47-W ,0)

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 377 209 TM 022 367

AUTHOR Paulson, Pearl R.; Paulson, F. Leon

TITLE Portfolios: Stories of Knowing.
PUB DATE Mar 91
NOTE 9p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Claremont Reading Conference (54th, March 1991).
PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)
Speeches /Conference Papers (150)

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *Communication (Thought Transfer); *Educational
Assessment; Elementary Secondary Education;
Evaluation Methods; *Knowledge Level; Metaphors;
*Portfolio Assessment; Portfolios (Background
Materials; *Story Telling; *Student Evaluation
IDENTIFIERS *Performance Based Evaluation; Reflective Analysis

ABSTRACT
Portfolios are useful in developing a personal set of
rules for rood communication and for reflecting on one's performance
over time. As a purposeful, interrelated collection of student work
the portfolio shows student efforts:progress, and self-reflection.
The article uses storytelling as a metaphor to show what portfolios
are and what they can do. The Cognitive Model for Assessing
Portfolios is described which takes into account the three dimensions
of the portfolio; its stakeholders, activities, and history.
Stakeholders are the author, publisher, and audience, and activities
are what the student has to think about to make the portfolio tell
the story. History recognizes the changes that take place during the
endeavor. The historical dimension allows the inference that
portfolios are chronicles of knowing. Develcpment of the portfolio is
like a journey. One figure illustrates the model. (Contains 11
references.) (SLD)

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ei Portfolios: Stories of Knowing

Pearl R. Paulson F. Leon Paulson
Beaverton SD Multnomah ESD
1991

A man is a teller of tales, he lives surrounded by his stories and the

stories of others, he sees everything that happens to him through them;
and he tries to live his life as if he were recounting it.
JeanPaul Sartre

Mary Wiley was puzzled. She is a Mary is not only a speech language patholo-
speech language pathologist from gist, she also is an accomplished storyteller. Her
Beaverton, Oregon, who was starting intention was to use portfolios to show how
a portfolio project with her students. She needed students with communication disorders were
clarification. "Just what should go into a portfo- able to improve. The concept "telling a story"
lio?" she asked. We gave several suggestions helped her to think of portfolios as students'
about things that might be included written stories about themselves as communicators.
work, checklists, artwork, audio and videotapes, Since Mary holds a constructivist philosophy,
anecdotal records. Mary's expression told us that she believes knowledge is something students
we were answering the wrong question. Finally build, not something we give them. She recog-
one of us said, "Portfolios tell a story. Put in nizes that no two students would have the same
anything that helps to tell the story." story. Her students' portfolios would have to
Mary's face brightened. We had finally reflect individuality; no two could be alike.
understood her question. "Whatever tells the Students should be able to put anything into their
story? That helps, that really helps." portfolios as long as it helps them tell the per-

'this prirer was presented at the 54'ni Claremont Reading Conference, March 1991. The conference theme was Know-
ing: lhe Power of Stories, A shorter version of this paper appeared in the proceedings of the conference. We are in-
debted to Niki Elliot (Sparks Nevada), Linda Lewis (Fort Worth, Texas) Jill Marienberg (Hillsboro, Oregon), and Limi
Myers (Beaverton, Oregon) for providing the quotations from student portfolios. We thank Tim Gillespie for ills
thoughful review of an earlier draft.

