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PHYSICS PROJECT

ON DC Current

By-:Ayush Chandra
Class 12D
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I  would like to express my special thanks of gratitude
to my teacher Yogendra sir as well as our principals
Sangeeta ma’am and Batra ma’am who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic of DC Current, which also helped me in doing a lot
of Research and I came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and
friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the limited time frame.
INDEX
Sr no Topic Pg
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 Some important 2-3
terms
3 Ohm’s Law 4-6
4 DC circuit 6-8
5 Network 8
terminology
6 Potentiometer 9-12
7 Kirchhoff laws 12-14
8 Wheatstone Bridge 14-19
9 Superposition 20-22
theorem
10 Norton’s theorem 22-26
11 Node Analysis 27-28
12 Thevenin’s 28-31
Theorem
13 Bibliography 32
INTRODUCTION
What is DC current: Direct current (DC) is one-
directional flow of electric charge. An electrochemical cell is a
prime example of DC power. Direct current may flow through
a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow
through semiconductors, insulators, or even through
a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric current
flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating
current (AC). A term formerly used for this type of current
was galvanic current.
Direct current was produced in 1800 by Italian
physicist Alessandro Volta's battery, his Voltaic pile. The nature of
how current flowed was not yet understood. French
physicist André-Marie Ampère conjectured that current travelled
in one direction from positive to negative. When French
instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii built the first dynamo electric
generator in 1832, he found that as the magnet used passed
the loops of wire each half turn, it caused the flow of electricity
to reverse, generating an alternating current. At Ampère's
suggestion, Pixii later added a commutator, a type of "switch"
where contacts on the shaft work with "brush" contacts to
produce direct current.

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Some important terms-
Unit of Charge:
The practical unit of charge is coulomb.
One Coulomb= charge on 6.28 x 1018 electrons
Free Electrons: The valence electrons which are loosely attached to
the nucleus of an atom and free to move when external energy is applied
are called free electrons.

Electrical Potential: The capacity of charged body to do work is called


electrical potential.

Electrical Potential

V
Unit of electrical potential is Vollts or Joules/Coulomb.
Def: A body is said to have an electric potential of 1 Volt if 1 Joule of
work is done to charge the body to 1 coulomb.

Potential Difference:
The difference in electrical potential of the two charged bodies is called
potential difference. Unit of potential difference is Volts.

Electric Current: In metallic wire, a large number of electrons are


available which move from one atom to other at random.

When an electrical potential is applied across a metallic wire, the


loosely attached free electron start moving towards positive terminal of
the cell.

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Thus, continuous flow of electrons in an electric circuit is called
electric current Definition-
Current is rate of flow of electrons i.e., charge flowing per second.

I=
The unit of current is Ampere (A)
Pg 2
E.M.F. (Electromotive force) and potential difference:
E.m.f is the force that causes an electric current to flow in an electric
circuit.
In fact, it is not a force but it is an energy.
E.m.f: The electromotive force is the amount of energy supplied by
the source to each coulomb of charge.
Potential Difference: The potential difference is the amount of
energy used by the one coulomb of charge in moving from one
point to the other.
In the following figure battery has emf of 12V and the potential
difference between A and B is 7V.

Ohm’s Law
3
Ohm’s laws state that the current through any two points of the
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied
across the conductor, provided physical conditions i.e.
temperature, etc. do not change. It is measured in (Ω)

ohm. Mathematically it is expressed as

This constant is also called the resistance (R) of the conductor (or
circuit)

R=
In a circuit, when current flows through a resistor, the potential
difference across the resistor is known as voltage drops across it, i.e., V
= IR.

Limitations of Ohm’s Law

• Ohm’s law is not applicable in unilateral networks. Unilateral


networks allow the current to flow in one direction. Such types of
networks consist of elements like a diode, transistor, etc.

• It is not applicable for the non-linear network (network


containing non-linear elements such as electric arc etc). In the
nonlinear network, the parameter of the network is varied with
the voltage and current. Their parameter likes resistance,
inductance, capacitance and frequency, etc., not remain constant
with the times. So, ohms law is not applicable to the nonlinear
network. Ohm’s law is used for finding the resistance of the
circuit and also for knowing the voltage and current of the circuit.

