Fundamentals of Computers

&
Information Technology
For

B.B.A Semester-I
 Fundamentals of Computers

Unit-I: Introduction to Computers: what is a computer, characteristics of Computers,

Generations of Computers, Classifications of Computers, Basic Computer organization,
Applications of Computers. Input and Output Devices: Input devices, Output devices,
Softcopy devices, Hard copy devices. Computer Memory and Processors: Introduction,
Memory Hierarchy, Processor, Registers, Cache memory, primary memory, secondary
storage devices, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, hard disks, optical drives, USB flash
drivers, Memory cards, Mass storage devices, Basic processors architecture.

What is a Computer?
The term “Computer” is derived from the Latin word “Compute”, which means to
calculate. A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and
controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms. In
simple terms, a computer is an electronic device that performs diverse operations with
the help of instructions to process the information in order to achieve the desired
results. Computer application extends to cover huge area including education,
industries, government, medicine, scientific research etc.
A computer is one of the most influential forces available in modern times. Due
to its memory, high speed and perfection, its application can be extended to almost
infinite levels. Millions of complex calculations can be done in mere fraction of time.
Difficult decisions can be made with accuracy for comparatively little cost. Computers
are widely seen as instruments for future progress and as tools to achieve substantiality
by way of improved access to information by means of video conferencing and e-mail.
Indeed computers have left such on impression on modern civilization that we call this
era as the information age.

DEFINITION OF COMPUTER:
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. Data can
be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex,
weight, height, etc. of all the students in a class. Computer can also be defined in terms
of functions it can perform. A computer can i) accept data, ii) store data, iii) process data
as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as and when required and v) print the result
in desired format.

Characteristics of Computers:
The following are the characteristics of computer:
a) Speed:
Computers are capable of carrying out the task with enormous speed. Today’s
computers, according to their class, can perform from 4 MIPS (Millions of instructions
per second) to 100 MIPS. What may take days for manual calculations may take only a
few hours for computers to perform. Inside the computer the information signal travels
at incredible electronic speed.
b) Storage:
Computers can store enormous quantity of information, which is expressed in
terms of Kilobytes (or) Mega Bytes (MB) or Gega Bytes (GB). It is achieved through its
‘Main memory’ or ‘Primary storage’ and through ‘auxiliary storage’ or ‘Secondary
storage’. The Hard disks Floppy disk, Compact Disc (CD), Universal Serial Bus (USB) and
Magnetic Tape storage are examples of secondary storages. These large volumes of
storage occupy much lesser space compared to paper documents and this aspect of
computers makes them more powerful.
c) Accuracy:
The accuracy of a Computer is consistently high. In fact, this quality of the
computers make them indispensable in various fields such as Scientific Research, Space
Research, Weather Predictions and many other areas where precision of a high order is
required. The accuracy of the computer is best achieved by programming them in the
most efficient manner. When it comes to very complex mathematical or scientific
problem the computer’s accuracy has no substitute.
d) Versatility:
Computers are versatile in that they can perform almost any task, provided they
are given the appropriate logical steps. For example, they are capable of performing
wide ranging tasks such as construction of a payroll, inventory management in a factory,
hotel billing, hospital management, banking applications and any imaginable task in
every walk of life.
e) Automation:
The biggest advantage of computers is that it is automatic in its operation. Once a
programming logic is initiated the computer performs repeated operations without
human interventions until program completion.
f) Diligence:
Computers are machines and that do not get tired or ‘lose concentration’ like
human beings. If a large number of calculations say million calculations are to be
performed the resultant output will remain exactly the same even if operations are
repeated any number of times. But when a human being is asked to do the same job this
consistency cannot be achieved. Thus for those who want consistent and continuous
standard output, computer’s ‘diligence’ is of great help.
g) Reliability:
The computers give very accurate results with predetermined values. They
correct and modify the parameters automatically, giving suitable signals. They give
formatted results with high degree of precisions.

Generations of Computers:
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was
being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying
hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and
software, which together make up an entire computer system.
 There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has
been discussed in detail along with their time period, characteristics. We've used
approximate dates against each generation which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers:

FIRST GENERATION
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. First generation of computers
started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuits for
CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and
were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and
could be afforded only by very large organisations.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating systems were used. In this
generation, Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used.
There were machine codes and electric wired board languages used.