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sonal stories of themselves as communicators. checklists, worksheets, test scores and other
For some, this means audio tapes, for others it things. Sometimes the students put them to-
means samples of written communication, for gether, sometimes the teachers. Sometimes the
still others it means information on coopert dye students interact with their folders throughout
pi.ojects that requires communication with other the day, sometimes they are hardly aware of
students. For all it means development of a them until parentteacher conference day.
personal set of rules for good communication By portfolio, we mean a purposeful, interre-
and for reflection on their own performance over lated collection of student work that shows the
time. The "things" don't matter so long as they student's efforts, progress or achievements in
help the students show that they understand and one or more areas. The collection includes
practice good communication. evidence of students' selfreflection and their
participation in setting the focus, selecting the
Portfolios tell a story contents, and judging merit. Activities are
guided by performance standards. A portfolio
A portfolio tells a story. It is the story of communicates what is learned and why it is
knowing. Knowing about things: "I know about important (Paulson, Paulson, & Meyer, 1992).
folktales, I know about math." Knowing oneself: According to this definition, a portfolio differs
"I know I'm a writer, I know I'm a reader." from the familiar student writing folder. A folder
Knowing an audience: "I know I can do college is a collection, while a portfolio is a purposeful
level writing." Portfolios are students' own and coherent collection that communicates what
stories of what they know, why they believe they learnings have taken place. Finally, the student is
know it, and why others should be of the same the major participant in all phases of the
opinion. A portfolio is opinion backed by fact, as portfolio's development.
testified by this first grader: The purpose of the portfolio is communica-
I'm a writer. Here are some of my stories. tion. It is a story, a narrative, told from the
Students prove what they know with samples student's perspective. Exhibits of writing in this
of their work. student's portfolio are illustrations that she
Historically, artists have used portfolios to believes support her thesis:
demonstrate their skills and document their Enclosed in my portfolio you will find
achievements. Their portfolios become very five samples of what I consider to be my
personal. They are first person statements of finest written work during my junior year
"Who I am and where I am going as an artist." in high school. The portfolio contains
Writing portfolios, which are gaining popularity writing samples from expository, descrip-
in our elementary and secondary schools, are tive, and reflective pieces, to give you an
first person statements of "Who I am and where I overview of my writing ability. . . The
tun going as a writer." Extensions to language first poetry piece "You and I" is included
arts and other subjects have been natural ones, to show my capability of writing within a
statements of "Who I am and where I am going certain structure. . . . The second poetry
as a reader, as a mathematician, as a scientist. I piece, "Blue ", written in free verse, is
know who I am aid here's why." more me than any of my other works. . . .
With a wide variety reflected in my five
There is a distinction to be made between
pieces, I hope you will be able to assess
folders and portfolios if students are to get
maximum benefit from collecting their work, my growth, competence, and college
level thinking successfully. I am proud to
Much of what passes for portfolios we would
submit this collection as a reflection of
call folders, Folders usually contain collections
of student work, and may in addition contain my ability.

2 3
 The portfolio allowed this student to share her "portfolio assessment." The term "assessment"
own perspective with the audience. But it did in this context is not, however, "businessas
more that that it encouraged the student to usual" testing. We believe that a key element in
communicate with herself. "This is more me." "I portfolio assessment must be students' self
am proud that this reflects my ability." assessment, designed and carried out by the
Throughout this paper we shall use student. We recognize that there are many people
storytelling as a metaphor to show what portfo- interested in using portfolios as a way to assess
lios are and how they can be used to support students and we are glad of that. Parents,
learning. In the first part of the paper we ask teachers, principals, and evaluation specialists,
three questions. We have already posed one: too, ought to look at real student work during
What tells the story? Now we ask two more: real activities in real classrooms. We recognize
Whose story is it? And how does the story end? that in order to generalize across students they
In the second part of the paper we present a are going to need some similarity across these
portfolio assessment model. Finally, we suggest collections of work, but that also makes us ask
that students view their portfolios as a journey nervously, "Will they still be the students' own
into knowing and that they write a narrative portfolios, their own stories told in their own
describing that journey. Our goal is to help voices? Will the students attach importance to
students tell their own story, a story that has a their self evaluations or reflexively defer to the
happy ending. opinions of their elders?" One of our concerns is
to nurture constructive relationships between
author and audience, preserving the integrity of
Whose story Is It? each. How can we ensure that everyone lives
Think of students as authors whose stories are happily ever after?
their portfolios. As authors, they should be able
to tell their stories in their own voices, saying How does the story end?
what they want to say the way they want to say
it. We are concerned that portfolio projects be Do we have a happy ending? Are portfolios
conducted in ways that encourage students to use tales of achievement, or are they demonstrations
their voices, to retain ownership of the content, of failure? Don't let some insidious gnome
and to have opportunity to reflect on what they persuade us that portfolios should contain "typi-
know and how they know it. These conditions cal" work instead of best work, that they should
exist when students have a personal reason for include bad papers and low scores "to give an
developing portfolios, when they participate in accurate picture." Wiggins (1991) says "De-
selecting the contents, and when they are invited manding and getting quality . . . means framing
to reflect on the very personal learning that their expectations about . . . work which makes
portfolios represent. These conditions do not quality a necessity, not an option."
exist when teachers ask "What should I put in A portfolio may be a story of discovery or a.;
my students' portfolios?" or when someone scrapbook of celebrations. It may be a collection
"higher up" tells teachers, "Have your students of knowledge and chronicle of conquests but
put these assignments into their portfolios and never, never a place for teachers to document
make sure they go about it in exactly this way what is unknown or insufficiently learned. It is
and at this time." Such directives follow the not a ledger for recording how far students have
patterns of traditional assessment but violate the fallen below the mean. If the students choose to
premise that students should retain ownership of identify what is still to be learned, that is another
their portfolios. matter. The student may conclude this year's
In the educational literature, the word "port- portfolio with a statement of future goals, a
folio" has become one half of an expression promise of adventures still to come. Only the