Resistance: The opposition offered to flow of current is called


resistance. It is represented by R. The unit of resistance is ohms (Ω)

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Law of Resistance: The resistance of a wire depends upon
1. It is directly proportional to its length.
R α L ………………. 1
2. It is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section. 1
R α ……………….2
𝐴

3. It depends upon the nature of material of which the wire is made.


4. It also depends upon the temperature of the wire.
Combining 1 and 2

ρL
R=
𝐴

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DC circuit
D.C Circuit is of two types:
1. Series Circuit
2. Parallel Circuit

Current in Parallel Circuit:

Then

Voltage in Series Circuit:

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Total resistance of the circuit is R=R1+R2
Put the values of R in eqn 3 and 4

Network Terminology
1. Electric Network:

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Electric network is interconnection of electric components. E.g. Batteries, resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
2. Electric Circuit:
The path for flow of electric
current is called electric circuit.
3. Active Elements:
The elements which supply
energy to the circuit. In fig V1
and V2 are active elements.
4. Passive Elements:
The elements which receive
energy. In fig R1, R2 and R3 are
passive elements.
5. Node:
Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected together. In Fig.
A, B, C and E are nodes.
6. Junction:
Junction is a point in the network where three or more circuit elements are
connected together.
It is a point where current is divided. In Fig. B and E are junctions.
7. Loop:
The closed path of a network. E.g. ABEFA, BCDEB and ABCDEFA are loops.
8. Mesh:
The elementary form of loop which cannot be further divided is
called mesh. E.g., ABEFA, BCDEB are mesh.
9. Branch:
Part of a network which lies between two junction points. In fig. ABEFA, BCDEB
AND BE are the three branches.

Potentiometer
What is potentiometer?
Potentiometer working can be explained when the potentiometer is
understood. It is defined as a three-terminal resistor having either sliding or
rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. In order to use the
potentiometer as a rheostat or variable resistor, it should have only two
terminals with one end and the wiper.
Following are the terms used to describe types of potentiometers:

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• Slider pot or slide pot: This can be adjusted by sliding the wiper right or
left with a finger or thumb.
• Thumbwheel pot or thumb pot: This can be adjusted infrequently with
the help of small thumbwheel which is a small rotating potentiometer.
• Trimmer pot or trimpot: This can be adjusted once for fine tuning of an
electric signal.

Potentiometer working principle


The potentiometer consists of L which is a long resistive wire and a battery of
known EMF V whose voltage is known as driver cell voltage. Assume a primary
circuit arrangement by connecting the two ends of L to the battery terminals.
One end of the primary circuit is connected to the cell whose EMF E is to be
measured and the other end is connected to galvanometer G. This circuit is
assumed to be a secondary circuit.

The working principle depends on the potential across any portion of


the wire which is directly proportional to the length of the wire that
has a uniform cross-sectional area and current flow is constant.
Following is the derivation of used to explain the potentiometer
working principle:

V=IR (Ohm’s law)


Were,

I: current R=ρL
R: total resistance

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V: voltage V=IρLA
Were,
⍴: resistivity
A: cross-sectional area
With ⍴ and A constant, I is constant too for a rheostat.

LρA=K
V=KL
E=LρxA=
Kx
Where,
x: length of potentiometer wire
E: cell with Lower EMF
K: constant
The galvanometer G has null detection as the potential difference is equal to
zero and there is no flow of current. So, x is the length of the null point.
Unknown EMF can be found by knowing x and K.

E=LρxA=
Kx
Since the EMF has two cells, let L1 be the null point length of the first cell with
EMF E1 and L2 be the null point length of the second cell with EMF E2.

E1E2=L1L2

Types of potentiometers
There are basically two types of potentiometers that can be further divided
depending on the movement of the wiper. Following is the table when the
wiper is moving in a circular path which is known as rotary potentiometers

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Type Description Applications

Concentric Two potentiometers are adjusted individually Found in old car radios that were
pot with the help of concentric shafts used to control volume and tone

Single-turn Approximate rotation is 270 degrees in a single Used where a single turn is enough
pot rotation to control the resolution

Servo pot Used to adjust a servo motor automatically Used in remote-controls to control
the volume of an audio equipment

Following is the table when the wiper is moving along a linear path which is known as linear

potentiometers

Type Description Applications

Multi-turn A spindle is used for the construction of this kind Used where high precision and
slide of potentiometer resolutions are required

Slide pot High-quality faders are constructed using Used for the measurement of
conductive plastic distance

Dual-slide This is used to control dual slide and single slider Used where dual parallel
pot potentiometers that are parallel channels are to be controlled
Application of potentiometer
• Audio control: Both linear, as well as rotary potentiometers, are used to
control audio equipment for changing the loudness and other audio
related signals.
• Television: They are used to control the picture brightness, colour
response and contrast.
• Motion control: In order to create a closed-loop control, potentiometers
are used as position feedback devices known as a servomechanism.
• Transducers: As these give large output signals, they find applications in
designing of displacement transducers.

