposure:

10.1 Criterion for comfort

10.2 Criterion for the maintenance of efficiency

10.3 Criterion for safety

11. Briefly describe how vibration levels are measured

12. Discuss the safety controls that may be used to reduce the effect of vibration

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16. INDOOR CLIMATE

In this section, the focus will primarily be on the ergonomics of indoor climates as
encountered in office complexes, workshops, etc.

16.1 Comfort

The maintenance of comfortable indoor working conditions is important for morale,

productivity and a general sense of well-being. When working conditions are too
hot, this leads to drowsiness, lethargy, an increased propensity for error and even
fatigue in extreme cases.

Overcooling leads to restlessness and reduced alertness and concentration,

especially in mental tasks.

There are four climatic factors giving rise to impression of comfort. These are:

 Air temperature

 Temperatures of adjacent surfaces

 Air humidity

 Air movements

In regulating the environment, the objective is to attain a state of thermoregulatory

balance. This condition is called the zone of vasomotor regulation, or the comfort
zone. For a clothed and resting person, this zone lies between 20 and 23oC and a
relative humidity ranging from 30 to 70%. Figure OH -3 below shows the
temperature zone in relation to exposure to extreme heat or cold conditions.

The velocity range within which comfort is experienced is <0,2 m/s for seated and
<0,5 m/s for standing / moving persons.

Effective temperature indices are based on experimentation involving a change in

both temperatures and relative humidities where the subjects expressed
observations based on a constant temperature sensation. When velocity and
clothing is factored into these indices, the equations become very complex and
difficult and need not be generally considered provided the guidelines quoted above
are sensibly applied.

The effects of temperature of adjacent surfaces are determined with the following
formula:

Ta  Ts
Effective temperature =
2

Where:

Ta is the mean air temperature (dry-bulb) and;

Ts is the mean temperature of the adjacent surfaces.

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Figure OH - 3: Heat Balance of the body between exposures to extremes of

heat and cold

The following combinations of relative humidity and air temperatures will provide
an equal effective temperature:

 70% RH and 20oC

 50% RH and 20,5oC
 30% RH and 21oC

It can be deduced that for relative humidity changes from 30 to 70%, the effective
temperatures is little affected.

The threshold limits for effective temperature and humidity lie between 80% RH and
18oC and 60% RH and 24oC respectively.

Regarding air movement, the following rules apply:

 Velocities over 5 m/s are uncomfortable, even at high temperatures

 Air currents from behind are more unpleasant than from in front

 The neck and feet are particularly sensitive to drafts

 A cool draft is more unpleasant than a warm current

For a constant effective temperature (at 100% RH), the following values apply:

 0 m/s velocity at 20oC

 0,5 m/s at 21 oC
 1,0 m/s at 22 oC
 1,5 m/s at 22,8 oC
 2,0 m/s at 23,5 oC

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Dryness of the air is another factor that needs to be considered. It is believed that
very dry air (as is found in heated, non-humidified buildings in winter) leads to a series
of catarhal ailments and chronic irritation of nasal and bronchial passages. These
symptoms, in turn lead to higher susceptibility to infections of the respiratory system.

In order to be effective, humidifiers should provide a moisture output of 1 l/h for

every 100 m3 of volume.

16.2 Recommendations for comfort

In light of the foregoing, the following guiding principles should be applied when
designing for comfort:

 Air temperature should range form 20 to 21oC in winter to 20 to 24oC in summer.

 Surface temperatures of adjacent objects should not be more than 2 to 3oC different.
 The relative humidity should not fall below 30% in winter whilst 40 to 60% is
considered suitable for summer
 Drafts at head and knees should not exceed 0,2 m/s.

16.3 Cold stress and wind chill factor

This is an area, which has not enjoyed a lot of attention in South Africa, which,
generally is a temperate country.

As there are, however, instances where severe cold does from time to time exist
(e.g. in opencast mines, workshops, in shafts and in shallow underground mines in
winter) it would be useful to also consider the ranges applicable to this aspect.

Expressed as a threshold limit value, the current limitations are presently before the
(MH&SA) Occupational Hygiene Regulations Working Group for consideration and
these have been recommended to MOHAC (Mining Occupational Health Advisory
Committee):

Wind Chill Equivalent Maximum Daily Exposure

Temperature
0 to - 18oC No limit
o o
-18 C to - 34 C Alternate 1 hour in and 1 hour out of low temperature
area
-34 oC to -57 oC Two periods of 30 minutes each, at least 4 hours apart
o
<-57 C 5 minutes maximum in any 8 hour working period

To calculate the wind chill equivalent temperature, the following formula is used:

(10,45  10 V  V)(33  T)
T = 33 -
22,4

Where:

V = wind speed in m/s and

T = air temperature, oC

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The table below is included for easy reference.

Air Wind Speed

Temp m/s 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
o
( C) km/h 7 14 22 29 36 43 50 58 65 72
12 11 8 5 4 2 1 1 0 0 -1
11 10 7 4 2 1 0 -1 -1 -2 -2
10 9 5 3 1 0 -2 -2 -3 -3 -4
9 8 4 1 0 -2 3 -4 -5 -5 -5
8 7 3 0 -2 3 5 -5 -6 -7 -7
7 6 2 -1 -3 5 6 -7 -8 -8 -8
6 5 1 -2 -5 6 8 -8 -9 -10 -10
5 4 -1 -4 -6 8 9 -10 -11 -11 -12
4 3 -2 -5 -7 9 11 -12 -12 -13 -13
3 2 -3 -6 -9 11 12 -13 -14 -14 -15
2 1 -4 -8 -10 12 14 -15 -15 -16 -16
1 0 -5 -9 -12 14 15 -16 -17 -18 -18
0 -1 -7 -10 -13 15 17 -18 -19 -19 -20
-1 -2 -8 -12 -14 16 18 -19 -20 -21 -21
-2 -3 -9 -13 -16 18 20 -21 -22 -22 -23
-3 -4 -10 -14 -17 19 21 -22 -23 -24 -24
-4 -5 -11 -16 -19 21 23 -24 -25 -26 -26
-5 -6 -13 -17 -20 22 24 -25 -26 -27 -28
-6 -7 -14 -18 -21 24 26 -27 -28 -29 -29
-7 -8 -15 -20 -23 25 27 -28 -30 -30 -31
-8 -9 -16 -21 -24 27 29 -30 -31 -32 -32
-9 -10 -17 -22 -26 28 30 -32 -33 -33 -34
-10 -11 -19 -23 -27 30 32 -33 -34 -35 -36
-11 -12 -20 -25 -28 31 33 -35 -36 -37 -37
-12 -13 -21 -26 -30 32 35 -36 -37 -38 -39

16.4 Air pollution and ventilation

When a room has people in it, it undergoes deterioration due to:

 Release of odours
 Formation of water vapour
 Heat release
 Production of carbon dioxide
 Air pollution, either imported from outside or released by activities or products on
the inside.

To determine the ventilation volume per person for general ventilation purposes,
the following table provides guidance.

Fresh air per person, m3/h

Volume per person m3
Minimum Desirable
5 35 50
10 20 40
15 0 30

As a rule of thumb, the quantity of fresh air needed in a room with people in it is 30
m3 of fresh air per person per hour.

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Self Test OH - 3.5

Without references:

1. Briefly discuss the following factors when considering comfort levels in indoor working
places

1.1 Air temperature

1.2 Temperature of adjacent surfaces

1.3 Air humidity

1.4 Air movement

2. Briefly enumerate the ventilation volume and fresh air intake requirement when designing
for indoor climate control.

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TOXICOLOGY

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:

 Define toxicology, toxin or poison, dose, personal dose, dose response relationship, lethal
dose, lethal concentration, benign, malignant, epidemiology.

 Discuss the factors to be considered when determining whether a chemical is considered to

have produced a toxic effect.

 Define localised, systematic, primary, secondary, chronic and acute toxic effects.

 Discuss the following effects: noxious, neurotoxic, tumerous, mutagenic, carcinogenic and
taratogenic.

 Describe the three potential routes of entry of hazardous substances into the human body.

 Discuss the factors that affect the ingress of hazardous substances via inhalation.

 Discuss simple and chemical asphyxiation.

 Discuss the factors affecting the ingress of hazardous substances via ingestion.

 Discuss the factors affecting absorption rates via the skin.

 Discuss the principle of dose-response relationships.

 Define Haber’s Law

 Discuss two common types of biological analysis used to determine exposure levels to toxic
substances and the factors that need to be taken into account when utilising either of these
methods.

 Discuss the influence of factors and stresses (human, occupational and environmental) on the
exposure to an agent.

 Radiation

 Define ionising radiation.

 Briefly discuss the health effects of over exposure to harmful ionising radiation, including the
effects of ultraviolet radiation in welding and excessive exposure to sunlight.

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations

 Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa

- Vol. 48, January 1995, pp 22 - 24, Notes on the Regulation of Radiation Hazards in the
Mining Industry, HJM Rose

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- Vol. 48, June 1995, pp 162-171, Decontamination of Metallurgical Plants on Free State
Consolidated Gold Mines (Freegold), J Soden.

- Vol. 48, September 1995, pp 226 - 232, Radiation Protection and Radioactive Waste
Management in the Mining and Minerals Processing Industries, RH Clarke.

- Vol. 51, October-December 1998, pp 140-141, Occupational medicine effects of carbon

monoxide, WM Coombs.

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No. 0-87912-171-8 (hc),
pp 123-138; 142-149, 247-270,464-465.

 Occupational Hygiene, JJ Schoeman & HHE Schroder (Juta Co) ISBN No. 07021 28775,
Chapter 3, Hazardous Chemical Substances

 Managing the Health of People at Work, AM Coetzee (Lex Patria), Chapter 4, Chemical
Hazards ISBN No. 0628 03568 3

 Mine Ventilation Practitioner’s Data Book, Second Edition, Volume 1, subsection IL-IL, pages 1
to 14.

 Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, Chapter 27, Radiation in Mines.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Toxicology is defined as the science that studies the poisonous (toxic) properties of
substances. A toxic effect is a reversible or irreversible noxious, tumerous, mutagenic,
carcinogenic or teratogenic effect on the body (these terms will be discussed in more
detail later). These are caused by over-exposure to substances to which the individual
(singly or collectively) is sensitive in terms of a negative effect.

Toxicity is the capacity of a chemical to harm or injure a living organism by other than
mechanical means.

Many chemicals, which are essential in small quantities, may be detrimental and even fatal
in large doses. Examples include zinc, copper, manganese, chromium, potassium, etc.

The function of the industrial toxicologist is to define what exposures would be considered
excessive and to prescribe precautionary and protective measures to prevent overexposure.

Toxic effects

A chemical can be considered to have produced a toxic effect if it results in the following:

 An observable or measurable physiological deviation has been produced in an organ or

system;
 A change in normal physiological processes has been incurred which results in
impaired ability of the protective mechanism against other adverse stimuli;
 The observed change can be duplicated from subject to subject (animal or human);
 The effect is reversed or attenuated when the stimulus is removed;
 The effect does not occur without a stimulus;
 The result of exposure must be reproducible by other investigators;
 The change in physiology results in reduced efficiency of an organ or system and
permanently or temporarily impairs the physiological reserve so as to interfere with the
ability to resist or adapt to other normal stimuli.

The effects of more than 137 000 chemical compounds are known, but it seen in light of the
fact that more than 650 000 chemical compounds are known to man, this shows how many
substances there are of which the effects are not known.

In addition, the effects of exposure vary depending on the state of the substance, i.e.
whether it is in a solid, liquid or gaseous state and the manner in which exposure occurs. In
addition, the effects may be localised or systematic.

2. ROUTES OF ENTRY

As mentioned in the introductory module (Module 1), there are three routes of entry into the
body, these being inhalation, ingestion and skin absorption.

2.1 Inhalation

The route of entry via inhalation has been covered in Module 2 (respiratory system)
and those aspects will not be repeated here. The factors that affect the quantity of
substance entering via this route depend on:

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 Concentration of the air;

 Duration of the exposure;
 Pulmonary ventilation volume (affected by work loads), and
 Constituent form, i.e. the state in which the substance is, e.g. dust, gaseous,
vapour, etc.

During inhalation at constant concentration, volume rate and constituent form, the
body usually reaches a state of equilibrium balance by metabolic rate and elimination.

2.2 Ingestion

This route is mostly the result of accidentally swallowing a hazardous substance.

Typically this would occur when eating, drinking or smoking in contaminated areas.
In some instances the substance is inhaled but trapped in the respiratory passages.
The phlegm/mucus is then inadvertently swallowed, thus transporting the substance
to the intestines from where it is absorbed.

The main defence against ingestion is in the liver. The substance is usually
absorbed in its original state or, alternatively, reduced by enzymic action, into the
blood stream. It is then carried to the liver where a detoxification process occurs,
usually by an action whereby the liver changes the substance into a water soluble
form. This is then excreted via the kidneys and urinary tract.

2.3 Skin absorption (cutaneous absorption)

Contact of a substance with the skin can result in four possible actions:

 The skin acts as a barrier,

 Local irritation or tissue destruction at the point of contact;
 Sensitisation of the skin, and
 Penetration through the skin and entry into the cardiovascular system.

Although this is not a normal route of entry, some substances have the ability to
penetrate the skin and this may then prove to be the main route of absorption. One
example is parathion (an insecticide). In other cases, the rate of uptake can be
equivalent to that via inhalation, e.g. aniline, nitrobenzene and phenol.

Absorption rates are affected by:

 Temperature;
 Perspiration;
 Concentration;
 Skin surface area exposed;
 Anatomical region;
 Damage to the skin, e.g. abrasions and lesions, and
 Barriers, i.e. the presence of a screening substance such as barrier creams, etc.