34
authors have the prerogative to hint if you interests and the desired scope of the work and
will next year's sequel. may even inform the author regarding composi-
Now that we've raised the questions and tion of the audience, alerting the author to the
revealed our biases, let's talk about how to audience's expectations and biases. But this
develop portfolios that satisfy our biases. From publisher leaves the author free to determine the
time to time, we will refer to a model that is story's theme, create the characters and events,
reproduced in Figure 1. The model is described and present the content.
formally elsewhere (Paulson & Paulson 1990, The author-publisher-audience metaphor is
1991). Here we shall simultaneously employ the consistent with the concept stakeholder that
model and story analogy to explain what makes appears in the writing of some evaluators (e.g.,
a portfolio work or fail. The model has three Guba and Lincoln, 1990; Stake, 1967). Stake-
dimensions; stakeholders, activities, an:' history. holders include anyone who may benefit or made
The stakeholders are the portfolio's author, vulnerable by the evaluation. "Portfolio assess-
publisher, and audience. The activities are ment" suggests that learning is being evaluated.
everything the student has to think about to make "Evaluation of learning" is a highly loaded
the portfolio tell a story. The history recognizes phrase. If the portfolio is a report of whai has
the changes that took place during the endeavor. been learned, the student isn't the only person
with something at stake. Anyone who cares
enough to look at the portfolio has something at
stake. Maybe it's a parent or teacher who cares
about the student's leak wing and also takes some
p Erwin=ANFAMMIMPFAIMW personal responsibility for it. Maybe it's a
principal or school board or district evaluator
s
AWAWAINFAIMPVAIT
DrIal who cares about the instructional program. Each
Tee* stakeholder brings expectations about what
Es Pawl
[Mkt
should be in the portfolio, and is likely to be
II pleased or disappointed in what they find there.
;
Everyone author (the student), publisher
hopme Muss Swabia DAbils Judpord
PROCESS DIMENSION (the teacher), or reader (parent, principal, or
011014.11amiodsisil PAM/ Ike 'abb.
interested outsider) looks at the portfolio
through a different set of glasses, a personal
frame of reference, an individually held value
system. A student may have included a composi-
Figure 1. The Cognitive Model for Assessing
tion because it tells of a deeply held belief, while
Portfolios (CMAP) showing the activity (Pro-
another stakeholder may appreciate the logic of
cess), historical, and stakeholder dimensions.
the presentation; another may check for conven-
tional grammar and accurate spelling, and still
The people interested in the stay another may simply admire the penmanship.
The most important dimension of the model is What they judge and how they judge it depends
the stakeholder dimension because it describes on their own beliefs about what is important and
the relationship cf the student to others interested how they plan to use the information.
in the portfolio.
The designation of the student as author of Ghostwriters In the sky
the portfolio is fundamental. We like to think of As the different stakeholders become associ-
the teacher as the ideal publisher. The publisher ated with a portfolio project, many find it nearly
tells the author the nature of the company's impossible to refrain from becoming, as it were,