The main features of First Generation are:

Vacuum tube technology
Unreliable
Supported Machine language only
Very costly
Generate lot of heat
Slow Input / Output device
Huge size
Need of A.C.
Non-portable
Consumes lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
ENIAC
EDVAC
UNIVAC
IBM-701
IBM-650

SECOND GENERATION
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. This generation using the
transistor was cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and
faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation,
magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as
secondary storage devices.
In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming language like
FORTRAN, COBOL was used. There was Batch processing and Multiprogramming
Operating system used.
The main features are:
1. Use of transistors
2. Reliable as compared to First generation
computers (FGC)
3. Smaller size as compared to FGC
4. Generate less heat as compared to FGC
5. Consumed less electricity as compared to
FGC
6. Faster than FGC
7. Still very costly
8. A.C. needed
9. Support machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM 1620
IBM 7094
CDC 1604
CDC 3600
UNIVAC 1108

THIRD GENERATION
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The third generation of computer
is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has
many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC
was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable
and efficient.
In this generation, Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-
programming Operating System were used.
High-level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-
68, etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of Third Generation are:

IC used
More reliable
Smaller size
Generate less heat
Faster
Lesser maintenance
Still costly
A.C. needed
Consumed lesser electricity
Support high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
IBM-360 series Honeywell-
6000 series PDP(Personal
Data Processor) IBM-370/168
TDC-316

FOURTH GENERATION
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980. The fourth generation of
computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI
circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated
circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable.
As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation, Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating
System were used. All the higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE, etc., were used
in this generation.

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

VLSI technology used
Very cheap
Portable and reliable
Use of PC's Very
small size Pipeline
processing No A.C.
needed
Concept of internet was introduced
Great developments in the fields of networks
Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

DEC 10
STAR 1000
PDP 11
CRAY-1 (Super Computer)
CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)

FIFTH GENERATION
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the
production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software.
 AI is an emerging branch in computer science which interprets means and
methods of making computers think like human beings.
All the higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net, etc., are used in this
generation.

Artificial Intelligence includes:

Robotics
Neural networks
Game Playing
Development of expert systems
to make decisions in real life situations.
Natural language understanding and
generation.

The main features of Fifth Generation are:

ULSI technology
Development of true artificial intelligence
Development of Natural language processing
Advancement in Parallel Processing & Superconductor technology
More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computers types of this generation are:

Desktop
Laptop
NoteBook
UltraBook
ChromeBook

Classifications of Computers:
The classification of computers is based on the following three criteria:
(a) According to Purpose
(b) According to Technology used
(c) According to size and Capacity
According to Purpose
According to the utilization of computer for different uses, computers are of following
two types:
1. General Purpose Computers: Computers that follow instructions for general
requirements such as sales analysis, financial accounting, invoicing, inventory,
management information etc. are called General Purpose Computers. Almost all
computers used in offices for commercial, educational and other applications are
general purpose computers.
2. Special Purpose Computers: Computers designed from scratch to perform special
tasks like scientific applications and research, weather forecasting, space applications,
medical diagnostics etc. are called Special Purpose Computers.
According to Technology Used
According to the technology used, computers are of following three types:
1. Analog Computers: Analog computers are special purpose computers that represent
and store data in continuously varying physical quantities such as current, voltage or
frequency. These computers are programmed for measuring physical quantities like
pressure, temperature, speed etc. and to perform computations on these measurements.
Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering applications. Some of
the examples of analog computers are given below:
(i) Thermometer: It is a simple analog computer used to measure temperature. In
thermometer, the mercury moves up or down as the temperature varies.
(ii) Speedometer: Car's speedometer is another example of analog computer where the
position of the needle on the dial represents the speed of the car.
2. Digital Computers: Digital computers are mainly general purpose computers that
represent and store data in discrete quantities or numbers. In these computers, all
processing is done in terms of numeric representation (Binary Digits) of data and
information. Although the user enters data in decimal or character form, it is converted
into binary digits (0's and l's).
3. Hybrid Computers: Hybrid computers incorporate the technology of both analog
and digital computers. These computers store and process analog signals which have
been converted into discrete numbers using analog-to-digital converters. They can also
convert the digital numbers into analog signals or physical properties using digital-to-
analog converters. Hybrid computers are mainly used in artificial intelligence (robotics)
and computer aided manufacturing (e.g. process control).