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL
Kirchhoff‟s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge

entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the

node”. In other words, the algebraic sum of all the currents entering

and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.

Kirchhoff‟s Current Law or KCL

Here, the three currents entering the node, I 1, I2, I3 are all positive in
value and the two currents leaving the node, I 4 and I5 are negative in
value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection
or junction of two or more current carrying paths or elements such as
cables and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a
node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff‟s current
law when analyzing parallel circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law


Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop
network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all
the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In
other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be
equal to zero.
Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law or KVL

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Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting
the direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and
returning back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain
the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final
voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff‟s voltage
law when analysing series circuits.

Analysis of simple circuits with Kirchhoff’s law

Q: Calculate current in given circuit using Kirchhoff's law.

Ans: Firstly we have to mark the direction of current in given circuit.

Junction b: I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

So, I3 = - (I1 + I2)

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I3 = - (171-64) = -107mA I3 = -107mA

Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit that is used to measure an
unknown resistance by balancing two legs of the circuit. The circuit
is used to provide accurate measurements. Wheatstone bridge consists
of four arms (R1, R2, R3, and R4) of which two arms have known
resistances. The other two arms consist of an unknown resistance and
a variable resistance. The Wheatstone bridge works on the null
deflection principle and is an application of Kirchhoff’s law.

What is a Wheatstone Bridge?


 Wheatstone bridge is used to calculate the unknown resistance
precisely. It consists of four resistors that are connected in a diamond
shape with the DC supply source connected across the top and bottom
points (C and D in the circuit) of the diamond and the output is taken
across the other two ends (A and B in the circuit).
 The Wheatstone bridge is composed of four resistances P, Q, R,
and X.
 Two legs have fixed resistance P and Q.
 Of the remaining two legs, one includes the component of the
unknown resistance x.
 One variable resistance, R is also connected on the fourth leg of
the Wheatstone bridge.

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Wheatstone Bridge
 In the above Wheatstone bridge diagram, E is the battery, G is the
galvanometer, and K is the Tapping key which helps in completing
the circuit so that current may flow through the circuit.
Working Principle of Wheatstone Bridge
 
The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection i.e. the
ratio of resistances is equal and no current flows through the electric
circuit.
 Under normal conditions, the Wheatstone bridge is in an
unbalanced condition where current flows through the
galvanometer.
 The bridge is in a balanced condition when no current flows
through the galvanometer by adjusting the variable and the known
resistance. 
Wheatstone Bridge Formula
The formula used for the Wheatstone bridge is:
X = Q×(R/P)
 
Where,
 X is the unknown resistance
 Q is the standard arm of the bridge
 R and P is the ratio of the arm of the bridge

What is a Wheatstone Bridge?

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Wheatstone bridge is used to calculate the unknown resistance
precisely. It consists of four resistors that are connected in a diamond
shape with the DC supply source connected across the top and bottom
points (C and D in the circuit) of the diamond and the output is taken
across the other two ends (A and B in the circuit).
 The Wheatstone bridge is composed of four resistances P, Q, R,
and X.
 Two legs have fixed resistance P and Q.
 Of the remaining two legs, one includes the component of the
unknown resistance x.
 One variable resistance, R is also connected on the fourth leg of
the Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone Bridge
 In the above Wheatstone bridge diagram, E is the battery, G is the
galvanometer, and K is the Tapping key which helps in completing the circuit
so that current may flow through the circuit.

Working Principle of Wheatstone Bridge


The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection i.e. the ratio of
resistances is equal and no current flows through the electric circuit.
 Under normal conditions, the Wheatstone bridge is in an unbalanced
condition where current flows through the galvanometer.
 The bridge is in a balanced condition when no current flows through the
galvanometer by adjusting the variable and the known resistance. 