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ghostwriters. They meddle with the concepts, the student's. The author must make the impor-
they prescribe the standards, they specify the tant decisions about what is to be reported, how
format. it is to be presented, and how it should be evalu-
When a group of teachers get together to planated. This is an opportunity for engaging stu-
a portfolio project, a frequent question is "Whatdents and empowering learners rather than for
devaluing and disenfranchising them. The
should we put into the portfolios?" Clearly, these
ghostwriters hold expectations about how the portfolio is a laboratory where students construct
portfolio story should be written. One may be meaning from their accumulated experience.
Finally, as students decide what goes into their
interested in form, another in function; one in
content, another in conventions; one in informa- portfolios and reflect on their accomplishments
they develop the attitudes, skills and habits of
tion, another in structure. "The Story of My
self-direction and self-assessment.
Knowing" by A. Student suddenly becomes "The
World According to Ms. Peach." The stakeholders are represented in one
dimension A the CMAP diagram on page 4. The
Even when other stakeholders may agree with
the student on what a portfolios is to include, primary stakeholder is the author, the student.
they may disagree on whether a sample of work The other people on that dimension can be
publishers or audience, just so long as they're
is satisfactory. A piece of work viewed with
pride by a student may disappoint to a parent or not ghostwriters.
teacher. What is excellent by one stakeholder's When you have ghostwriters, who you gonna call?
criteria may be substandard by another's. Unless
the student understands the different criteria, Ghostbustersl
including their own, it can be very perplexing.
We can help keep the ghostwriters at bay if
I'm doing o.k. is what most people seem we provide the kind of feedback that helps the
to think, but my mom says I'm doing it student to set forth the story clearly. The more
wrong. I don't know what to think. clearly the author presents the story, and the
Just as other people may try to prescribe what better the author writes to the audience, the more
is important and how it is to be judged, they may likely it is that the audience will understand what
also try to prescribe the form in which the the author had in mind.
students present their work. Often they do this The author needs to decide exactly what the
because they have different uses for the informa- portfolio is about and make sure that is commu-
tion in the portfolio. The teacher may want nicated. If it is a story of knowing, it may be a
something for the parents to take home at confer- story of knowing something, like knowing that
ence time. District administrators may want I'm a writer, or knowing folk literature. The
something that can be counted, summed, aver- story has to have a purpose; the portfolio has to
aged and graphed Textbook and test publishers have a rationale.
accommodate them by producing materials that
resemble "workbook pages to put into a folder." Portfolios develop around certain issues just*
as stories develop around a plot. The story's
It is no wonder that the voice of the author is
characters have goals and challenges. Portfolio
drowned out as all these ghostwriters thunder
assessment is the intersection of instruction and
across their sky!
evaluation, so its issues are ones of concern to
While it is helpful for students to know who both curriculum and evaluation, drawn from a
will be looking at their portfolios and what common source. (See Kucer, 1989). If my
things potential audiences are likely to find portfolio story is about knowing folk literature,
interesting and admirable, teacher intents, parent what might the issues be? Should I demonstrate
needs, and district constraints arc to be that I have read and thought about folk tales
accomodated only if they are compatible with