According to Size and Capacity

According to the size and memory/storage capacity, computers are of following four
types:
1. Supercomputer: Supercomputer is the biggest and fastest computer, which is mainly
designed for complex scientific applications. It has many CPUs (Central Processing Units
- main part of computer) which operate in parallel to make it as a fastest computer.
It is typically used for the following applications:
 Weather Forecasting
 Petroleum Exploration and Production
 Energy Management
 Defense
 Nuclear Energy Research
 Structural Analysis
 Electronic Design
 Real-time Animation
 Medicine
 Some of the examples of supercomputers are CRAY3, CRAY-XMP-14, NEC500, P
ARAM 9000 and P ARAM 10000.
2. Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are very large and fast computers but
smaller and slower than supercomputers. These are used in a centralized location
where many terminals (input/output devices) are connected with one CPU and thus,
allow different users to share the single CPU. They have a very high memory (several
hundred Megabytes) and can support thousands of users. They are mainly used for
following applications:
 Railway and Airline Reservations
 Banking Applications
 Commercial Applications of Large Industries/Companies
Some of the examples of mainframe computers are IBM 3090, IBM 4381, IBM 4300 and
IBM ES-9000.
3. Minicomputer: Minicomputers are medium-scale, smaller and generally slower than
mainframe computers. Like mainframes, they have many terminals which are connected
with one CPU and can support many users. The cost of minicomputer is very less as
compared to mainframe. Therefore, it is mainly used in applications where processing
can be distributed among several minicomputers rather than using a mainframe
computer.
Some of the examples of minicomputers are PDP-1, IBM AS/400 and DEC Micro VAX.
IBM AS/400, which is actually a mini computer (computer with performance between a
mainframe and minicomputer), is becoming very popular among minicomputers.
4. Microcomputer: A microcomputer is the smallest digital computer, which uses a
microprocessor as its CPU. Microprocessor is a single chip (Integrated Circuit) CPU.
Microcomputer is popularly called as Personal Computer (PC). It can be used both as a
stand-alone machine and a terminal in a multi-user environment. Microcomputers are
becoming very popular nowadays due to very high processing power and memory.
Today, a powerful microcomputer may be used as a Computer – An Introduction
substitute for mini or mainframe computer.
Microcomputers are either of desktop or portable model. Portable computers
can be carried from one place to another. Some of the models are called as laptops while
others as notebook computers. Notebook computers are smaller, lighter and costlier
than laptops. Desktop computers fit on a desktop and are used widely in offices and
homes.
Basic Computer organization:
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM:

There are different types of computers, but all computers have these parts:
Monitor: It looks like a television screen and shows still or moving images in color. It is
also called a display.
System Unit or Central Processing Unit (CPU): The computer case that holds all the
electronic chips, memory storage areas and devices that make the computer work. It has
openings or ports for other components to plug into. It is also called the computer
console.
Key Board: Keyboard Used for typing text into your computer, but also has special keys
i.e., number keys, arrow keys to move around the screen and function keys.
Mouse: A small tool for pointing and selecting items on the computer screen. Some mice
plug into the computer and some are wireless. Laptops have a touch pad instead of a
mouse.
CD/DVD drive: Separate removable storage drive in My Computer (D drive) for playing
and saving music, pictures and videos. To burn CD or DVD, need R or RW not ROM style.
Speakers: Built-in source for sound or audio on your computer. Look for the volume
icon to adjust the sound settings. A sound bar or external speakers can be added for
better sound quality.

The block diagram of computer is shown in figure below:

The computer performs basically five major operations of functions irrespective

of their size and make. These are:
1) It accepts data or instruction by way of input,
 2) It stores data,
3) It can process data as required by the user,
4) It gives results in the form of output, and
5) It controls all operations inside a computer.
We discuss below each of these operations.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer.
This unit makes link between user and computer.
The input devices translate the human being information into the form understandable
by computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). It
controls the operations of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has the following three components
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory Unit
Control Unit
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information
from computer. This unit is a link between computer and users.
Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by
users.
CPU:
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
It stores data, intermediate result and instructions (program).
It controls the operations of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has the following three components.
Memory or Storage Unit:
Control Unit
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. There are primary memory and secondary
memory, two types of memories in the computer.
Functions of Memory Unit are:
It stores all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer. It does not carry out any
actual data processing operations.
Functions of Control unit are:
It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the
operation of the computer.
It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely:
Arithmetic Section
Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data.
Functions of ALU are:–
(1) It operates on data available in main memory.
(2) It caries out all arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
(3) It caries out all logic operations like comparison, selection and merging of data
(4) After processing the data, it sends back the processed data to main memory.