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3. DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS

3.1 Dose-response

This is the fundamental concept on which all toxicological studies are based. Test
animals are subjected to variable dose exposures and observations made. The
minimum level at which all animals die is noted, as is the maximum dose at which all
survive. This data is then used to derive a mortality based dose-response curve (see
figure OH - 4.1). Doses administered are measured in terms of mass administered
per unit body weight, quantity per skin surface area or quantity per unit volume of
respired air. The duration of time over which the dose was administered is also noted.

The dose-response relationship may also be expressed in different terms, such as

the product of a concentration (C) multiplied by the time duration of exposure (T).
This result is equivalent to a constant (K). Expressed mathematically, C x T = K.
The dose involves two variables, concentration and duration of exposure. Some
chemicals have the same volumetric effect (i.e. low concentration over long duration
vs. high concentration, short duration exposure = same effect). This concept is then
used to derive time durations for variable concentrations. It is, however, considered
to be dangerous to apply this type of reasoning in determining acceptable exposure
concentrations in certain cases, such as when the concentration levels are very high
or exposure durations very long.

Figure OH - 4.1 - Dose response curve based on lethality

3.2 Threshold

The threshold is based on those exposure levels at which no observable or

measurable changes occur. This implies that damage at cellular level can still be
incurred but not observed.

It is important to note that most animal studies are based on ingestion or intubation
(delivery to the stomach by tube) of the substance under study. In addition, the way
in which the dose is administered in relation to time is also important. A single, large
dose may well have a different result than if the same volume was administered
over a long time in small doses. In the second instance, the detoxification rate may
be greater than the rate of administering the dose, leading to no observable change
or a much reduced effect.

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On the other hand, if the rate of detoxification is slower than the rate of
administration, a cumulative effect will result. Figure OH - 4.2 below demonstrates
this effect.

Figure OH - 4.2: Cumulative effect showing relationship between dose,

detoxification and time

Because some substances only have an effect very long after exposure (even
years) their thresholds are considered to be zero. One such example is asbestos, a
known carcinogen.

3.3 Lethal dose

As discussed in the introductory module, tests are conducted in such a way that the
degree of lethality can be expressed. This is called lethal dose, LD. In the event that
a dosage administered to an experimental group of animals results in, say, a 50%
mortality rate, this is rated as a 50% lethal dose, LD50. This mechanism is then used
to derive other lethal rates, e.g. LD20, LD80, etc. LD100 is the lowest dose at which all
of the animals in the experimental group died. You are again referred to figure OH -
4.1 above.

3.4 Lethal concentration

As the dose-response to determine lethal dose is derived from directly administered

doses, it is not a particularly accurate tool where exposure occurs via the respiratory
tract. For this reason, another index, called lethal concentration (LC) is used for
airborne materials. See figure OH - 4.3 below where the response to two different
type of chemicals is shown. The sleeper and higher the curve, the more toxic the
substance.

Exposure duration is very important in the derivation of these response relationships

as is the type of animal studied and the duration of observation after exposure has
occurred.

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Figure OH - 4.3: Comparative lethal concentrations

3.5 Responses

A number of criteria can be applied after exposure to determine response. These

include:

 Pathological examination of affected organs;

 Growth rate effects can be studied;

 Ratio of organ weight to body mass change, and

 Physiological function tests (e.g. spirometry);

4. ACTIONS OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES

The effects of toxic exposure can be broadly subdivided into two effects, namely:

4.1 Acute effects

These are related to short term, single high dose exposure with immediate or short
term results, usually involving illness, irritation and even death. The critical period
within which remedial measures can be applied is therefore also short.

4.2 Chronic effects

Chronic effects and illnesses are associated with long duration exposures, usually
at low toxicity levels with symptoms developing over a lengthy period of time. The
symptoms may (and often do) differ from those observed with acute exposures.

Chronic poisoning refers to the continued presence of a substance in organs or

tissues. The results can also be tied with a single event exposure, which leads to
ongoing damage or degeneration.

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The victim can also become sensitised to a particular agent with time, following
chronic exposure. Examples include platinosis (a condition where the person suffers
from pulmonary symptoms associated with exposure to platinum salts) and nickel
poisoning. In the latter case, the prevalence is higher amongst females as the
illness develops as a consequence of long duration exposure to nickel plating used
on, especially, cheaper jewellery products. In these instances, when exposure is
stopped, the symptoms disappear only to re-appear when exposure is resumed.

4.3 Exposures

From the above, it can be seen that exposures can also be expressed in terms of
acute or chronic situations.

The effects may, however, not always be related to the type of exposure. In some
instances, the impact of chronic exposure can be significantly more severe and less
reversible that a once of, high dose exposure. Typical examples involve dusts, such
as quartzitic respirable particulates.

5. EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE

The effects of exposure to toxic substances are categorised into several different types,
depending on how the effect manifests itself. Generally, air contaminants are classified into
irritants, asphyxiants, central nervous system depressants and others. Again, physiological
response can be dictated by how exposure is caused. In one instance, an acute exposure
can lead to loss of consciousness whilst the same compound, in lower, acute doses, can
result in organ damage without suppressing nervous system functionality.

5.1 Irritation

This is an inflammation or aggravation of the tissue in contact with the substance.

The range of substances causing this type of effect is large.

Physical attributes that affect how the substance is absorbed also can have an
effect on how the response is induced. For example, a low viscosity substance,
such as kerosene would have a much more severe influence than a similar product
with a high viscosity, such as mineral oil.

The solubility also affects the outcome, e.g. ammonia, which is highly soluble in
water reacts quickly with mucous membranes leading to immediate discomfort. On
the other hand, nitrous fumes will require a significant period of time to reduce in the
presence of moisture before it will react with the tissue, hence the 24 hour
observation time after blasting fume exposure.

The effect of an irritant may be overshadowed by a more significant primary effect.

In this case the irritant action is referred to as a secondary irritant.

In most instances, removal from the exposure condition will result in the termination
of the irritant effect. On the other hand, other reversible or irreversible damage may
occur due to a secondary effect, e.g. liver damage in the case of exposure to carbon
tetrachloride.

In the event that very high doses are incurred, irritants may also cause permanent
tissue damage or destruction due to the severity of the effect whilst the person was
exposed.

The table below shows the comparison between several types of irritants.

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5.2 Asphyxiation

There are two ways in which asphyxiation can be incurred, i.e. “simple” asphyxiation
or “chemical” asphyxiation. In all cases of asphyxia, if the levels of the interfering
substance are high enough, the effect an be virtually instantaneous, ranging from
seconds to, at most, a few minutes.

In the case of simple asphyxia, oxygen is displaced from the air or the air itself is
displaced by a gas. Examples include the absorption of oxygen from stagnant air by
oxidation processes, with the remaining air being incapable of sustaining life. This
condition is, from time to time, encountered underground and has resulted in
several deaths.

The alternative process has, as examples, the presence of high levels of, e.g.
methane, which simply displaces the air, leaving an irrespirable atmosphere
incapable of sustaining life (oxidising processes).

In the second instance, chemical asphyxiation is brought about by the ability of

the substance to interfere with the uptake of oxygen into the bloodstream. Carbon
monoxide, which has a greater affinity for hemoglobin simply binds with the
substance before oxygen can do so. This rate of combination is about 300 times
higher than with oxygen. This results in smokers having the same blood level
content of carbon monoxide (carboxyhemoglobin) as if they were exposed to a
concentration of 50 ppm in the general atmosphere.

Another example is hydrogen cyanide which inhibits enzyme systems which are
necessary for cellular oxygen use (i.e. it interferes with intake of oxygen by
individual cells) and it only does this while it is present. Hydrogen sulphide, on the
other hand, paralyses the respiratory centre of the brain.

5.3 Central nervous system depressants (CNSD’s)

These are substances which suppress the activities of the central nervous system,
usually through a process of simple anaesthesia. Systemic effects are rare unless
the dose is massive. The depth of anaesthesia can range from mild symptoms to
death.

Examples of CNSD’s are aliphatic alcohols (ethyl), aliphatic ketones (acetone),

aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers (ethyl) and short-chain halogenated hydrocarbons.
Virtually all organic solvents have CNSD characteristics.

5.4 Cardiac sensitisation

The heart is made abnormally sensitive to the effects of epinephrine (adrenalin) if

certain volatile hydrocarbons are breather in sufficient doses. Examples of such
substances are chloroform, cyclopropane and CFC’s at very high levels.

6. BIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

Several methods of biological analysis exist whereby exposures to hazardous substances

can be determined and the level of exposure assessed. Analyses are usually performed to
test for either:

 Unchanged substances (e.g. heavy metals such as lead, mercury, vanadium) in body
fluids or tissues, or

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 Metabolites of the substance, e.g. phenol in the urine resulting from an exposure to
benzene.

Several sampling techniques / tests exist. The primary methods are discussed below.

6.1 Urine tests

Urine analyses have found wide application in industrial toxicology as a means of

assessing exposures.

Usually a record of exposure is built up over time for every individual assessed and
the metabolites present in the urine is plotted. Changes in metabolite levels are then
used to interpret exposure levels.

6.2 Blood analysis

This method is widely used in evaluating exposures to metals, e.g. lead and its
compounds. It is generally accepted that blood sampling and analysis is one of the
most reliable methods of assessing the probability of damage as a consequence of
exposure.

In the case of lead sampling where both airborne lead levels and blood sampling
programmes have been implemented, anomalies are sometimes encountered, e.g.
where an individual exhibits high blood levels although the air sampling indicates
low levels. In this instance, the hygienist should remember that other routes of entry,
notably ingestion in this case, could play a significant part and further investigation
into potential intake routes is indicated. Often underlying factors such as eating and
drinking is contaminated areas, poor personal hygiene or smoking inside lead
contaminated areas could be contributory factors.

6.3 Breath analysis

Gases and vapours that are not fat-soluble and are not metabolised are cleared
from the body mainly through the respiratory system (e.g. aromatic hydrocarbons,
organic solvents, etc.).

In this case the breath is usually sampled (multiple samples) over a period of
several hours and the contents analysed by gas chromatography or other suitable
means and the progressive decrease (as the body excretes the substance) plotted.

Based on this information, the hygienist can then draw conclusions as to the
magnitude of the original exposure by comparing the individual’s plotted curve with
known standard curves.

Because of individual variances, this method is not particularly accurate but is useful
for initial comparative purposes if other means are not available.

7. RADIATION

7.1 Ionising Radiation

Radiation is energy in the form of waves or particulates.

Radioactivity, in turn, is the emission of very fast atomic particles or rays by atomic
nuclei.

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The emissions are categorised according to type, the categories being:

 Alpha () particles,

 Beta () particles

 Gamma () waves, and

 Neutrons (n) particles.

The relationship between different categories of ionising radiation is identified by

their position on the electromagnetic spectrum. The figure below (refer to
Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, p 251) demonstrates this categorisation.

WAVELENGTH ANGSTROMS 1A = 10-10 METERS

1017 1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6

60 Hz 106 Hz 1013 Hz 1018 Hz 1023 Hz

INFRA- GAMMA COSMIC

ELECTRIC RED
POWER
RADIO, TELEVISION, RADAR
ULTRA
VIOLET

VISIBLE

INDUCTION HEATING
X RAYS

10-13 10-12 10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
ENERGY ELECTRON VOLTS

Figure OH - 4.4: Electromagnetic spectrum showing categorisation of ionising

radiation.

You are referred to Chapter 27, Radiation in Mines, Environmental Engineering in

South African Mines and to Chapter 10 in Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene for
more information on this subject.

7.2 Health Effects

The human body can withstand some degree of exposure to ionising radiation
without detectable changes occurring.

When radiation passes through a body or material, it transfers energy by the

ionisation process. The intensity of this process (radiation) is known as the radiation
field and the term “dose” is used to express a measure of radiation that a body or
material absorbs when exposed to a radiation field.

The effect of ionising radiation on living tissue is generally assumed to be almost

entirely due to the ionisation process which destroys the capacity of reproduction or
division in some cells and causes mutation and uncontrolled reproduction in others.

The effects of such injury or harm are expressed in terms of:

 “Somatic” effect, which is the injury to individuals, and

 “Genetic” effects, which are the injurious effects passed on from one generation
to the next.

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Factors that effect the rate or degree of injury are:

 total dose received

 rate at which the dose was received, the kind (type) of radiation received and

 the body part receiving the radiation

As an example of the latter, some areas of the skin are susceptible to the radiation
received from space (as emitted by the sun) in the form of ultraviolet radiation.
Excessive and continued over-exposure in this manner can eventually lead to the
formation of cancerous cells in the dermis with cancerous tumours being formed as
a consequence. Some forms of skin cancer are relatively controllable or treatable
whilst others are highly malignant and can cause premature death.

“Man made” radiation also plays a significant role in general terms as regards
worker exposure. This includes ionising radiation emitted during arc welding
processes with generally two forms of injury following overexposure.

The first is an acute form of injury resulting in a painful condition commonly referred
to as “arc eyes”. The second, chronic effect, is the formation of cataracts (internal
growths over the lens) usually resulting in eventual blindness if left untreated.

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Without using references:

1. Define:

1.1 Toxicology,

1.2 Toxin or poison,

1.3 Dose

1.4 Personal dose

1.5 Dose response relationship

1.6 Lethal dose

1.7 Lethal concentration

1.8 Benign

1.9 Malignant

1.10 Epidemiology

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2. Discuss the factors to be considered when determining whether a chemical is considered to

have produced a toxic effect.