5 6
from several cultures? Should I be able to talk didn't reach is finding a voice, a way of
about recurring themes and motifs? Should I writing that is comfortable for me and
show that I can identify a folktale as something doesn't sound silly and unreal to others. I
unique and different from other kinds of stories? think I'm going to have to experiment a
If the author clearly sets forth the portfolio's little (or lots) more before I find it. I like
purpose and issues, the audience will approach to keep a sense of humor in all my pieces
the portfolio's contents with a mindset more like a person, or place, or event that is a
the author's own. To know the portfolio's ratio- little off the wall. Sometimes I think I take
nale ("To show I know about folk literature") is it a little far: it doesn't always work. But
like knowing the title of the book. The reader I keep trying anyway.
will expect the contents to have to do with the The way the ghostbusters work, then, is by
author's experiences with folk literature. If the helping students clearly articulate their rationale,
issues have been clearly stated, (acquaintance intents and standards so that others can make
with folktales from many cultures, recognition of informed predictions and understand the stu-
the most common themes and motifs, to be able dents' own conclusions. They can do this by
to write an original story in the manner of a providing g.)od models and holding conferences
folktale) the reader can make even more predic- with their students. If teachers assist their stu=
tions about the content, just as the reader can dents through the activity dimension of Figure 1
make better predictions after perusing a book's we believe they can help the author and the
chapter headings. Together, rationale and issues, audience to have a shared understanding of the
like title and chapter headings, help the reader portfolio's purpose and issues and hold similar
predict the contents not prescribe them. expectations of its contents. The final activity on
The author's standards must also be clear. this dimension is evaluation. At the conclusion
How does the student decide that work qualifies of this paper we shall talk especially about the
for inclusion in the portfolio? Does it have to be author's (student's) self-evaluation and the
"perfect"? Is it good enough for the hero to reflections that evaluation entails. However,
intimidate the giant, or must he slay it? How since the student's self evaluation is influenced
many giants must he overpower? In portfolio by the interactions of various stakeholders
assessment each issue carries in it an implicit or throughout the development of the portfolio, we
explicit standard. These must be apparent to the shall postpone that discussion for a moment and
audience. For example, in a portfolio on folk look at the historical dimension of the model,
literature, there need to be clear standards for also shown in Figure 1.
reading a sufficient number and variety of folk
tales, for recognizing which motifs and themes Portfolios as chronicles d knowing
are the important ones, and for determining if the
The historical dimension of the model allows
student's original piece is written in the manner
us to infer that portfolios are chronicles of
of a folktale. By clearly stating the standards, the
knowing. Antecedents, transactions and out-
student helps the audience to appreciate the
comes intersect with all activities and all stake-
significance of the work. Not every one may
holders. Constructs change. The portfolio author
hold the same standards, but at least everyone
and the readers (audience) may interact in ways
can understand why the student believes that the
that lead to changes in both. Teachers and stu-
portfolio's contents are significant.
dents learn together. They can change their
The following is from a portfolio in which a beliefs about what the portfolio should be about,
high school student reflects on voice. Notice what issues are important and the very nature of
how explicitly he describes his standards. the standards.
Otte of the putts I All for osvwil anti The exhibits within a portfolio may reflect
these changes. They may document the pro- the author to communicate to the reader, "I am
cesses of learning and explain how information author of my learning. This is me and this is my
was acquired, how concepts were redefined, and learning."
why ideas were expanded. The author has Stories are a natural way to help portfolio-
changed during authorship. The audience makers think about their thinking. The neurolo-
parents, teachers and evaluation specialists gist Oliver Sacks (1987) believes a sense of
also change as they interact with the student narrative is "absolutely primal." We discovered
during the development of the portfolio or while there are many elements of narrative in
they peruse the contents of a completed portfo- children's reflections. Linda Lewis (1990)
lio. The more the stakeholders are aware of each collected samples of children's writing and then
other and the more they interact, the more had them review these samples at the end of the
influence they have on each other. They may year. From kindergarten through fifth grade they
change their minds about what is important. displayed a growing sense of story structure. The
The succession of exhibits within the portfo- earliest reflections (kindergarten) have ore
lio illustrates changes in the learner as well as in character, the portfolio's author, and they have at
the things being learned. These changes become least one pair of events with some sense of their
the basis for the student's self-reflection and relationship in time. A kindergartener wrote:
self-evaluation. It's like an author going back My writing used to be drawing. Now I
and reading the entire story just after completion use words.
and reflecting on how it came to be written as it A first grader begins to show a sense of
now stands and even written at all. The audience and writes a story that has a beginning,
student reflects on how learning came about.
middle and end:
We believe that every portfolio should carry
I am getting better at writing. I do
some evidence of self-reflection. One kind of
capitals. Now I put space between. I
evidence is for the student to write a narrative
write longer stories. I put periods. Lots of
that chronicles the history of the portfolio, the
other things too, like exclamation marks
journey into knowing. and question marks. My favorite thing to
do of writing is write the words correctly.
Knowing The story of the Journey I can spell a lot of correct words and it
makes the whole story fun to read. In the
The development of the portfolio is like a
future I am going to be a famous writer. I
journey. The story of that journey is a story about
like writing.
the story. What we are suggesting is that just
before "publication" of their portfolios, students Second graders add characters. They include
.nake one final addition to them, that is, they more events and more supporting details. They have
write about their portfolios what the portfo- some sense of cause as well as a sense of outcome.
lios mean to them and how they came about.' I have really improved in my writing. I
The narrative helps the student to think about use capitals and periods, used to didn't
thinking, to develop the practices and habits of use any periods capitals. Now I am
self-assessment, to identify strategies for future learning how to write in cursive. I can
use that might otherwise be unrecognized and spell bigger and better words now. I also
forgotten. The narrative also is one more way for help people edit at their stories. I need