Applications of Computers:
Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user, computer
is a tool that provides the desired information, whenever needed. You may use
computer to get information about the reservation of tickets (railways, airplanes and
cinema halls), books in a library, medical history of a person, a place in a map, or the
dictionary meaning of a word. The information may be presented to you in the form of
text, images, video clips, etc.
Some of the application areas of the computer are listed below—
Education: Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting
education. Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their
lectures. Computers are used to develop computer-based training packages, to provide
distance education using the e-learning software, and to conduct online examinations.
Researchers use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to
get global access to the research material.
Entertainment: Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry.
The user can download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls,
use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using
computers, etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create
music using computers, etc.
Sports: A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game,
play games (like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of
training players.
Advertising: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be
displayed on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product
by different customers can be posted. Computers are also used to create an
advertisement using the visual and the sound effects. For the advertisers, computer is a
medium via which the advertisements can be viewed globally. Web advertising has
become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all companies. In fact, the
business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for generating
revenues.
Medicine: Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information
about the advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The
medical history of patients is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral
part of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CAT
scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc. Computers also provide assistance to the medical
surgeons during critical surgery operations like laparoscopic operations, etc.
Science and Engineering: Scientists and engineers use computers for performing
complex scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM
applications) and also for simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for
storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3–
dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space
exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers.
Government: The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also
for e-governance. The websites of the different government departments provide
information to the users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying
taxes, online submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record
details, etc. The police department uses computers to search for criminals using
fingerprint matching, etc.
Home: Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home,
people use computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating
with friends and relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc.
Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food
processors, home theatres, security devices, etc.
The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to discuss all
of them here. In addition to the applications of the computers discussed above,
computers have also proliferated into areas like banks, investments, stock trading,
accounting, ticket reservation, military operations, meteorological predictions, social
networking, business organizations, police department, video conferencing,
telepresence, book publishing, web newspapers, and information sharing.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

Input / Output devices are used to enter information and instructions into a
computer for storage or processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. These
are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input
devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring information
OUT of a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals
since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.

Input Devices:
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many
input devices, but the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you
press on the keyboard and every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a
specific input signal to the computer. Input devices accept data and instructions from
the user. Following are the examples of various input devices, which are connected to
the computer for this purpose.

KEYBOARD:
A keyboard is the most common input device. Several kinds of keyboards are
available, but they resemble each other with minor variations. The keyboard in most
common use is the QWERTY board. Generally standard keyboard has 104 keys. In these
keyboards, the cursor control keys are duplicated to allow easier use of the numeric
pad.
MOUSE
A mouse is an electro-mechanical, hand-held device. It is used as a pointer. It can
perform functions like selecting menu commands, moving icons, resizing windows,
starting programs, and choosing options. The most common mouse uses an internal,
magnetically coated ball, to detect the movement of the mouse across a flat surface,
usually a desktop. Now a day’s Optical or laser mouse is used to detect the movement.
All windows based applications today are designed to work with a mouse. A mouse is
used to replace hard-to-remember key combinations with easier "Point and Click"
actions. However, it cannot substitute all keyboard operations. It can be alternative for
commands based operations.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

LIGHT PEN
An input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen. A light pen is similar to a mouse, except that with a light pen you can
move the pointer and select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the
objects with the pen.
OPTICAL SCANNER
These devices are used for automatic data collection. The devices of this category
completely eliminate manual input of data. For example, the bar-code reader is actually
just a special type of image scanner. An image scanner translates printed images into an
electronic format that can be stored in a computer’s memory, and with the right kind of
software, one can alter a stored image. Another example of scanner is optical character
recognition (OCR) device, used by banks to convert the scanned image of a typed or
printed page into text that can be edited on the computer.
TOUCH SCREEN
Touch panel displays and pads are now being offered as alternatives to
keyboard. Here the input can be given through the computer screen, that accepts the
input through monitor; users touch electronic buttons displayed on the screen or they
may use light pen.
MICROPHONE
Microphone is an input device, which takes voice as input. The voice
communication is more error-prone than information through keyboard. There are two
types of microphones available:
1. Desktop Microphone
2. Hand held Microphone
TRACK BALL
Trackball, a pointing device, is a mouse lying on its back. To move the pointer,
you rotate the ball with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of your hand. There are
usually one to three buttons next to the ball, which you use just like mouse buttons. The
advantage of trackballs over mouse is that the trackball is stationary so it does not
require much space to use it. In addition, you can place a trackball on any type of
surface, including your lap. For both these reasons, trackballs are popular pointing
devices for portable computers.
MAGNETIC INK CARD READER (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of
cheques to be processed everyday. The bank's code number and cheque number are
printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic
material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text
on the system memory.
BAR CODE READERS
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books, etc. It may be a hand-held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.
OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made
by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.
JOYSTICK
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The
lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Input Devices
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices return processed data that is information, back to the user. Some
of the commonly used output devices are:

MONITOR
Out of all the output devices, monitor is perhaps the most important output
device because people interact with this device most intensively than others. Computer
information is displayed, visually with a video adapter card and monitor. Information
processed within the CPU, that needs to be visually displayed, is sent to video adapter.
The video adapter converts information from the format used, in the same manner as a
television displays information sent to it by a cable service.
Two basic types of monitors are used with microcomputers, which are as follows:
1. CRT
2. LCD
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): CRT or Cathode Ray Tube Monitor is the typical monitor that
you see on a desktop computer. It looks a lot like a television screen, and works the
same way. This type uses a large vacuum tube, called cathode ray tube (CRT).
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD): These types of monitors are also known as flat panel
monitor. Most of these employ liquid crystal displays (LCDs) to render images. These
days LCD monitor are very popular. When people talk about the capabilities of various
monitors, one critical statistic is the resolution of the monitor. Most monitors have a
resolution of at least 800 x 600 pixels. High-end monitors can have resolutions of 1024 x
768 pixels or even 1280 x 1024 pixels. Thus monitors are available either in low
resolution or in high resolution.

PRINTER
After a document is created on the computer, it can be sent to a printer for a hard
copy (printout). Some printers offer special features such as colored and large page
formats. Some of the most commonly used printers are:
1. Laser Printer
2. Ink Jet Printer
3. Dot Matrix Printer
4. Line Printer
Laser Printer: A laser printer produces high quality print that one normally finds in
publishing. It is extremely fast and quiet. Moreover, the operation of a laser printer is
easy with automatic paper loading and no smudging or messing up of ink ribbons. The
fastest laser printer can print up to 200 pages per minute in monochrome (black and
white) and up to 100 pages per minute in colour.
Ink-Jet Printer: An ink-jet printer creates an image directly on paper by spraying ink
through as many as 64 tiny nozzles. Although the image it produces is not generally
quite as sharp as the output of a laser printer, the quality of ink-jet images is still high. In
general, ink-jet printer offers an excellent middle ground between dot matrix and laser
printer. Like laser printer, an ink-jet printer is quiet and convenient, but not particularly
fast. Typically, an ink-jet printer is more expensive than a dot-matrix printer, but costs
only half as much as a laser printer.
Dot Matrix Printer: The dot matrix printer was very popular at one point of time. It is a
very versatile and inexpensive output device. In dot matrix printer the print head
physically "hits" the paper through the ribbon and produces text (or images) by
combinations of dots; hence the name dot matrix printer. Its speed is measured in
characters per second (CPS). Although it is less expensive, it is louder, slower and
produces lower print quality.
Line Printer: A line printer is generally used with large computer systems to produce
text based data processing reports. Line printers are high-speed printers with speeds
ranging anywhere from 100 to about 3800 lines per minute. In the past, print quality on
line printers was not high. Developments in technology are improving the print quality
on line printers. These are in the cost range of lakhs of Rupees.

PLOTTER: A plotter is a special kind of output device that, like a printer, produces
images on paper, but does so in a different way. Plotters are designed to produce large
drawings or images, such as construction plans for buildings or blueprints for
mechanical objects. A plotter can be connected to the port normally used by a printer.
An array of different colored pens in a clip rack and a robotic arm is part of
plotter. The instructions that a plotter receives from a computer consist of a color, and
beginning and ending coordinates for a line. With that information, the plotter picks up
the appropriate pen through its arm, positions it at the beginning coordinates drops the
pen down to the surface of the paper and draws to the ending coordinates. Plotters
draw curves by creating a sequence of very short straight lines. Plotters usually come in
two designs:
1. Flat Bed: Plotters of small size to be kept on table with restriction of paper size.
2. Drum: These plotters are of big size using rolls of paper of unlimited length.

SPEAKER:
Speakers are another type of output device, which allow you to listen to voice
like music, and conversation with people.