3. Define the following toxic effects:

3.1 Localised

3.2 Systemic

3.3 Primary

3.4 Secondary

3.5 Chronic

3.6 Acute

4. Discuss the following effects:

4.1 Noxious

4.2 Neurotoxic

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4.3 Tumerous

4.4 Mutagenic

4.5 Carcinogenic

4.6 Teratogenic

5. Describe the three potential routes of entry of hazardous substances into the human body.

6. Discuss the factors that affect the ingress of hazardous substances via inhalation.

7. Discuss simple and chemical asphyxiation.

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8. Discuss the factors affecting the ingress of hazardous substances via ingestion.

9. Discuss the factors affecting absorption rates via the skin.

10. Discuss the principle of dose-response relationships.

11. Define Haber’s Law

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12. Discuss two common types of biological analysis used to determine exposure levels to toxic
substances and the factors that need to be taken into account when utilising either of these
methods.

Radiation

13. Define ionising radiation.

14. Briefly discuss the health effects of over exposure to harmful ionising radiation

15. Briefly discuss the health effects of over exposure to the effects of ultraviolet radiation in
welding.

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16. Briefly discuss the health effects of an excessive exposure to sunlight.

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HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:

 Discuss the following classifications of airborne hazardous chemical substances: aerosol,

particulates, fumes, smoke, mists, vapours, gases and fibres.

 Discuss the fundamental factors to be considered when handling and storing hazardous
chemical substances in bulk.

 Discuss the fundamental requirements to be incorporated into a material safety data sheet.

 Discuss the fundamental requirements to be incorporated into a material safety data sheet.

 Discuss the fundamental requirements for handling and disposing of empty hazardous
chemical substance containers.

 List and discuss the general principles of dust control to reduce occupational exposure.

 Perform calculations involving the dilution of dust concentrations when given the necessary
information.

 Sketch the layout of a recommended main dust filtration system indicating where applicable, air
quantities, fan size and power, size and number of bags, air draw-off points and indicate when
and how the unit will be cleaned.

 Discuss the principles of cyclones, wet scrubbers, fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators
and their use in removing dust from the air.

 List at least six essential points to be considered in the design of an efficient exhaust hood
system.

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No.0-87912-171-8 (hc), pp
146-149; 531-551, Chapters 19, 20 and 21.

 Occupational Hygiene, JJ Schoeman & HHE Schroder (Juta Co) ISBN No. 07021 28775

 Managing the Health of People at Work, AM Coetzee (Lex Patria), Chapter 4, Chemical
Hazards ISBN No. 0628 03568 3

 Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, pp 379-392, 779-789.

 The Mine Ventilation Practitioner’s Data Book, 2nd Ed, Vol. 2, Sect IV-CE 1 to 10.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Previously reference was made to the very large number of hazardous or potentially
hazardous chemical substances that have been manufactured or devised and inference
was also made to the difficulty in allotting to these absolute values in terms of exposure
limits, dose response effects and general safety management. It is, however, possible to
classify hazardous chemical substances (HCS’s) by type, by potential or known effect and
by chemical composition.

For the occupational hygienist it is obviously, once again, not possible to know everything
there is to know about all of the HCS’s in use in the operation/s for which he is responsible,
and for this purpose legislation has been devised to assist him in anticipating, recognising,
evaluating and controlling potential exposure to such substances. Whilst the regulations
dealing with some of these aspects are currently under review for the Mine Health and
Safety Act and you will have to study the new regulations when they are issued, you are in
the meantime referred to the notes below to assist you in this matter.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF HACS

HCS may be classified in one of several ways. These are:

2.1 Classification according to physical properties

This method is primarily applied to airborne HCS and may be divided into the
following broad categories:

Particles

 These are particles that are so small as to remain suspended in air for a long
time and, when the particles are particularly small (less than 1 micron), they may
even remain suspended indefinitely.

Dusts

 Are solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, blasting, impact

and decrepitation (breaking apart by heating) of organic or inorganic materials.
The particle sizes range from 0,1 to 25 m in diameter. Usually, when dust is
generated by the above processes, there is (in numerical terms) a higher
proportion respirable fraction present than the coarse, visible fraction.

Fumes

 Are formed when material from a volatized (evaporated) solid condenses in the
air. The particle size is usually very small, below 10, m in diameter. Often the
hot vapour reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an oxide. Welding,
metallizing and smelting are typical processes producing fumes.

Smoke

 Consists of carbon or soot particles less than 1,0 m in size and results from
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such as coal, oil or diesel. In
some instances the smoke may be made up of minute, tarry droplets as is found
with cigarettes.

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Aerosols

 Are liquid droplets and / or solid particles that are small enough to remain
suspended in the air for a prolonged period of time.

Mists

 Are suspended droplets generated by condensation of liquids from a vapour to

liquid state or is formed by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state, e.g. by
splashing, foaming or atomising. Examples include oil mists formed during
cutting or grinding operations, acid mists from electroplating and paint mist from
spray painting operations.

Gases

 Are formless fluids that expand to fill the space they are in. the movement of the
molecules of the particular matter is not restricted by cohesive forces.

Vapours

 Are the volatile form of substances that are normally in the liquid or solid state at
room temperature and pressure but with a low boiling point. Evaporation occurs
at slightly elevated temperature or reduced pressure. Solvents are typical
examples of substances that form vapour.

Fibres

 A respirable fibre is defined as a particle with a length between 5 and 100

microns, a diameter of less than 3 microns, and an aspect ratio of at least 3 to 1.

 Respirable means inhalable so that the extremities in the human lung are
reached. Fibres outside the defined sizes will not reach the alveoli of the lung or
if they do, no harm will result. Fibres shorter than 5 microns are considered
harmless.

 It is important to realise that no lower limit in diameter is specified, - this is

determined by the detection limit of the microscope used for counting fibres.

 The aspect ratio is the length to diameter ratio of a fibre: the length must be at
least three times the diameter. For example a fibre of 6 microns in length may
have a diameter of maximum 2 microns if it is to be counted, or a fibre of 3
microns in diameter must have a length of 9 microns or more to be included in a
sample count.

2.2 Classification according to toxicological effects

This classification is derived from the outcome of the effect that chronic or acute
exposures may have on the human physiology. You are referred to Module OH - 4,
“Industrial Toxicology” for the more comprehensive descriptions.

Irritants

 Substances affecting the respiratory tract or resulting in allergic type reactions

by one or more organs affected through exposure.

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Asphyxiants

 Divided into simple and chemical asphyxiants, depending on the effect of the
substance on the body. Simple asphyxiants prevent the uptake of oxygen
through displacement in the air being breathed. Chemical asphyxiants react with
the hemoglobin based oxygen transfer process faster than oxygen, resulting in
starvation of the cells of their oxygen supply.

Anaesthetics and narcotics (Central nervous system depressants - CNSD’s)

 Substances resulting in central nervous system activity suppression.

Carcinogens

 Malignant effects on cellular reproduction mechanisms resulting in cellular

transformations leading to structural deformities.

Mutagens

 Substances that change the genetic material of the body, resulting in hereditary
malformation or dysfunction.

Teratogens

 These cause abnormalities in the unborn fetus. The abnormalities are not
transferable to subsequent generations.

Systematic poisons

 Substances affecting the body, usually through an accumulative effect in parts

of the body with eventual destruction or functional breakdown of those parts or
organs.

Hazardous particulates

 Particulate substances that affect the functionality of organs other than poisons.

3. TRANSPORTATION OF HCS

The transportation of HCS in bulk is controlled in terms of the Occupational Health and
Safety Act (OH&S Act) Regulations and also through a series of road ordinances and by-
laws. These will not be dealt with here but, as the potential for exposure during offloading
and handling from bulk transporters is a direct, on-mine issue, it is deemed important to
deal with those aspects as well.

3.1 Factors common to handling and storing HCS in bulk

A number of factors are common to the handling and storage of bulk chemical
substances. Some of these are:

Roads and Vehicle Access

 Roads should be hard-surfaced, at least 6 m wad and clear of all obstructions;

hazard chevrons should be attached to any adjacent structures.

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 Turning circles require a minimum radius of 12 m this minimum caters for all
types of road tankers which may be used.

 Direction signs to offloading areas, speed limit and other traffic signs should be
clearly visible.

 The minimum clearance for overhead structures should be 4,5 m.

 Access to the specified offloading point should be easy, whatever type of tanker
is used, i.e. mechanical horse with trailer or semi-trailer or rigid vehicle with draw
bar trailer. Reverse manoeuvring should not be necessary.

 Where delivery is acceptable between sunset and sunrise, adequate lighting is

essential at the offloading point. You should refer to the new MH&S Act
regulations once these are promulgated. Typically though, the minimum
illumination level in the area generally should be 50 lux. However, experience at
chemical plants makes it clear that for potentially hazardous operations, such as
tanker discharging, a minimum of 100 lux is essential (and 200 lux is not
regarded as excessive).

 Where storm water drains run alongside access roads, they should be
separated from such roads by low walls.

Bunded Areas

 A bunded area capable of holding, or draining to an area capable of holding the

total contents of the bulk installation if there is only one tank, or the entire
contents of the largest tank in a multi-tank installation should be constructed.
The hard-surfaced area should be extensive enough to contain drips, leaks or
major sprays and should include the offloading area.

 Bunded areas should be kept clean and clear of loose and flammable material
at all times. Bund walls should be low enough to permit a clear view of the
interior, and should be constructed of a material resistant to the chemical
concerned.

 Suitable means of recovery of spillages into the bunded area should cater for:

(a) return of spillage to storage; and / or

(b) delivery of spillage to the process.

 The process plant itself should therefore be regarded as an extension of the

bunded area.

 Spillages of chemicals should never be flushed into storm water drains,

sewers or watercourses without prior neutralisation. The volume of water
used for flushing should ensure complete removal and sufficient dilution for
acceptance into the process stream.

 All valves and pumps required to control spillage in bunded areas should be
located in positions remote from exposure to the spillage. The materials
used in the construction of these valves and pumps should be appropriate
for the chemicals being handled.

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 The bunded or catchment area should be protected from storm water ingress
from other areas, and there should be means of removing its own catchment
of storm water promptly after rain.

Storage Tanks For Liquids

 Storage tanks for liquids should hold at least 1,5 times the capacity of the
delivery tanker.

 Two storage tanks are preferable to one very large tank so that the process
plant can continue to function in the event of trouble with one tank.

 The capacity of storage tanks, number of, connections to and from, pressure
ratings, compatibility of chemicals stored adjacent to one another, fume
release, electrical protection, demarcation, level control mechanisms,
vacuum relief and venting and access to tanks are to be considered when
designing for handling chemicals in bulk.

4. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS

Material safety data sheets (MSDS’s) are used to reflect the information required to identify
chemical substances, to indicate what hazards they represent and to indicate safety
precautions and treatment procedures associated with such substances. Typically, the
following headings apply:

 Date
 Company details
 Product identification (chemical formula, common name and synonyms)
 Composition (hazardous components)
 Hazard identification (types of hazard, e.g. flammability, explosibility, toxicity, etc.)
 First aid measures
 Fire fighting measures
 Accidental release measures
 Handling and storage
 Exposure controls (occupational exposure limit, personal protective equipment requirements)
 Physical and chemical properties (appearance, colour, smell, pH, density, solubility, etc.)
 Stability and reactivity (incompatible materials, decomposition products)
 Toxicological information (acute, chronic, carcinoginicity, mutagenicity, neurotoxicity, etc.)
 Ecological information (toxicity to aquatic organisms, biodegradability, etc.)
 Disposal considerations (disposal methods and disposal of packaging)
 Transport information

From the above, it can be seen that, provided they are properly completed, MSDS’s are a
good source of information of substances in use at your place of work. It therefore is good
practice to obtain this information when performing risk assessments and when designing
occupational hygiene programmes directed at managing the health and hygiene factors of
people at work.

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5. WASTE DISPOSAL CONSIDERATONS

Industrial hygiene controls include the proper disposal of wastes, including the containers in
which chemicals were originally delivered. Management and disposal of hazardous waste is
regulated by several Acts and, sometimes, by-laws applicable to the area in which your
operation is sited. To develop an appropriate waste management plan, employers must first
make the following determinations:

 Are potentially regulated waste materials (including contaminated containers) generated

at this site?

 Are the wastes hazardous, special, infectious, or radioactive by regulatory definition?

 Can wastes be treated and rendered innocuous prior to disposal?

 Can wastes be recycled as part of the process?

 Given the quantities of waste generated, is the company a small-quantity or large-

quantity generator?

 Is the company a waste generator, transporter, or treatment / storage / disposal facility?

These determinations will provide much of the information necessary to choose treatment
and disposal alternatives. These decisions are particularly onerous, as generators of
hazardous waste are responsible for on-site and off-site damages to the environment and
worker and community health. This is often referred to as cradle-to-grave responsibility.

Disposal of hazardous materials must be done by highly trained individuals under strict
supervision. Procedures should be established in accordance with the applicable
regulations for the safe disposal of hazardous chemicals, toxic residues, and other
contaminated waste, as well as containers of chemicals that are no longer required and
which cannot be otherwise decontaminated. The same applies to containers of which labels
have been lost or obliterated, or which are no longer needed.

A competent chemist can determine the best way to neutralise or detoxify small amounts of
chemicals that are no longer needed. In some instances it may be appropriate to perform
experimental investigations to determine a means of neutralising and rendering waste
products harmless before full-scale disposal operations are begun. There are a number of
methods by which some dangerous chemicals can be rendered safe for disposal.

A number of facilities are available for off-site disposal of hazardous materials. All of them
can be expensive and none of them provides a universal means of disposal for all
hazardous materials. Landfills, incinerators, and chemical treatment facilities are the most
commonly used disposal options for hazardous waste. Before a disposal facility is chosen,
a determination should be made that the facility is competently managed, is in regulatory
compliance, and has significant financial resources.