1. We are suggesting the students write a narrative for much the same reasons that Jill Marienberg, a
high school teacher from Hillsboro, Oregon, asks her students to write a metacognitive letter
describing their portfolio contents. However, the narrative is as concerned with "getting there" as
with the "arrival".
 41.Z. lip WI& 4 k.--4;.t.V0.1,41_+1.-ge 1 t . jieZ

more practice on my endings. My teacher pages but now I write 12 pages. Learn-
says that putting happily ever after is ing where the introduction, body, solu-
okay on some stories but not for all of the tion and conclueln all go it make your
stories. When I was younger I jumped story more interesting and more people
around and told lots of details but now I will want to read it. Learning how to
can stay on order and tell less . Some- write better stories helps me to spell a lot
times I get frustrated and mess up. But I of words because I am not a good
never do that any more. I am a good speller. Mrs. is a good writing
writer and I will stay that way forever. teacher. I think she should have been just
These examples were written without the a writing teacher.
students being asked to make their comments in This student's portfolio is more than a folder,
the form of a story. Golden (1984) showed that more than a collection. It is his story of knowing.
during the first grade of school, young writers
are already aware of characters, attributes for References
these characters, and pairs of events (e.g., chase
and escape.) By third grade their stories are rich Golden, J. M. (1984). Children's concept of story in
reading and writing. The Reading Teacher. 37 (3),
with numerous characters and multiple pairs of 578-584.
actions with supporting elements. Third graders' Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, E. S. (1989). Fourth genera-
stories have a clear beginning, middle, and end. tion evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
We get students ready to write the stories of their Kucer, S. B. (1989). Evaluating literacy processes:
portfolios by joining than on the journey. Together On listening to children think. In M. P. Douglas
(Ed), 53rd Yearbook of the Claremont Reading
on the journey we talk, learn, and assemble the Conference. Claremont CA: Claremont Graduate
portfolio. Along the way we predict what's ahead; School, 170-190.
we discuss problems as adventures and failures as Lewis, Linda (1990). Pilot project for portfolio
false starts. We look together for new mutes around assessment. Fort Worth Independent School
mountains. An obstacle safely passed, we reflect on District: Fort Worth, TX.
what "magic" helped to slay the dragons, cross the Paulson, F. L. & Paulson, P. R. (1990) How do
rivers, and climb the glass hills. Finally, we join in portfolios measure up: A cognitive model for
assessing portfolios. Paper read at conference
the celebrations of knowing. "Aggregating Portfolio Data" held by the North-
Here a fifth grader tells how his teacher took west Evaluation Association, Union WA, August.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
the journey with him: 324 329)
I like to write stories. I don't like writing Paulson, F. L. & Paulson, P. R. (1991) The making of
anything else. But in fifth grade or any a portfolio. Unpublished draft available from the
other grade you don't have a choice. I authors.
have learned a lot about all kinds of Paulson, F. L., Paulson, P. R., & Meyer, C. A. (1991,
writing and how to use more descriptive February). What makes a portfolio a portfolio?
Educational Leadership, 46 ), 60-63.
words, to make people who are reading
Sacks, Oliver (1987). Quoted in Jonathan Cott,
the story get a feeling what I am talking Visions and voices. New York: Doubleday.
about. I have learned how to edit my
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Saturday noon. (from Nausea.
paper more than one time because every Robert Baldrick, tram).
time you edit you find more mistakes. I Stake, Robert (1967). The countenance of educa-
also learned how to make a fiction story tional evaluation. Teachers College Record, 68
sound almost real. Mrs. has taught (7), 523-540.
me a lot about writing. Learning to write Wiggins, Grant (1991, February). Standards, not
better seems to me to make me read a lot standardization: Evoking quality student work.
Educational Leadership, 46 (5),18 -25.
better. In the beginning I used to write 8

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