Output Devices
Computer Memory and Processors:
COMPUTER MEMORY:
Memory is an essential element of a computer. Without its memory, a computer
is of hardly any use. Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data. The
performance of the computer system depends upon the size of the memory. Memory is
of following types:
1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.
2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory: Primary Memory is internal memory of the

computer. RAM and ROM both form part of primary memory. The primary memory
provides main working space to the computer. The following terms comes under
primary memory of a computer are discussed below:

Characteristics of Main Memory/Primary Memory:

 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random

access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location
of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of
the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of
data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from
RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which
lose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So
now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power
remains applied.
 Data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature.
 SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
 Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to
be refreshed on a regular basis.
 Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for
the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.
 Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

 It has long data lifetime
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 DRAM must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.
 This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data
several hundred times per second.
 DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small.
 All DRAMs are made up of memory cells.
 These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristic of the Dynamic RAM

 It has short data lifetime
 Need to refresh continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called
Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The
storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some
standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the
personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed.
The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes
various equipment attached to the PC when the power switch is ON.

The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of power supply,
are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to
modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your
program in PROM chip. Once the programmers’ are written it cannot be changed
and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or
instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.
EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which
overcome the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time
and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in
EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use
information can only be read.
EEPROM: This stands for Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory. It is programmed and erased electrically, can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In this, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. This can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the
entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time
of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow
speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small
memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is
 very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE
memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store
programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by
the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it
really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size
is normally kept small.
Virtual Memory: It is a method of using the computer hard drive to provide
extra memory for the computer. Segments of memory are stored on the hard
drive known as pages. When a segment of memory is requested that is not in
memory it is moved from the virtual memory to an actual memory address.
Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there is
also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to
transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of
special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but
they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the
control unit.

2. Secondary Memory / Non-Volatile Memory: Secondary memory is external and

permanent in nature. The secondary memory is concerned with magnetic memory.
Secondary memory can be stored on storage media like floppy disks, magnetic disks,
magnetic tapes, This memory can also be stored optically on Optical disks - CD-
ROM. The following terms comes under secondary memory of a computer are discussed
below:

Characteristics of Secondary Memory:

 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Magnetic Storage:
Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can
use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive.
Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm
to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated
with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor and
information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor. It’s similar to
cassette tape recorder.
 Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a
disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made
on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive.
Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for
direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric
circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form
of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its
absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many
times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive.
But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk
and new data is recorded. For Example-Floppy Disk.

Optical storage:
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development
of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following
categories:
CD: Compact Disc is a flat, round, optical storage medium invented by James
Russell. The first CD was created at a Philips factory in Germany on August 17,
1982. The picture is an example of the bottom of a standard compact disc and is
the side the disc player reads. The opposite side of the disc has a label to help
indicate what is on the disc.
DVD: Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc, a DVD or DVD-ROM is a disc
capable of storing large amounts of data on one disc the size of a standard
Compact Disc. CD/DVD drives were first sold in 1997. They are widely used for
storing and viewing movies and other data.

Solid State Storage

Flash/Pen Drive: USB flash drive, data stick, pen drive, memory unit, keychain
drive and thumb drive, a jump drive is a portable storage device. It is often the
size of a human thumb (hence the name), and it connects to a computer via a USB
port. Flash drives are an easy way to store and transfer information. They are
available in sizes ranging from 2 GB to 1 TB.
Unlike a standard hard drive, the flash drive has no movable parts; it
contains only an integrated circuit memory chip that is used to store data. Flash
drives usually have plastic or aluminum casings surrounding the memory chip
and a USB connector for use with most modern computers.
Memory Card: It is a type of storage media that is often used to store photos,
videos, or other data in electronic devices. Devices that commonly use a memory
card include digital cameras, digital camcorders, handheld computers, MP3
players, PDAs, cell phones, game consoles, and printers. The picture to the right
is a MicroSD flash memory card, which is just one of the types of memory cards
 available. There are a handful of different types of memory cards on the market,
each varying in size, compatibility, and storage capacity.

Computer Memory is measured as follows:

Bit - All computers work on a binary numbering system, i.e. they process data in
one's or zero's. This 1 or 0 level of storage is called a bit.
Byte - A byte consists of eight bits.
Kilobyte - A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.
Megabyte - A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024 kilobytes.
Gigabyte - A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024 megabytes.
Terabyte – A Terabyte (TB) consists of 1024 gigabytes.