6. DUST CONTROL PRINCIPLES

The fundamental approach to dust control is based on a three-fold approach, namely:

6.1 Engineering control, which are aimed at engineering out the hazard either by initial
design specification, or by applying methods of substitution, isolation or ventilation.
Sometimes a combination of the latter two is required to effectively control dust
liberation. From the Intermediate Certificate studies, you will remember the
following:

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 Prevention of formation

 Prevention of liberation at source,

 Dilution by ventilation,

 Filtration or other mechanical means of removal.

Which are the first four of the five primary steps of control? These all fit under the
“engineering control” heading.

6.2 Administrative control, which relies on managing the time (duration) of exposure
by means of scheduling of activities. In addition, good practice such as hazard
recognition and good working practices also resort under this heading.

6.3 Personal protective equipment (PPE), which employees are required to wear to
protect them from contaminants in their environment, is the other method whereby
exposures can be reduced. This approach is usually adopted when it is not feasible
to render the work environment free of occupational health hazards. The use of
personal protective equipment should be considered a last resort, when engineering
or administrative controls are not possible, or when they are not sufficient to achieve
acceptable limits of exposure. Personal protective equipment may be appropriate
during short exposures to hazardous contaminants, such as during non-routine
equipment maintenance or emergency responses to spills. The primary
disadvantage of personal protective devices is that they do not eliminate the hazard
from the workplace, and thus their failure results in immediate exposure to the
hazard. A protective device may become ineffective without the wearer’s
knowledge, resulting in harm. The integrity and fit of a personal protective device is
vital to its effectiveness.

Successful use of any PPE requires that a program be established and

administered. The purpose of the program is to ensure that personal protective
equipment is properly chosen, used, and maintained to protect workers. Record
keeping as required by the applicable regulations must be part of this programme.

You are referred to “Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene” by B Plog, 4th edition,

pages 531 to 551 for more details on the above as well as to Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines, 1982, pp 379 to 392.

7. CALCULATIONS

The relationship used in determining air needed for dilution is:

(Q1 x D1) + (Q2 x D2) - (Q1 + Q2)D3

Where Q - air quantity (m3/s)

D - dust concentration (p/ml) or (mg/m3)

And subscripts 1, 2 and 3 indicate the three air streams.

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All the relationship actually does is state that all the dust from one air stream, plus all the
dust from another air stream should give you all the dust in the mixture of the two air
streams (air stream 3). This is shown in the sketch below.

Q1 D1

(Q1 + Q2)
D3

Q2 D2

Figure OH - 5.1: Mixing Air Streams

When multiplying Q with D it is assumed that the result is the total dust in the air stream. In
fact a correction factor of 106 (the number of ml in a m3) should be applied when the units
p/ml are used, but it would cancel out on both sides of the equation so it is ignored in this
instance.

Worked example 1

How much fresh air containing 0,80 mg/m3 of dust should be mixed with 11,5 m3/s of air
containing 3,50 mg/m3 of dust to reduce the dust concentration to 2,5 mg/m3?

Answer

Let x = the quantity of fresh air required

Then (11,5 x 3,50) + (X x 0,80) = (11,5 + x) 2,50

40,25 + 0,80x = 2,50x + 28,75

40,25 - 28,75 = 2,50X - 0,80x

11,50 = 1,70x

11,50
x =
1,70

x = 6,76

6,8 m3/s of air would be required

Worked example 2

65 m3/s of air flows in an intake airway towards a working section. Before entering the
working section 9 m3/s is drawn off and passed through a filter leaving with a dust
concentration of 1,14 mg/m3. 50m3/s is passed through a bulk air cooler leaving with a dust
concentration of 1,00 mg/m3. After re-mixing of the air streams and before the air enters the
working sections the dust count of the mixture is 1,29 mg/m3.

Calculate the dust concentration of the original 65 m3/s.

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Answer

Before attempting the answer it is essential to first sketch the layout to ensure you
understand the questions.

After studying the sketch you will note that you have three known and two unknown dust
concentrations. However, the dust concentration of the 65 m3/s entering the area, and of
the 6m3/s flowing in the middle airway is the same.

You can therefore ignore the entering 65 m3/s for the time being, which allows you to use
the previously used equation to solve the problem as follows:

(Q1 D1) + (Q2 D2) + (Q3 D3) = D4(Q1 + Q2 + Q3)

(9 x 1,14) + (6 x X) + (50 x 1,00) = (1,29 x 65)

10,26 + 6x + 50,00 = 83,85

6x = 23,59

and x = 3,93 mg/m3

There are of course many types of problems, which can be set involving dust levels or dust
dilution. You are advised to study the respective editions of “Suggested Answers to
Environmental Control Examination Questions” as well for further examples on dust based
calculations.

8. DUST FILTRATION SYSTEMS

The following information was extracted from Environmental Engineering in South African
Mines, 1982, Chapter 29, “Air Pollution”, pp 779-789. You are referred to that textbook for
more information if you require this.

Particulate removal from a waste-gas stream can be very expensive and it is therefore
important to select the most economic equipment for a particular purpose. The efficiency of
collection of the equipment must conform to the design, which means that the behaviour of
the particulate in the waste gas steam must be known.

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Particle deposition mechanisms are:

 Gravitational sedimentation,
 Inertial impaction,
 Interception,
 Diffusion and
 Electrical forces.

Waste Gas Cleaning Methods

The emphasis in this section will be placed on removing particulate material from waste gas
streams. (The removal of gases is often associated with a recovery process such as
sulphuric acid from sulphur oxides). It is normally necessary to remove particulate material
before gas removal takes place. Gas removal involves bringing the gas into contact with a
suitable material such that it may be removed from the waste gas stream. The removal
process may be a chemical reaction or absorption and the contact material may be solid,
liquid or gaseous. The main types of particulate collectors are summarised in Table OH - 5.1.

Size collected (micrometers) Pressure loss (Pa)

Type of Equipment
Density 2 700 kg/m3 (approximate)
Settling Chamber Over 100 50
Inertial Collectors Over 50 250
Cyclones 10 to 100 250 to 1 000
Spray Towers Over 5 250
Venturi Scrubbers Less than 1 1 000 to 6 000
Fabric Filers Less than 1 100 to 2 000
Electrostatic Precipitators Less than 1 50 to 250

Table OH - 5.1: Particulate Collection Equipment

8.1 Settling Chamber

A settling chamber uses the principle of gravitational sedimentation to remove very

coarse particulate material. The gas stream is normally allowed to expand into a
large chamber, the particulate fails by gravity from the low-velocity gas stream and
is collected in a hopper. The settling velocity of a 100 micrometer particle of density
2 700 kg/m3 is approximately 0,75 m/s. for coarse particles the settling velocity is
proportional to the square of the diameter. For particles smaller than 100
micrometres the physical size of a setting chamber renders the system uneconomic.
This method is usually used as a pre-separator to reduce the particulate load on a
more efficient secondary collector.

8.2 Inertial Collector

The placing of baffles or making the air change direction in a settling chamber
increases particulate removal by introducing inertial impaction. In the louvred
separator illustrated in Figure OH - 5.2 below the large particles leave the airstream
entering the louvre gap, hit the louvre and bounce back into the main airstream. The
concentration in the remaining airstream builds up and this can be cleaned in a

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separate collector. The main advantage is that the amount of air to be subsequently
cleaned is only approximately 10 per cent of the total quantity of air entering the
louvred collector.

Figure OH - 5.2: Inertial Collector

In other separators the particles impacting on the baffles of louvres are collected in
a hopper below the separator. The rate of impaction of particulate material is
proportional to the square of the diameter and the velocity and inversely
proportional to the distance the particle must travel to the impaction surface. (In the
louvred collector this would be a function of the width between the louvres.)
Manufacturing limitations usually result in efficiencies of approximately 20% for 25
micrometre particles increasing to over 90% for 50 micrometre particles. Inertial
collectors are sometimes known as grit arresters and are often used as a pre-
separator to reduce the load on subsequent collectors.

8.3 Cyclones

The main mechanism for removing particulate material in a cyclone is inertial

separation. The waste gas enters the cyclone tangentially at the periphery of the
cyclone and the swirl is created by removing the clean gas at the cyclone axis. This
is illustrated in Figure OH - 5.3.

Large particles leave the streamlines and migrate to the cyclone wall and then to the
hopper. Smaller particles do not reach the cyclone wall and are removed through
the clean gas exit. The efficiency of collection at a given particle size can be
improved by both increasing the swirl velocity and reducing the cyclone diameter, i.e
reducing the distance a particle must migrate before it is “collected”. The main
limitations are the pressure drop in the first instance and multiplicity with its
associated gas distribution problems in the second instance.

In theory a sharp cut-off should be possible; where the outward centrifugal force
exceeds the inward viscous drag all the particles will be collected. In practice this is
not so and a graded efficiency results. The flow patterns in a cyclone are complex
and it is not possible to predict the performance with any accuracy and
consequently it must be determined experimentally.

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Figure OH - 5.3: Cyclone

8.4 Wet Scrubbers

Low energy scrubbers usually depend on inertial deposition on a wetted surface as

the main particle collection method. Their efficiency on fine particulate material (less
then 5 micrometres) is fairly low and they are usually used for the removal of gases
with particulate removal as a secondary benefit.

Low energy scrubbers can be simply spray towers or spray towers with some sort of
packing. This packaging is used to produce turbulence and rapid changes of air
direction in the scrubber and consists of devices such as impingement plates or
beds of plastic or glass spheres. The waste gas passes up through the packing and
the liquid is sprayed down over the packing. One of the main advantages is the low
amount of re-entrainment of the collected particulate.

The addition of a foaming agent to the water in a wet scrubber can enhance
collection by providing barriers to the particles and increasing the probability of
interception on the bubble. A foam scrubber consists of a foam generator, particle
collector and if necessary a foam destroyer as illustrated in Figure OH-5.4.

Figure OH - 5.4: Wet Scrubber (Foam Based)

Particulate collection by inertial impaction is limited by the mass of the particle. A

high-energy scrubber increases the probability of interception of a dust particle on a
water droplet and the larger particle / droplet can be removed from the waste gas
stream by an inertial collector such as a cyclone. In addition to interception the

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collection mechanisms of inertial impaction and diffusion occur in a high-energy

scrubber.

For a given particle size, the efficiency of collection of the particulate on the droplet
can be enhanced by increasing the relative velocity between the particle and the
droplet. This does, however, require a greater energy input and pressure losses are
between 1,5 and 6,0 kPa depending on the size distribution of the particulate and
the required collection efficiency. The venturi scrubber illustrated in Figure OH - 5.5
has a converging section where the waste gas velocity is increased. The waste gas
then makes contact with the atomised scrubbing liquid in the throat of the venturi.
Particulate matter is intercepted by the droplets and proceeds through the throat
and the diverging section where the particle / droplets agglomerate further. The final
stage is the inertial removal of the particle / droplets in a cyclone or similar device.

Figure OH - 5.5: Venturi-type Wet Scrubber

The optimum droplet size varies with particle size and is approximately 100 times
larger than the particle. There is no significant advantage to have droplet sizes less
than 25 micrometres because of the efficiency of the subsequent inertial collector.

8.5 Electrostatic Precipitators

The principle of operation of an electrostatic precipitator is to charge the particles

and cause them to move to a collecting surface where they can be removed from
the waste gas stream. A schematic arrangement is given in Figure OH - 5.6.

The particle charge is achieved by passing the waste gas stream containing the
suspended particulate past an ionising electrode at high electrode at high electric
potential. The charge received by the particle depends on the electrical field
strength and the size and composition of the particle. The ratio of the electric force
acting on a charged particle in an electric field to the force due to gravity can be
very high, particularly for small particles. The discharge electrodes can be
suspended wires of two to three millimetre diameter using weights for locating the
electrode or they may be rigidly fixed, shaped or plain rods.

The charged particles deposited on the grounded electrode are usually removed by
a mechanical rapping system where the plate is vibrated, the dust particles are
dislodged and fall into a collecting hopper. Since the collected particles fall back
through the waste gas stream there is likely to be some re-entrainment unless the
waste gas bypasses the section being cleaned. During the period of time between

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cleaning the collecting surfaces the dust layer builds up and if the particulate has a
high resistivity the operating voltage is limited which in turn reduces the collecting
efficiency. A compromise between lower efficiencies due to re-entrainment and
lower efficiencies due to re-entrainment and lower efficiencies due to the high
resistivity of the collected particles is therefore necessary. Resistivity of the
particulate only becomes a serious problem when it exceeds 1010 Ohm/cm. The
effectiveness of cleaning the collector plates also affects efficiency and is a function
of the intensity of rapping. For very sticky particulate material it may be necessary to
bypass the section and wash the collecting plates.

The efficiency of collection of an electrostatic precipitator is given by the Deutsch

equation:

N = 1 - exp (-A/Q)w)

Where N = efficiency of collection

A = collecting surface area

Q = waste gas flow rate

w = migration velocity

Figure OH - 5.6: Electrostatic Precipitator

The migration velocity compares the electrostatic force on the particle with the drag
force. It is a function of the charge on the particle, the electrical field strength,
particle size and waste gas viscosity and normally lies between 0,01 to 0,2 m/s for
particles less than 5 micrometers in size. From the Deutsch equation, for a given
particle size, the efficiency of collection can be enhanced by increasing the
residence time of the waste gas in the precipitator and increasing the electrical field
strength. This involves increasing the size and cost of the precipitator.

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Predicting the theoretical efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is possible with

the Deutsch equation. The actual efficiency will, however depend on the amount of
re-entrainment, uniformity of waste gas flow and distribution, alignment of the
electrodes and the stability of the electrical supply. The major advantage of an
electrostatic precipitator is that the major energy input is used on the particles
themselves rather than the whole mass of the gas. This usually means that for fine
particles the power input is a fraction of that used in wet scrubber or fabric collector.