Wheatstone Bridge Formula


The formula used for the Wheatstone bridge is:
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X = Q*(R/P)
 
Were,
 X is the unknown resistance
 Q is the standard arm of the bridge
 R and P is the ratio of the arm of the bridge

Wheatstone Bridge Derivation


Wheatstone Bridge Formula can be derived by – 
 Current I that originates from the battery E passes through the
circuit.
 When current I reach point A, it gets divided into two parts –
current I1 and current I2.
 Current I1 passes through the arm AB and current I2 passes
through the arm AD.
 When current I1 passes through point B it is further divided into two
parts I3 and I4.
 According to Kirchhoff’s law, we know that. 
I4 = I1 - I3

Working of Wheatstone Bridge


 I2 current passes through the arm AD and gets combined with the
current I3, together they make current I5 which moves through the
DC arm.
I5 = I2 + I3
 At point C both the current that is current I4 and I5 combine and as
a result of which we get current I. As we know.
I4 = I1 - I3 and I5 = I2 + I3
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 Now when we combine both the values of I4 and I5 we get
I4 + I5 = I1 - I3 + I2 + I3
 Now, when we eliminate the value of current I3 from the above
equation we get I4 + I5 = I1 +I2 and we know that I1 + I2 = I(According
to Kirchhoff law )
 Throughout the circulation of current in the circuit, we must keep
changing the value of R till there is no deflection in the
galvanometer (G).
 When there is no deflection in the galvanometer then the value of
I3 becomes zero(0).
 In this condition in which the value of I3 becomes zero or there is
no deflection in the galvanometer, this particular condition is
referred to as the balanced condition of the Wheatstone bridge. 
VA – VB = VAB (according to ohm's law V = IR)
Now,
VAB = VA – VB = I1P --- (Equation 1)
VBC = VB – VC = I1Q---(Equation 2)
VAD = VA – VD = I2R---(Equation 3)
VDC = VD – VC = I2X --- (Equation 4)
 Since we know that the potential difference between B and D will
be zero VB –VD = 0
VBD = G*I3 ( according to ohm's law )
 And we know that I3 = 0 therefore the potential difference between
VBD becomes zero that is VBD = 0. So VB = VD.
 On comparing the Equation 1 & 3, we get I1P = I2R --- (Equation 5)
 On comparing the Equation 2 & 4, we get I1Q = I2X --- ( EQUATION
6)
On dividing equation 6 by equation 5 we get the following result.
Q/P=X/R
Now from the above equation, we get X = Q*(R/P)

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Superposition theorem
Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral
network having more than one source, the response across any element
is the sum of the responses obtained from each source considered
separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance.
The superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or
more sources are present and connected. Resulting current in any branch
is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be produced in it.
Procedure for using superposition theorem
Step-1: Retain one source at a time in the circuit and replace all other
sources with their internal resistances.
Step-2: Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the single
source acting alone using the techniques discussed in lessons 3 and 4.
Step-3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the other independent sources.
Step-4: Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources

Numerical
Calculate the total voltage in given fig using Superposition theorem

We need to turn off the independent sources one at a time. To do so,


replace the current source with an open circuit and the voltage source
with a short circuit. Considering the voltage source

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We can use the voltage divider technique because its resistors, R1 and
R2, are connected in series with a voltage source. So here‟s the voltage
vo1 across resistor R2:

Considering Current source

We can use a current divider technique because the resistors are


connected in parallel with a current source. The current source provides
the following current i22 flowing through resistor R2:

We can use Ohm‟s law to find the voltage output vo2 across resistor R2

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Now find the total output voltage across R2 for the two independent
sources in Circuit C by adding vo1 (due to the source voltage vs) and
vo2 (due to the source current is). You wind up with the following
output voltage.

vo = vo1+vo2 vo = 2+2= 4 V

Norton’s Theorem
Statement:
Norton‟s Theorem states that – A linear active network consisting of the
independent or dependent voltage source and current sources and the
various circuit elements can be substituted by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance.
The current source being the short-circuited current across the load
terminal and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source
network.
The Norton‟s theorems reduce the networks equivalent to the circuit
having one current source, parallel resistance and load. Norton‟s
theorem is the converse of Thevenin‟s Theorem. It consists of the
equivalent current source instead of an equivalent voltage source as in
Thevenin‟s theorem.