8.6 Fabric Filters

The principle of operation of a fabric filter is that the fabric collects particulate on its
surface and builds up a loose cake, which is then an efficient filter bed. To prevent
excessive pressure loss the cake is removed and the process is repeated. During
the cleaning cycle dust separation occurs at the dust/fabric interface because there
are fewer particle to fibre adhesive contacts or bonds than there are particle to
particle cohesive bonds within the dust cake. The dust cake is removed from the
fabric surface in either flakes or slabs at the interface and there are two distinct
regions:

1. Where no dust is removed from the fabric surface.

2. Where the superficial dust layer is almost completely removed.

Dust filtration by fabric filters can therefore be treated as parallel flow through
cleaned fabric and a dust cake. The efficiency of a fabric filter will depend on the
time since cleaning and the degree of cleaning effected.

The cleaned fabric has a subsurface residual dust load and is therefore not the
same as an unused fabric and its flow resistance and dust-capturing potential is
higher. Figure Oh - 5.7 illustrates the collection mechanisms involved within the
fabric. The dust particles initially form chains bridging the fibres and as the residual
dust loading increases they become massive agglomerates. At this point the
pressure loss becomes excessive and the filter cloth should be removed and either
washed or discarded.

Figure OH - 5.7: Fabric Filter Collection Mechanisms

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The collecting efficiency of the dust cake will depend on its thickness and the
packing density. These variables depend on the time since cleaning, the degree of
cleaning and the filtration velocity. High filtration velocities tend to result in a cake
with a high packing density as well as considerable re-deposition of the cake on the
fabric after cleaning. The pore structure of the cake is a function of the particle size
distribution, particle shape and the degree of compaction. The mean pore size will
normally be less than the mean particle size and virtually all the dust in a waste gas
stream will be collected by the cake.

The filtering media used in fabric collectors should be resistant to chemical attack
and physical breakdown. The chemical stresses involved are aggravated by
moisture and accelerated by the presence of acids, alkalis and by temperature.
Physical damage results from fibre fatigue during the cleaning operation and
abrasion normally caused by poor gas distribution. The major limitation of fabric
filters is the working temperature and the increase in cost of filtering material as the
temperature increases. Polyester materials can be used to 135oC, Nomex to 220oC
and Teflon to 320oC. Some bags can withstand burning embers for short durations if
necessary.

The two main types of filter media are woven cloth and needle felt. A woven cloth
has large, (about 500 micrometre) threads and the fibres use din making these
threads tend to fill the space between the weave. A needle felt has a scrim base,
which supports a random arrangement of fine (about 20 micrometre) fibres. A
needle-felt fabric normally has a higher intrinsic efficiency but a lower relative
strength when compared to a woven fabric.

The filter-cloth cleaning mechanism can be either mechanical such as shaking the
filter medium or pneumatic where either a compressed- air pulse serves to stretch
and dilate the filter medium or the air flow is reversed. In general the pneumatic
methods are more effective without damaging the filter medium and a higher
filtration velocity can be achieved. The collecting filter can be either in tubular bags
or envelope form, neither having any particular advantage over the other. Figure OH
- 5.8 shows a typical fabric dust filter.

Figure OH - 5.8: Fabric Dust Filter

You are also referred to The Mine Ventilation Practitioner’s Data Book, 2nd Edition,
Volume 2, Industrial Ventilation, Section IV-CE 1 to 10 for more information on air
cleaning devices.

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9. EXHAUST HOOD DESIGN

In designing exhaust systems, the basic components are usually a combination of one or
more of the following:

 Hood (to capture the pollutant)

 Ducting (to convey the polluted airstream)
 Filtration / air cleaning mechanism (as discussed above)
 Fan (or other form of motive power)
 Stack or chimney, releasing cleaned air into the environment.

Figure OH - 5.9 below shows such a configuration

Figure OH - 5.9: Exhaust Ventilation System

More detailed information on exhaust system design can be found in the Mine Ventilation
Practitioner’s Data Book, 2nd edition, Volume 2, Industrial Ventilation and also in
Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. Chapter 19 (Local exhaust
ventilation of industrial occupancies), Chapter 20 (General ventilation of industrial
occupancies) and Chapter 21 (General ventilation of non-industrial occupancies).

The local exhaust hood is the point of air entry into the duct system. The term hood is used
in a broad sense to include all suction openings regardless of their shape or mounting
arrangement. No local exhaust system can succeed unless the contaminant is controlled by
the hood. Clearly, no matter how well built the ducts and arrester is or how large the fan is,
if the contaminant is not controlled by the hood, the overall value of the installation is nil.
The hood is, therefore, a critical component.

There are three basic types of hoods: capture, enclosing, and receiving (canopy).

9.1 Capture Hoods

When a duct is connected to the inlet of an exhaust fan, an area of low pressure is
set up at the other end of the duct. Air from the room will move toward this low-
pressure region. But the air moves in from all directions toward the hood face. Thus,
air will move into a freely suspended duct opening from both front and back (see
figure OH - 5.10)

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The dashed lines going into the duct opening (stream lines) indicate the direction of
airflow at that point. The solid curved lines represent spherical contours of equal
velocity. What is needed for dust control is an air velocity, V, at the point of dust or
pollutant release at a distance, x, from the duct opening, which is high enough to
capture and carry the particles into the hood. If the quantity of air entering the pipe
is Q, the velocity at the surface of the sphere is given by the equation.

V = Q/A

Where A is the surface of the sphere, and

A = 4x2

Then
Q
V=
4 x 2

This equation indicates that the velocity at a point where dust is being released is
firstly proportional to the quantity of air, Q, flowing into the duct in cubic meters per
second (m3/s), and, secondly, inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from the opening.

The basic equation to measure air velocity has been modified empirically, and when
x is less than 1.5 hood diameters, it has the following form:

bQ
V =
x  bA
2

Where: V = centreline velocity at distance x from hood

Q = airflow into duct
x = distance outward along hood axis
A = area of hood opening
b = a constant that depends on the shape of the opening

For circular or square openings, b is essentially 0,1: the equation then becomes

0,1Q
V =
x  0,1A
2

Suppose the duct is 15 cm in diameter and the velocity of air passing through is 1,200
m/min, a common situation in dust exhaust systems. Because a circle 15 cm in
diameter is 180 cm2 in the area of cross section, Q = 0,37 m3/s, in ducts, Q = A Vduct.

Five centimetres out from the end, V has fallen to 500 m/min.

At 10 cm from the duct, the velocity is 180 m/min; at 15 cm away, it is only 88

m/min, just enough to be felt by the hand.

Where x is very large compared with A, the equation becomes:

Q
V=
10 x 2

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9.2 Flanged Hoods

If a flange is placed around the duct opening, as shown in Figure OH - 5.10, it will
reduce entrance or turbulence loss by preventing the hood from drawing air from
behind the hood face. Although the same total amount of air is exhausted, a larger
portion will come from the front of the duct. This is beneficial because air that moves
from behind the hood does not help control the contaminant in front. A large flange
will increase the useful airflow by 30 to 40 percent for the same total volume of air
handled. Usually, the flange width can be estimated from the following:

Wt = x - 5D

Where Wt = flange width (cm)

x = distance in front of the capture hood along hood axis (cm)

D = duct diameter, round ducts (cm)

Figure OH - 5.10: Velocity contours as percentages of velocities at the

opening (solid lines) and stream lines (dashed lines) for plain and flanged
openings.

Face Velocity Versus Mass Air Movement

The preceding equations show that hood capture velocity, V, depends on the total
airflow entering the hood. A high face velocity or, in the case of slot-shaped hood, a
high slot velocity is not the important factor. The capture of air contaminants
depends on mass air movement, Q, not on mere face velocity.

Regardless of face velocity, a source of suction has very poor ability to reach out in
a particular direction and induce an inflowing stream of air even a few centimetres
from the hood face. Yet, often a person will attempt to improve the exhaust hood by
decreasing its size, believing that this will raise the capture velocity. This does no
good whatsoever, except in very close proximity to the hood face. It often, in fact,
does harm because the total airflow is then reduced due to increased hood
resistance. “Reaching out” can be achieved only from greater mass air
movement.

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The purpose of capture hoods is to set up air movement at the point or area where
the contaminant is released so that a sufficiently large percentage of the contaminant
will be drawn to the hood and captured. In selecting the correct control velocity,
consult Table OH - 5.2 for guidance.

Velocity Type of Operation or Typical Emission and Environmental

Range, m/s Velocity Hood Type Conditions
0.12-0.25 Random Any Random motion of air in industrial
mixing operations
0.25-0.50 Capture Degreasing Release of emissions at no velocity into
still air (no cross drafts)
0.35-0.60 Face Lab fume hoods, Emission source is enclosed
drying ovens
Capture Soldering Release of emissions at low velocity
into air with low cross drafts (both less
than capture velocity)
Capture Open surface For use with area approach to design;
tanks at edge of tank
0.60-0.75 Face High toxicity lab Release of emission at low velocity into
hood air with low cross drafts (both less than
capture velocity)
0.5-1.0 Capture Spray booths, For use with ANSI approach to open-
welding, container, surface tank hood design
filling, picking, low
speed conveyor
transfer
Control Open-surface
tanks
1.0-2.5 Capture Crushers, Release of emissions at modest
conveyor loading, velocities into air with modest cross
shallow booths drafts (both less than capture velocity)
Control Canopy hoods For use with ANSI canopy hood, use
lower end of range
2.5-10 Capture Grinding, tumbling Release of emission at high velocities
into air with high cross drafts (both less
than capture velocity)
6.0 Slot Lab fume hoods Typical of commercial lab fume hoods
7.5-10 Slot Slotted hoods, To ensure inform flow through all slots,
general the plenum velocity should be designed
for ¼ to 1/3 of slot velocity.

Table OH - 5.2: Capture, Control, Face, and Slot Velocities for Hood Design

Principles of Hood Design

The following aspects need to be considered during hood design:

 Enclose the operation as much as possible to reduce the rate of air flow needed
to control the contaminant.

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 Locate the hood in such a manner that the contaminant is moved away from the
operator’s breathing zone.

 Locate and shape the hood in such a manner that the contaminant will be
thrown into the hood by the initial velocity (of the contaminant)

 Solvent vapours are generally at the same density as air, therefore attempt to
capture these at source

 Locate the hood as close to the source of the contaminant as possible

 Design the hood in such a way as to not interfere with the worker

9.3 Hood Design for Specific Operations

A hood should be shaped and positioned to take advantage of any existing natural
movement of the contaminant. For instance, if beat is released, the flow of
convection currents should be toward the hood. If heavy particles are thrown off, as
in rough grinding, their trajectory should be toward the hood intake.

For even distribution of the airflow through a large hood, flow can be controlled by
passing the air through a narrow slot into a plenum chamber. The flow distribution
along a hood is fixed by the ratio of the velocity through the slot to the velocity in the
chamber. For most purposes, the distribution will be good enough if the velocity
through the slot is about twice the average velocity through the plenum.

9.4 Receiving Canopy Hoods

These seldom succeed as capture hoods. There are several reasons for this. Air
velocity drops off tremendously (in proportion to the square of the distance) between
the canopy and the source of contaminant evolution. A greater volume of airflow is
required for contaminant control. Control may be lost due to room air cross currents.
Finally, the canopy type of hood often forces the employee to work beneath it, that
is, between the point of contaminant emission and the hood.

Receiving (canopy) hoods are generally used where rising hot air carries the
contaminant into the exhaust system. However, this is not a safe solution where the
operator works under the hood.

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Self Test OH-5

Without using references:

1. Discuss the following classifications of airborne hazardous chemical substance:

1.1 Aerosol

1.2 Particulates

1.3 Fumes

1.4 Smoke

1.5 Mists

1.6 Vapours

1.7 Gases

1.8 Fibres

2. Discuss the fundamental factors to be considered when handling and storing hazardous
chemical substances in bulk.

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3. Discuss the fundamental requirements to be incorporated into a material safety data sheet.

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4. Discuss the fundamental requirements for handling and disposing of hazardous wastes and
empty hazardous chemical substance containers.

5. List and discuss the general principles of dust control to reduce occupational exposure.

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6. 6.1 Calculate the air flow rate, (given that it contains, on average 0,13 mg/m3 dust at the
intake position to an underground workshop), that would be required to effectively
dilute to a maximum concentration of 2 mg/m3, once thoroughly mixed, dust and
smoke particulates leaving the underground workshop given the following:

 Anticipated maximum dust produced during cleaning operations: 10 mg/s

 Anticipated maximum diesel emission particulate matter content: 20 mg/s

6.2 A man wears a personal dust sampling instrument, which draws in dusty air at the
rate of 2 litres per minute.

The following table shows the time he spent at various points in the mine and the
dust concentration in mg/m3 at each point.

Point Time Spent Concentration, mg/m3

1 08h00 - 08h30 8
2 08h30 - 09h15 6
3 09h15 - 11h00 9
4 11h00 - 12h00 3
5 12h00 - 12h20 4

Calculate how many milligrams of dust would be collected by the instrument.

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6.3 The following information relates to an underground trial involving the measurement
of dust concentration using a personal gravimetric sampling instrument. The volume
flow through the instrument can be checked periodically on site by means of a
portable rotameter and this takes a few seconds only.

Mass of filter before the trial (tare mass) 23 mg

Mass of filter at the end or the trial 23.3 mg
Trial started at 09h00
Trial finished at 13h00

Volume Flow Checks

Time Volume flow

09h00 2 litre/minute

12h00 1,9 litre/minute

13h00 1,7 litre/minute

(a) Calculate the average dust concentration in mg/m3

(b) How would a change in temperature and barometric pressure during the trial
affect the result?

(c) Comment on the accuracy of the results from two aspects

(d) Do you think the instrument is suitable for measuring the dust exposure of a
person? Give reasons for your answer.

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7. Sketch the layout of a recommended main dust filtration system indicating where
applicable, air quantities, fan size and power, size and number of bags, air draw-off points
and indicate when and how the unit will be cleaned.

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8. Discuss the principle of operation of the following devices and their use in removing dust
from the air:

8.1 Cyclones

8.2 Wet Scrubbers

8.3 Fabric Filters

8.4 Electrostatic precipitators

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9. List and briefly discuss at least six essential points to be considered in the design of an
efficient exhaust hood system.

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:

Discuss the selection and use of personal protective equipment form an occupational exposure
perspective under the following headings: selection, training, fitment, cleaning, maintenance,
inspection, storage and effective shelf life.

Discuss the terms: penetration rate, resistance to chemical and biological attack, effects of
temperature extremes, degradation in the presence of radiation and in corrosive atmospheres.

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations

 Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa

 Vol. 48, August 1995, pp 210-220, Mine Environmental Safety and Health (MESH),

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No. 0-87912-171-8 (hc),
Chapter 22, pp 619-656.

 Occupational Hygiene, JJ Schoeman & HHE Schroder (Juta Co) ISBN No. 07021 28775,
Chapter 16, pp 357-394.

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1. SELECTION AND USE OF RESPIRATORS

Note: Besides the information given in the following section, you are referred to
“Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene” 4th edition by B Plog, Chapter 22, Respiratory
Protection, pp 619 to 656 for more information. You should read that chapter and study the
photographs to have a full understanding of the aspects associated with the types of
respiratory protection available, selection and fitment, etc.

Selection of Respirators

When to use respirators:

Respirators are usually used when:

 It is not possible to implement effective engineering controls for airborne particulates or

other compounds which may have a detrimental effect on workers;

 Where it is not cost effective to do otherwise;

 Whilst maintenance or installation of control measures occur.

Selection of respirators:

The type of respirator selected must be appropriate for the task and the following South
African Bureau of Standards publications should be referred to when you select respiratory
equipment:

SABS Standard VC 8037-1: Respiratory equipment for protection against harmful

particulates and gas, Part 1: Masks for particulates and gas.

SABS Standard VC 8037-2: Respiratory equipment for protection against harmful

particulates and gas, Part 2: Particulate respiratory filters

SABS Standard VC 8037-3: Respiratory equipment for protection against harmful

particulates and gas, Part 3: Particulate filtering masks

SABS Standard VC 8037-4: Respiratory equipment for protection against harmful

particulates and gas, Part 4: Gas and combination filters

SABS Standard VC 8037-5: Respiratory equipment for protection against harmful

particulates and gas, Part 5: Positive pressure powered dust
respirators.

Respirator selection depends on:

 The contaminant involved (different classes of respirator apply to different substances);

 Conditions of exposure (e.g. the loading placed on the respirator);
 Human capabilities;
 Respirator fit, and
 Ambient environmental conditions (as an example, in one instance encountered, a
certain type of rubberised dust respirator was found to conduct heat emitted by a
furnace onto the worker’s skin, causing severe discomfort - in this case a different type,
such as a cloth type, needs to be used to protect the worker, both from the dust and
form the heat).

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Respirators provide good protection only if:

 They are properly selected;

 Fit tested;
 Worn by the employees;
 Replaced when their service life is over.

Some workers may not be able to wear a respirator due to health (e.g. allergic reactions) or
due to physical limitations. Respirators can also be cumbersome to use (they can get in the
way in confined spaces) and generally hot to wear (e.g. chemical type self-contained self-
rescuers). They may reduce vision and interfere with communication.

Despite these difficulties, respirators are the only form of protection available in the
following situations:

 During the installation or implementation of feasible engineering and work practice controls;
 In work operations such as maintenance and repair activities and
 In emergencies.

Before selecting a respirator, the occupational hygienist should conduct an assessment of

the workplace, which covers the following aspects:

 The nature of the hazardous operation and its processes;

 The type of respiratory hazard (dusts, fumes, mists, gases, vapours, etc.)
 The location of the hazardous area with respect to the nearest fresh / respirable air source;
 How long the respirators must be worn for;
 The worker’s activities.
Training
For the safe use of any respirator it is essential that the user will be properly instructed in its
use. Supervisors as well as the person issuing respirators must be instructed by qualified
persons. Emergency and rescue teams must be given adequate training to ensure proper
respirator use. This training is usually provided to brigades man (Proto Teams) by Rescue
Training Services.
Many companies have their employees sign a document confirming that they have
completed a training session with the respiratory protective equipment. As a minimum,
written records of the names of those trained and the dates when the training occurred
must be kept. The workers need to be trained upon initial assignment of a respirator and
followed up with annual training (or sometimes six-monthly, as in the case of SCSR’s)
Each respirator wearer should be given training that includes the following:
 An explanation of the need for the respirator, including an explanation of the respiratory
hazard and what happens if the respirator is not used properly;
 Instructions to inform their supervisor of any problems related to respirator use;
 A discussion of what engineering and administrative controls are being used and why
respirators are still needed for protection;
 An explanation of why a particular type of respirator has been selected;
 Information on the function, capabilities, and limitations of the selected respirator;

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 Instruction in how to put on the respirator and check its fit and operation;
 Successful completion of either a qualitative or quantitative fit test;
 Instruction in respirator maintenance;
 Instruction in emergency procedures and the use of emergency escape devices, and
regulations concerning respirator use.

The training in putting on the respirator must include giving the wearer an opportunity to
physically handle the respirator. Also required is that each wearer be effectively instructed
in the proper fitting of the respirator, including demonstrations and practice in how the
respirator must be worn, how to adjust it, and how to determine whether it fits properly.

Respirator and SCSR manufacturers provide training materials that tell and show how the
respirator or SCSR is to be adjusted, put on, and worn. The training session must also
allow for time to practice. Hence, simply showing videotape is not sufficient unless it is
followed up with actual hands-on time. Close, frequent supervision can be useful to ensure
that the workers continue to use the respirator in the manner they were trained. Supervisory
personnel should periodically monitor the use of respirators to ensure that these are worn
properly.

Fitment

Each wearer of a respirator or SCSR must be provided equipment that fits (including
peripheral equipment such as nose plugs, etc.). To find the respirator that fits, the worker
must be fit-tested.

Respirator Fit Testing

 The respirator face piece must fit the wearer properly;

 Because of the differences in face sizes and shapes encountered in male and female
workers and even due to racial differences, most respirator manufacturers make their
models of respirators available in more than one size;

 The size and shape of each face piece also vary among the different manufacturers
and care should be taken when using respirators from different suppliers;

 All tight-fitting (half- and full-face piece) respirators, including disposable respirators,
whether negative or positive pressure, must be fit tested;

 Use either qualitative or quantitative methods to perform the fitment testing (using test
agents, tracer gas or chemicals) to detect leaks in the face seal area;

 Conduct fit testing once every 12 months (or less if something has changed significantly
with the wearer, e.g. a significant change in weight (plus or minus) 10 percent or more),
significant scarring in the face seal area, dental changes, or re-constructive or cosmetic
surgery.

Cleaning, Maintenance, Inspection and Storage

A respirator maintenance programme includes:

 Cleaning and sanitizing of respirators where necessary;

 Inspection of the equipment for defects;

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 Maintenance and repair of defects;
 Proper storage of the respirator;
 When a programme includes atmosphere/supplying respirators (i.e. self-contained
breathing apparatus), then assurance of breathing air quality must be included.

Cleaning and sanitizing

The following elements make up a cleaning / sanitizing programme:

 Personal respirators must be cleaned and sanitized regularly;

 Respirators that may be worn by different workers must be cleaned and sanitized
before being worn by a different person;
 Cleaner sanitizing compounds that effectively clean the respirator and contain a
bactericidal agent are available commercially. The bactericidal agent is frequently a
quaternary ammonium compound.
 For personally allocated respirators, equipment wipe are available containing these
compounds;
 Alternatively, respirators can be washed in a mild detergent solution (such as a
dishwashing liquid) and then immersed in a sanitizing solution. Commonly
recommended sanitizing solutions are an aqueous hypochlorite (bleach) solution and
aqueous iodine solution; 50 ppm of chlorine and iodine, respectively. The
recommended immersion time is 2 min;
 Strong cleaning and sanitizing agents and many solvents can damage rubber and
elastomeric (rubber-like) respirator parts;
 Bear in mind that cleaning substances should be used with caution (e.g. the bleach
previously referred to, which in itself is a hazardous substance);
 Manufacturers will also provide information on the cleaning of their products - remember
to check the operating instructions which should give you the appropriate instructions.

Inspection

The following inspections are usually required:

 The respirator must be inspected by the wearer immediately prior to each use to ensure
that it is in proper working order;
 Emergency and rescue use respirators must be inspected at least monthly and a record
of inspection dates and findings kept in the proto log book kept for the purpose;
 All respirators that do not pass the inspection must be immediately removed from
service and repaired or replaced;
 The respirators should also be inspected during cleaning to ascertain whether they are
in good condition or if parts need to be replaced or repaired or whether they should be
discarded.
 Respirator inspection must include a check for tightness of connections and for the
condition of the respiratory inlet covering, the head harness, all valves, connecting
tubes, harness assemblies, hoses, filters, cartridges, canisters, end-of-service-life
indicator, electrical components, regulators, alarms, and other warning systems such as
colorimetric badges and vacuum leak testing of self-contained-self-rescuers (SCSR’s)
and shelf-life dates;

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 Compressed gas cylinders on self-contained breathing apparatus must be checked to

ensure that they are fully charged according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Repair

Replacement of other than disposable parts and any repair should be done only be
personnel with adequate training and qualifications in the proper maintenance and
assembly of the respirators. Replacement parts must be only those designated for the
specific respirator being required. Failure to do so may result in malfunction of the
respirator.

Storage

 The respirators must be properly stored in order to protect them from dust, sunlight,
excessive heat, extreme cold, excessive moisture, damaging chemicals, and physical
damage from things such as vibration and shock;

 Tool boxes, paint-spray booths, and change-house lockers are not appropriate storage
locations unless they are protected from contamination, distortion, and damage;

 Emergency and rescue use respirators that are located in the work area must be readily
accessible and their location must be clearly marked;

 SCSR’s must be worn at all times or be readily to hand in the case of certain
occupations, e.g. fitters who have to work under vehicles or in confined spaces, etc.

Effective shelf life

Some respirators (using specialised filter media) may have limited shelf life. This should be
checked form time to time. In addition, SCSR’s are to be subjected to test protocols that are
prescribed by the Chief Inspector in Specific Directives. You should keep abreast of these
and be able to answer basic questions on the requirements contained therein.

2. TERMINOLOGY

 Penetration rate:

- Usually applies to the time that it would take a (hazardous chemical) substance to
penetrate through a protective layer of clothing, protective shoes, gloves, etc.

 Resistance to biological and chemical attack:

- The ability of protective gear to withstand the detrimental effects of biological or

chemical agents or to prevent the passage thereof to the wearer.

 Effects of temperature extremes:

- The limitations to and ability of protective equipment to continue to operate under

extremes of temperature.

 Degradation in the presence of radiation and in corrosive atmospheres:

- As with resistance to biological and chemical attach, this is a rating, which indicates
how well the protective equipment will perform (and sometimes for how long) under
specific conditions involving either radiation or corrosive environments.

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SELF TEST

Without using references, answer the following questions:

1. Discuss the selection and use of personal protective equipment form an occupational
exposure perspective under the following headings:

1.1 Selection

1.2 Training

1.3 Fitment

1.4 Cleaning

1.5 Maintenance

1.6 Inspection

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1.7 Storage

1.8 Effective shelf life

2. Discuss the terms:

2.1 Penetration rate

2.2 Resistance to chemical and biological attack

2.3 Effects of temperature extremes

2.4 Degradation in the presence of radiation and in corrosive atmospheres

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OBJECTIVES

Without using references you must be able to:

 State the requirements of an ideal personal sampling instrument.

 Describe the requirements of an effective occupational exposure assessment strategy.

 State the purpose, principle of operation and points to be checked on the gravimetric dust
sampler, personal gravimetric samplers and the membrane filter method of sampling fibres
(RTM1 method).

 State the requirements of a suitable sound metering instrument and explain its principle of
operation.

 Explain a method of testing a noise producing appliance.

 State the purpose, principle of operation and the points to be checked on the sound frequency
analyser.

 Describe in detail the three methods of measuring equivalent noise exposure, Neq, and state
which is the recommended method.

 Explain the terms sound-meter weighting curves and equal loudness levels.

 Describe the recommended methods and strategies for making illumination surveys in
workplaces.

RESOURCES

 The notes which follow

 The Mine Health and Safety Act and Regulations

 British Standard: BS EN 689: 1996, BS 6069: Section 3.7: 1996, Workplace Atmospheres -
Guidance for the assessment of exposure by inhalation to chemical agents for comparison with
limit values and measurement strategy.

 Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene by Barbara A Plog 4th Ed. ISBN No. 0-87912-171-8 (hc),
pp 347-401.

 Measurements in Mine Environmental Control, 2nd Ed, Chapters 2, 4, 19 and 20.

 South African Bureau of Standards, Standard SABS 083-1993

 Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, pp 930-931

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1. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

1.1 Introduction

Assessing occupational exposure to air contaminants in a representative way is a

challenging task. It is necessary however to gather information, evaluate and hence
minimize workers exposure to chemical agents and other stressors.