Explanation of Norton’s Theorem


To understand Norton‟s Theorem in detail, let us consider a circuit
diagram given below

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In order to find the current through the load resistance IL as shown in
the circuit diagram above Step 1:

R eq

IL
Where, IL is the load current, Isc is the short circuit current
Req is the equivalentl resistance of the circuit, RL is the load resistance
of the circuit
Step 3: To find Req

Now the short circuit is removed, and the independent source is


deactivated as shown in the circuit diagram below and the value of the
equivalent resistance is calculated by:

R eq

So,

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Req= r1|| r3+ r2

Req=
Step 2: To find Isc

Now, the value of current I flowing in the circuit is found out by the
equation

And the short-circuit current ISC is given by the equation shown below:

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Norton’s


Theorem
Step 1 – Norton‟s equivalent circuit is drawn by keeping the equivalent
resistance Req in parallel with the short circuit current ISC.

Step 2 – Find the internal resistance Req of the source network by


deactivating the constant sources.

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Step 3 – Now short the load terminals and find the short circuit current
ISC flowing through the shorted load terminals using conventional
network analysis methods.

Step 4 – Reconnect the load resistance RL of the circuit across the load
terminals and find the current through it known as load current IL.

This is all about Norton‟s Theorem.

Numerical

Applying Norton‟s theorem, find the maximum power dissipated by the


resistor 6.2Ω under that situation

Solution of numerical

Step-1: Short the terminals „a‟ and „b‟ after disconnecting the 6.2
resistor. The Norton‟s current IN for the circuit shown in fig. is
computed by using „mesh-current‟ method.

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Norton‟s resistance RN is computed by replacing all sources by their
internal resistances while the short-circuit across the output terminal „a‟
and „b‟ is removed. From the circuit diagram fig., the Norton‟s
resistance is obtained between the terminals „a‟ and „b‟.

Pg 16
Note that the maximum power will dissipate in load resistance when
load resistance = Norton‟s resistance RN=RL=6.2Ω. To satisfy this
condition the value of the resistance can be obtained from equation of
RN we get R=2Ω. The circuit now replaced by an equivalent Norton‟s
current source.

The maximum power delivered by the given network to the load


RL=6.2Ω is thus given by

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Nodal Analysis in Electric
Circuits
Definition of Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis is a method that provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables. Nodal
Analysis is also called the Node-Voltage Method. In Node-Voltage
Method, we can solve for unknown voltages in a circuit using KCL.

Some Features of Nodal Analysis:

• Nodal Analysis is based on the application of the Kirchhoff‟s


Current Law (KCL).
• Having „n‟ nodes there will be „n-1‟ simultaneous equations to
solve.
• Solving „n-1‟ equations all the nodes voltages can be obtained.
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• The number of non reference nodes is equal to the number of
Nodal equations that can be obtained.

Types of Nodes in Nodal Analysis


• Non-Reference Node – It is a node which has a definite Node
Voltage. e.g. Here Node 1 and Node 2 are the Non Reference
nodes
• Reference Node – It is a node which acts a reference point to all
the other node. It is also called the Datum Node.

Solving of Circuit Using Nodal Analysis


Basic Steps Used in Nodal Analysis:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1, V2… Vn-1
to the remaining nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect
to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the non-reference nodes.
3. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node
voltages.

4. After the application of Ohm’s Law get the „n-1‟ node equations
in terms of node voltages and resistances.

5. Solve „n-1‟ node equations for the values of node voltages and
get the required node Voltages as result.

Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin‟s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several
voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in
series with a single resistance connected across the load“. In other
words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single
constant voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance)
connected to a load as shown below.
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Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of
power or battery systems and other interconnected resistive circuits
where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port”


network consisting of multiple resistive circuit elements and energy
sources can be replaced by one single equivalent resistance Rs and one
single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking
back into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.

Find the load current in 40 Ω in given fig using Thevenin’s theorem

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load
resistor connected across the terminals A-B, and remove any internal

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resistance associated with the voltage source(s). This is done by
shorting out all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v =
0, or open circuit any connected current sources making i = 0. The
reason for this is that we want to have an ideal voltage source or an
ideal current source for the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the
total resistance looking back from the terminals A and B with all the
voltage sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

10Ω resistor in parallel with 20Ω resistor

Rs = 10*20/10+20= 200/30= 6.67Ω

The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and
B when there is an open circuit between them. That is without the load
resistor RL connected.

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Bibliography
*Nootan
*CISCE.org
*google images

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