Each mining stage or industrial activity may result in different environmental

conditions. Different job functions may be subject to different exposure conditions.
Distance to emission sources and physical parameters such as rates of release, air
current, meteorological variations, etc. all have a profound influence. The resulting
variability of exposure conditions is further enlarged by individual practices.

Rapid fluctuations in contaminant concentration or large variations over very small

distances are commonplace and site, moment and duration of sampling are
decisive. Some measurements on a given day or period may, for example, give an
insufficient representation of the actual variability of individual polluted air exposure
characteristics.

The sampling equipment often introduces its own limitations, sometimes critical and
the analytical steps add further difficulties or uncertainties.

In this variety of situations and difficulties, assessments may be undertaken with

very different motives, purposes, and practices. It is therefore essential to
harmonize basic concepts and actions. In order to guarantee the quality of
assessments and, if necessary, to improve work conditions, professional judgement
also has to be exercised.

1.2 Definitions

Exposure

This is the presence of a chemical agent in the air within the breathing area of a
worker or of some other stressor. In the first instance, it is described in terms of
concentration of the agent as derived from exposure measurements and referred to
the same reference period as that used for the limit value. In the second instance it
may be expressed in terms of an outcome such as a physiological condition (e.g.
stress related fatigue).

Chemical Agent

Any chemical element or compound, on its own or admixed as it occurs in the

natural state or as produced by any work activity, whether or not produced
intentionally and whether or not available commercially.

Work Pattern

The definable series of activities for the periods under consideration.

Workplace

The workplace is the defined area in which the work activities are carried out.

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Limit values

Occupational exposure limit values or TLV’s as relevant i.t.o. legislation or from

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) data when the
substance is NOT listed in the new Mine Health and Safety Act Regulations - which
are to be published within the foreseeable future.

Reference Period

The specified period of time stated for the limit value of a specific agent. The
reference period is usually 8 hours (for a 40 hour, 5 day week).

Personal Sampler (or Personal Sampling Device or Dosimeter)

A device attached to a person that samples air in the breathing area or measures
any other exposure level under observation.

1.3 General

These are two phases involved in the process of monitoring occupational

exposures:

 An occupational exposure assessment (OEA) which is the exposure is compare

with the limit value, and;
 Periodic measurements (PM) to regularly check if exposure conditions have
changed.

The occupational exposure assessment is usually applied to the first evaluation

(that is, when you don’t yet know what the average exposures are) and is repeated
if there be any significant change in the working conditions, mining process,
products chemicals or limit values. In this first phase no formal scheme of evaluation
has to be followed, but it is left open to the professional judgement of the appointed
person(s) to interpret and apply the required strategy.

In the second phase, the frequency of the periodic measurements depends on the
result of previous measurements. You are referred to the ‘Guideline for the
Compilation of a Mandatory Code of Practice for an Occupational Health
Programme - No. 1, Personal Exposure to Airborne Pollutants” which is also to be
published by the Department of Minerals and Energy in the near future and which
will give you guidance as to how you should compile your regular sampling strategy.

The requirements for such future periodic measurements will have been established
as a result of the initial OEA or subsequent amendments to it, i.e. once you have an
understanding of the results of your initial assessment, or if conditions change in
your ongoing measurements, you may have to adjust how often you measure, and
even where and when you measure. The periodic measurements follow a
procedure, which you need to develop and which is defined in the occupational
exposure assessment.

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1.4 The Occupational Exposure Assessment

1.4.1 Assessment strategy

A) GENERAL

The work pattern and workplace under consideration have to be

described within the occupational exposure assessment.

The occupational exposure assessment comprises three steps:

 Identification of potential exposure and / or hazards (list of

substances);
 Determination of workplace factors; (things that influence the
degree of risk of exposure) and
 Assessment of exposures (the actual measurement and
interpretation of results.

B) IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL EXPOSURE

The preparation of a list of all chemical and physical stressors in the

workplace concerned is an essential first step to the identification of
the potential for hazardous exposure. The list includes, as far as any
of them can contribute to exposures, primary products, impurities,
intermediates, final products, reaction products and by products. You
will recall that in the first module the discussion dealt with the
importance of gaining an understanding of the process, the
substances used or to which people may be exposed because of the
process, and that is what is meant here.

Appropriate limit values have to be obtained (refer to the MH&S Act

Regulations) and where these are not available other criteria may be
used for the purpose (e.g. ACGIH limits).

In the case of a process not yet in operation this identification may be

partially carried out by using relevant available data, e.g. from data
available from another, similar process, or by modelling what should be
emitted, but such identification will need to be confirmed at a later stage.

C) DETERMINATION OF WORKPLACE FACTORS

In this step the work processes and procedures are evaluated to

gauge the potential for exposure to chemical agents and stressors by
a detailed review of, for example:

 Job functions: i.e. tasks or activities of the worker;

 Work patterns and techniques;
 Production processes;
 Workplace configuration;
 Safety precautions and procedures;
 Ventilation installations and other forms of engineering control;

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 Emission sources;
 Exposure times;
 Workload.

D) ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE

An assessment of exposures which brings together the identification of

potential exposures, the workplace factors and the links between them,
requires a structured approach and may be conducted in three stages:

 An initial appraisal;
 A basic survey;
 A detailed survey.

For the comparison with the limit value the data about temporal (i.e.
time related) distribution of the concentrations of the substances in
the workplace air have to be collected.

However, it is not necessary to use every stage of the assessment. If it

is expected that the exposure exceeds the occupational exposure limit
(OEL) value or if it is clearly determined that the exposure is well below
the limit value, then the occupational exposure assessment can be
concluded and action taken in accordance with what is found. This
means that, in the event that exposures are high, you may have to
initiate immediate corrective action (called “intervention”) or, if the
exposure is very low, you can leave further action for some later time,
once the more important exposures have received the necessary
attention.

Step 1: The initial appraisal:

The initial appraisal, by referring to the list of chemical agents (see B

above) and the workplace factors (see C above) will give you an
indication of the likelihood of exposure.

The variables affecting the airborne concentrations of substances

close to an individual are:

 The number of sources from which agents are released;

 The production rat in relation to production capacity;
 The rate of release from each source;
 The type and position of each source;
 The dispersal of the agents by air movement;
 The type and effectiveness of exhaust and ventilation systems.

The variables related to the individual’s actions and behaviour are:

 How close the individual is to the sources;

 Length of time spent in an area;
 The individual’s own work practices.

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If this initial appraisal shows that the presence of an agent in the air
or stressor at the workplace cannot for certain be ruled out this agent
and/or stressor needs further assessment or measurement.

Step 2: The Basic Survey:

Once the initial appraisal has been concluded, the basic survey
serves to provide quantitative information about exposure of the
workers concerned, taking particular account of tasks with high
exposures. Possible sources of information are:

 Earlier measurements (e.g. from the previous gravimetric

sampling programme, noise assessments, etc.)
 Measurements from comparable installations or work processes;
 Reliable calculations based upon relevant quantitative data.

If the information obtained is insufficient to enable a valid comparison

to be made with the occupational exposure limit values (OEL’s), it
has to be supplemented by workplace measurements.

Step 3: The Detailed Survey:

The detailed survey is aimed at providing validated and reliable

information on exposure when the exposure is closed to the limit
value or the initial appraisal and / or the basic survey data have not
been conclusive.

1.4.2 Measurement Strategy

For the purposes of obtaining quantitative data on exposures by

measurement, an approach should be taken which enables the most
efficient use of resources.

Where it is suspected that exposure levels are well below or above the limit
values, these clear cases may be confirmed by the use of techniques which
are easily applied (e.g. chemical detector tubes, colourimetric badges, etc)
and which may be less accurate. Other possibilities may be worst case
measurements, sampling near emission sources or screening
measurements. Thus, in these cases, the occupational exposure
assessment may often be completed without further investigation.

In other cases, where exposures are suspected to be close to the OEL’s, it

will be necessary to undertake a more accurate investigation, making full
use of the capabilities of instrumental and analytical techniques, where
appropriate.

A) SELECTION OF WORKERS FOR EXPOSURE MEASUREMENTS -

PERSONAL SAMPLING

Subdivide the exposed population into homogeneous groups with

respect to exposure. The variability of exposure levels is smaller for
well-defined groups than for the exposed workforce as a whole.
Thus, where a group of workers is performing identical or similar
tasks at the same place that has a similar exposure, sampling a
representative of the group may be carried out within that group.

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An homogeneous group can be defined as being “a group of uniform

structure or composition throughout or - of having a property that if
each variable is replaced by a constant times that variable, the
constant can be factored out” (Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary - 1995).

Groupings have the practical advantage that resources can be

concentrated on those groups of workers with the highest exposure.

It is necessary to verify that groups have been properly selected by

critical study of the work patterns and examination of the preliminary
sampling data.

Within a homogeneous group exposure patterns will still be subject to

both random and systematic variations. Professional judgement as to
the homogeneity of the defined groups is essential. However, as a
rule of thumb, if an individual exposure is less than half or greater
than twice the arithmetic mean, the relevant work factors should be
closely re-examined to determine whether the assumption of
homogeneity was correct. This means that any one result from a
homogeneous group should not be less than half, or greater than
twice the arithmetic mean of all of the samples taken for that group.

Upon receipt of measurement results, homogeneous groups must be

continually revised and split so as to ensure as accurate as possible
the homogeneity of the group, typically by applying the rule of thumb
given above.

Professional judgement is also required when deciding on sample

size, particularly when small groups are concerned. However, as a
general rule, sampling should be carried out for at least one
employee in ten in a properly selected homogeneous group.

B) FIXED POINT MEASUREMENTS

Fixed-point measuring systems may be used if the results make it

possible to assess exposure of the worker at the workplace.

Samples for determination of respiratory exposures should as far as

possible be taken at breathing height and in the immediate vicinity of
workers. If in doubt the point of greatest risk is to be taken as the
measuring point.

For surface operations where people are working in the same

environment within a building, this type of measurement procedure
could be used. It is however recommended that personal sampling,
as described in (A) above, be practised.

C) SELECTION OF MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS

Representative measurements

Taking into account the possible influences of all relevant workplace

factors, measurement conditions have to be selected in such a way
that the measurement results give a representative view of exposure
under working conditions.

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The best estimate of an individual’s exposure is obtained by taking

personal exposure samples for the entire working period. Full
information on the variation of exposures may be obtained with direct
reading instruments or by providing fresh samples as work activities
change. This optimum is not always practical and the distribution of
actual sampling time should be arranged so that it mostly covers
those activities about which there is least information about the likely
exposures.

Measurements should be performed on sufficient days and during

various specific operations in order to gain insight into the pattern of
exposure. It is important to consider different episodes during which
exposure conditions may vary (night and day cycles, seasonal
variations, etc.)

Worst-case measurements

When it is possible to clearly identify areas where higher exposures

occur, e.g. a high emission due to certain working activities, sampling
periods can be selected in which these areas are contained. This
approach is called worst case sampling.

Worst case conditions may be discovered by screening

measurements, which can show the variations of concentrations in
time and space.

If, for the purposes of determining the 8 hour time-weighed average

exposure, the concentrations found in these cases are presumed to
apply for the whole of the working period, then this presumption will
err on the side of safety. Thus, sampling efforts can be concentrated
on periods with relatively unfavourable conditions.

D) MEASUREMENT PATTERN

The pattern of sampling can be influenced by a number of practical

issues, such as the frequency and duration of particular tasks and he
optimal use of occupational hygiene and analytical resources. Within
these constraints the pattern needs to be arranged so that the data
are representative of identified tasks for known periods. This is
particularly important for the many workplaces where the work is
varied throughout the work period which itself may be interrupted and
not approximating to an 8 hour total period per day.

Provided that the concentration patterns during a working period do

not change significantly, sampling times may be chosen which do not
cover the entire period. The duration of an individual sample is often
dictated by constraints of the method of sampling and analysis in
practice.

However, unsampled time remains a serious weakness in the

credibility of any exposure measurement. During this time careful
observation of events is necessary. The assumption that changes
have not occurred in the unsampled period have to be always
critically examined.

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1.4.3 Measurement Procedure

The measurement procedure needs to give results representative of worker

exposure. To measure the exposure of the worker at the workplace,
personal sampling devices should be used. When possible, these should be
attached to worker’s bodies.

The measurement procedure should address and identify / describe:

 The agents;
 The sampling procedure’;
 The analytical procedure;
 The sampling locations;
 The duration of sampling;
 The timing and the interval between measurements;
 Further technical instructions concerning the measurements;
 The jobs to be monitored.

1.4.4 Exposure to Mixtures

If workers are exposed simultaneously or consecutively to more than one agent,

this fact needs to be taken into consideration. The potential accumulative effect
(synergism) or (additive) effects need also to be considered.

Synergism is when the joint exposure risks are increased by some factor (one
risk is multiplied with the other, e.g. tuberculosis and silica dust exposure).

Additive effects is when one risk is added to the next. You are again referred
to the guideline on personal exposure to airborne pollutants referred to
before and which is to be published soon, as well as to your own code of
practice, which your mine will have to compile in response to that guideline.

1.4.5 Reports and Records

Reports should be written of the occupational exposure assessment and of

any periodic measurement. Each report should give reasons for the
procedures adopted in the particular workplace.

The report should contain:

 The name of the person(s) or institutions undertaking the assessment

and the measurements;
 The name of the substances considered;
 Name and address of company;
 The description of the workplace factors including the working conditions
during the measurements;
 The purpose of the measurement procedure.
 The measuring procedure;
 The time schedule (date, beginning and end of sampling);

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 The occupational exposure concentrations;
 All events or factors liable to influence appreciably the results;
 Details of quality assurance if any;
 Result of the comparison with the limit value;
 The observer’s name;
 The type and the serial number (if applicable) of the equipment used
(e.g. the dosimeter, noise level meter, etc.)

In addition to the above, in terms of Section 12, subsection (3) of the

MH&SA, the manager must keep a record of all occupational hygiene
measurements in terms of subsection 12(1) in a manner that can be linked
as far as practicable to each employee’s record of medical surveillance.

The practitioner may, in this case, resort to either a manual or computerised

system whereby this information is transferred. These may have to be
customised in accordance with the operation’s specific needs or commercial
programs can be acquired to perform this task.

Care needs obviously be taken to ensure that confidentiality of medical

information is not breached, which implies that the record / data base will
most likely be vested with the occupational medical practitioner (OMP). Of
importance is the fact that the communication between the OHP and OMP
needs to be effective if exposure history and medical manifestation of
symptoms is to be meaningful, the consequence being another paper based
“loss control” type system, which may be ineffectual and costly.

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SELF TEST

Without using reference:

1. Briefly describe the two phases involved in the process of monitoring occupational
exposures:

2. Briefly discuss the occupational exposure assessment strategy under the following
headings:

2.1 Identification of potential exposure and / or hazards.

2.2 Determination of workplace factors (list 9)

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2.3 Assessment of exposures under the following sub-headings:

 An initial appraisal;

 A basic survey;

 A detailed survey.

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2.4 Define “homogeneous group”

2.5 List eight aspects that the measurement procedure should address and identify /
describe

2.6 Describe what is meant by “synergism”

2.7 List thirteen aspects that should be included in a report on occupational exposure
assessments

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2. PERSONAL SAMPLING EQUIPMENT

2.1 The Ideal Personal Sampler

The ideal personal sampling equipment should have the following attributes:

The should be:

 Light
 Small
 Robust
 Accurate
 Reliable
 Cheap

2.2 The gravimetric dust sampler

You are referred to Chapters 2 and 4 of “Measurements in Mine Environmental

Control”, 2nd edition, 1988 for detailed information, checks on and the use of this
instrument.

2.3 The personal gravimetric sampler

You are referred to Chapter 2 of “Measurements in Mine Environmental Control”, 2nd

edition, 1988 for the relevant information on this instrument.

2.4 The membrane filter method of sampling fibres (RTM1 method).

PURPOSE

To sample for the presence of fibres in the atmosphere

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

The gravimetric sampling train consists of:-

1. An approved battery-operated portable gravimetric sampling pump of

sufficient capacity, i.e. 1 l/min of air flow rate, a battery charger and a pump
calibrating kit.
2. Membrane filters (mixed esters of cellulose or cellulose nitrate) of 1,2
micrometer pore size with printed grids and a diameter of 25 mm.
3. Filter support pads, 25 mm diameter.
4. Open-faced filter holders, fitted with protective cowls, to suit filter diameter.
5. Flexible tubing of sufficient length for personal sampling and for static
sampling, including clips.

AND

6. A field book and writing equipment.

7. A measuring tape.

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8. A set of small screwdrivers
9. Sufficient belts to be worn by workers during personal sampling procedures.
10. A face mask of an approved type to be worn during sampling operations.
11. Plastic bags (well sealed) to carry unused filter holders.
12. Safety glasses where required.
13. A reliable watch
14. Sticky tape (for static sampling)
15. A sampling schedule sheet with written instructions showing the surveyor
which person, occupation or source must be sampled.
16. The pump carrying case.
17. The filter holder carrying case should be a rigid container with soft packing to
prevent crushing and vibration of the filter.

PREPARATION OF PUMPS

1. Fully charge the pump/s, using the charger, in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
2. When required, take a fully charged spare battery along to the workplace.
3. Using the prescribed calibrator (such as a soap bubble meter or equivalent)
calibrate the pump’s constant flow device to handle 1 l/min of air, with a
complete sampling train incorporated.
4. Calibrate the pump and sampling train again after completion of the
sampling procedure to ensure constant air flow rates.
5. Calibrate pumps at intervals not exceeding 40 hours of operation. Charging
or replacement of the battery would become essential at this stage.
6. Calibrate immediately after a pump has received harsh treatment.
7. The pump should be calibrated and used strictly in accordance with the
requirements set out in Chapter 2 of “Measurements In Mine Environmental
Control” published by the Chamber of Mines of South Africa.

PREPARATION OF FILTER HOSES

1. The preparation should be conducted in an asbestos free room with a

controlled atmosphere.
2. Wash the filter holder in clean tap water and dry thoroughly with a lint free
cloth.
3. Lay out the filter holder assembly on a clean surface.
4. Place a support pad in the bottom part of the holder, using flat-tipped
tweezers.
5. Using tweezers and ensuring that the dividing paper is not taken with the
filter, place the filter on the pad with the grid lines facing upwards.
6. Close the filter - the cowl first, and then the top.
7. Fit the two plastic plugs to the holder inlet and outlet ports.
8. Use adhesive tape to tape cover both taper joints of the holder to ensure
robust assembly, and to prevent leakage.

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9. Label the filter holder individually and clearly.
10. Keep the box of unused filters closed when not in use to avoid
contamination.
11. From each batch of 25 filters in a box one will be examined by the
microscopist for contamination by dust.
12. Transport filter holders in the prescribed carrying case to the workplace.

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

PERSONAL SAMPLING

1. Visit the sampling sit first to plan the sampling strategy, and to determine the
amount of samples to be taken to obtain representative counts and to satisfy
legal requirements.

2. The sampling strategy should be planned as follows:

(a) Divide the number of totally exposed workers into groups doing
identical or similar tasks in the workplace.

(b) Deal separately with different groups performing identical or similar

tasks in different buildings.

(c) Sample at least 1 in 10 workers of a group performing similar tasks.

(d) Select such workers at random.

(e) The timing of such measurements shall adhere to legal requirements.

3. Assemble the sampling train by attaching one end of the flexible tube to the
pump inlet port and the other end to the outlet port of the filter holder.

4. Ensure that the connections are airtight. Check for leaks by switching on the
pump. Because the filter holder is still sealed at the inlet port, no air should
pass through the pump. The airflow indicator on the pump should show zero
and oscillate slightly. If airflow is indicated, find and repair the leak
immediately.

5. During personal sampling attach the pump by means of a belt to the

worker’s waist.

6. The pump should rest at the back or side of the worker’s waist, and the
flexible tube should extend up his back, over his shoulder, and be pinned
onto his overall lapel so that the filter holder’s inlet port faces downwards, as
near as possible to the worker’s nose.

7. Open the filter holder for sampling by removing the top lid, not only the small
plastic plug.

8. Switch on the sampling pump with a small screwdriver.

9. Read and record the following information:-

(a) The time the sample commenced.

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(b) The worker’s name and task performed.

(c) The total time per shift the worker spends inside the asbestos
environment.

(d) The filter holder identification number.

(e) The sampling pump identification number.

(f) The initial air flow rate read on the pump rotameter.

(g) Make a sketch of the area and operations, the number of workers
present and any relevant information for reporting and recording
purposes, including any mechanical ventilation exhaust systems.

(h) Comment on general impressions of the cleanliness of the working

area.

(i) Any other relevant information that could have a bearing on the
results, e.g. the method of floor cleaning operations - sweeping wet
or dry, or by vacuum-cleaner, and whether or not the workers clothes
are very dirty or seem to be regularly washed. A dirty overall will
contaminate the filter when the worker moves around.

10. In the meantime the worker must continue with his work as usual.

11. Attach a sampling train to the next selected worker.

12. Watch the persons being sampled to ensure that they operate under normal
conditions. Any abnormality that occurs during the shift should be noted on
the standard sampling schedule sheet.

13. The duration of the sampling time per worker should adhere to the following
guidelines:-

(a) Visibly bad dusty conditions - sample for 5 minutes.

(b) Barely visible dust - sample for 30 minutes.

(c) When no dust is visible - sample for 60 minutes.

(d) When sampling in parallel with another pump to check for accuracy -
sample for 120 minutes.

14. Check the pumps regularly during operation for normal operation. Terminate
the sampling at the first evidence of any pump problem. Do not re-adjust the
flow rate - use another pump.

15. At the conclusion of the sampling period, note and record the following:-

(a) Final pump flow rate.

(b) Time of termination.

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16. After switching off the pump by means of a small screwdriver, remove the
holder and immediately replace the holder’s top (with its plug in position) and
seal with adhesive tape. Plug the bottom inlet port.

17. Store the holder in its plastic bag, and seal it.

18. Remove the rest of the sampling train from the worker and re-pack into the
carrying case. Close the case immediately to prevent contamination.

19. If the airflow rate varied more than 10% during the sampling procedure, then
the sample must be rejected and taken again.

20. To avoid re-using a rejected filter, remove the identification number from the
holder, or damage the actual filter with your pen or screwdriver.

21. One filter and holder in 25 must not be used or opened at all, but must be
subjected to the same conditions as the actual holders. This holder must be
used and identified as the ‘contamination check’ sample. Even if only three
or five samples are taken, one extra holder-filter assembly must always be
used as the contamination check unit.

22. Submit the sealed plastic bag with the filter holders, plus the sampling
schedule, to the dust counting laboratory.

STATIC DUST SAMPLING:

1. The equipment needed is the same as for ‘personal sampling’, with the
possible addition of a tripod.

2. The surveyor must again follow the instructions from his employer with care,
as one or more samples per machine, for instance, could be required, often
a sample is taken to measure “background conditions”.

3. Static sampling is performed in the workplace to:

(a) Detect the source of the dust.

(b) Determine the magnitude of such a source.

(c) Demarcate asbestos zones.

(d) Determine the efficiencies of dust control equipment and methods.

4. Using the tripod when necessary, the filter holder inlet must be positioned at
nose height, pointing downwards so as not to collect coarse dust.

5. Measure as near as possible to a dust source.

6. Give due consideration to the direction of the prevailing air currents in the
sampling area, as well as the dust source and job locations when siting the
static sampler.

7. Ensure that the number and locations of sampling points in the area are
such that the results as a whole truly represent the asbestos dust
concentrations.

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ASBESTOS WASTE DISPOSAL

Before leaving the area check that all dust collected by exhaust ventilation system
bag houses or by vacuum-cleaning equipment is disposed of in the manner
prescribed by the Occupational Health and Safety Act.

A company specialising (and approved) in the removal of hazardous substances

should remove and dispose of the asbestos dust. Written instructions from your
company should be issued to warn the disposal experts of the hazard that they are
handling.

2.5 The sound metering instrument

You should read Chapter 19 of Measurements in Mine Environmental Control

(1988) as well as the operating instructions for the type of sound measuring
equipment in use at your place of work.

2.6 Testing a noise producing appliance

You should read Chapter 19 of Measurements in Mine Environmental Control

(1988) as well as the operating instructions for the type of sound measuring
equipment in use at your place of work. Also read pages 934 to 940 of
Environmental Engineering in South African Mines.

2.7 The sound frequency analyser.

You should read Chapter 19 of Measurements in Mine Environmental Control

(1988) as well as the operating instructions for the type of sound measuring
equipment in use at your place of work.

2.8 Measuring equivalent noise exposure, Neq (three methods of) and state, which
is the recommended method.

The soon to be released “Guideline for the Compilation of a Mandatory Code of

Practice for an Occupational Health Management Programme - Noise Exposure” as
well as your own Code of Practice based on that Guideline must be studied once it
becomes available. In addition, the respective methods are also discussed in SABS
083, (South African Bureau of Standards: Code of Practice - The Measurement and
Assessment of Occupational Noise for Hearing Conservation Purposes) which is the
required standard on which your operation’s Hearing Conservation Programme is
based. (assuming you resort under the Mine Health and Safety Act)

In essence, the three methods are:

1. Measuring individual exposures for specific time periods and operations

(exposures) and manually integrating the results (averaging) to determine an
average exposure.

2. Measuring individual exposures for specific time intervals and operations

(exposures) using an “integrating” sound level meter, which will then
automatically give the corrected (integrated) result.

3. Using personal dosimeter, which will give the same result as in (2) above,
but which will continually sample for the entire period in question. With the
advent of the latest generation of computerised equipment, it is possible to
download to a personal computer all of the information gathered, obtain an

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 equivalent exposure level, risk ratings and graphic representation of the
exposures, including a continuous “average”, “minimum” and “maximum”
sound pressure level exposure plot.

Obviously, with the third method described above (and provided that the equipment
used complies with the SABS 083 Standard requirements) would give results far
superior that any manual or semi-manual method could.

2.9 Sound-meter weighting curves and equal loudness levels

Read pages 930 and 931 of Environmental Engineering in South African Mines for
more information on these aspects.

2.10 Recommended methods and strategies for making illumination surveys in

workplaces

You should read Chapter 20 of Measurements in Mine Environmental Control

(1988) as well as the operating instructions for the type of light measuring
equipment in use at your place of work.

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 OH 7

SELF TEST

Without using references:

1. State the requirements of an ideal personal sampling instrument.

2. State the purpose, principle of operation and points to be checked on:

2.1 the gravimetric dust sampler

2.2 personal gravimetric samplers

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 OH 7

2.3 the membrane filter method of sampling fibres (RTM1 method)

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 OH 7

3. State the requirements of a suitable sound metering instrument and explain its principle of
operation

4. Explain a method of testing a noise producing appliance

5. State the purpose, principle of operation and the points to be checked on the sound
frequency analyser

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 OH 7

6. Describe in detail the three methods of measuring equivalent noise exposure, Neq, and
state which is the recommended method

7. Explain the terms sound-meter weighting curves and equal loudness levels

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 OH 7

8. Describe the recommended methods and strategies for making illumination surveys in
workplaces.

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