EC303: Applied Electromagnetic Theory

Introduction to the course

SHYAMA SREEKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology
2 Why should we learn Applied EMT?
z ➢ Power Transmission Lines

➢ Antennas

➢ RF communication

➢ Microwave Engineering

➢ Electrical Machines

➢ Satellite Communication

• Light is an electromagnetic wave

• Electromagnetic waves travel with speed of light in

free space or vacuum
3

z
What is EMT?

▪ Basis of electromagnetics →Charge

▪ Electromagnetics – Study of charges →At rest or in motion

4 E for “Electro”
z

Electric Charge at rest

• Positive Charge
• Negative Charge

• Like charges repel

• Unlike charges attract
5 ▪ Force between the charges – “COULOMB’s LAW”

z 1 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑎ො𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

▪ Electric field or the strength of the electric field produced

𝐅 by the object having charge Q1 on the positive test charge
𝐄
(𝑄2 = 1𝐶) is defined as the force per unit charge.
𝑸𝟐 1 𝑄1
𝐸= 2
𝑎ො𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
𝒓
▪ Electric field Intensity is a vector quantity as it has both
+ magnitude and the direction associated with it
𝑸𝟏
𝐹Ԧ
𝐸=
𝑄2

▪ Direction of electric field intensity is same as the direction

of force
6 Field distributions around a charge
z

Electric field lines will not form a

closed path

Stationary charges → ELECTRIC FIELD

7
M for “Magnetic”
z

▪ Charges are made to move at uniform speed

𝑑𝑄
through conductor → Current
𝑑𝑡

Current carrying conductor → MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field lines always form a closed path

8

Electric Field (E)

• Energy that is formed all around a stable and stationary charge
DC voltage → Electric Field

Magnetic Field (H)

• Energy that is formed all around a moving charge
DC current → Magnetic Field
9
EM for “Electromagnetic”
z
▪ Electrons are provided more energy

▪ Accelerate or decelerate the charge→ Emits electromagnetic waves.

10
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
z
z

x
H
y
11

z
Prerequisite: Vector Calculus
AET

Electromagnetic Applications
Electrostatics Magnetostatics
Waves
(Module 1) (Module 1)
(Module 2 & 3)
Transmission
Lines
(Module 4 & 5)
Guided transmission of
electromagnetic waves
Waveguides
(Module 6)
12
Fundamental Laws of Electromagnetics
z

Maxwell’s
Equations

Electromagnetic
Electrostatics Magnetostatics Waves
(Only E field) (Only H field) (Both E and H
fields coupled)

𝜕
Statics: =0
𝜕𝑡
13
References
z

Matthew N.O. Sadiku & S.V. Kulkarni "Principles of

Electromagnetics”, Oxford University Press Inc. Sixth Edition,
Asian Edition,2015

William H Hayt, and John A. Buck, “Engineering

Electromagnetics.”, McGraw-Hill, 8/e McGraw-Hill, 2014.

Jordan and Balmain, “Electromagnetic waves and Radiating

Systems”, PHI, 2/e,2013
EC303: Applied Electromagnetic Theory

Module 1
Vector Calculus (Part 1)

SHYAMA SREEKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology
15 Universal Constants
z
𝛆𝐨
Permittivity of free space
• Physical quantity which describes how the electric field is affected by the
dielectric medium

• Ability of a material to transmit or permit an electric field

εo = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m

𝛍𝐨
Permeability of free space
• Degree of magnetization of a material

• Material property that describes the ease with which magnetic flux is
established in a component
μo = 4π × 10−7 H/m
16 Universal Constants
z

𝐜 Velocity of light in free space

• EM waves travel with the speed of light in free space

𝟏
𝐜= = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦Τ𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎

• In general, velocity in any medium,

1
v=
με
μ = μ0 μr
ε = ε0 εr
εr , μr → Relative permittivity and relative permeability of the medium
17
TOPICS COVERED
z

• Scalar and vector

• Unit vector, Position vector, Distance vector

• Vector Multiplication

• Coordinate Systems

• Cartesian Coordinate System

• Cylindrical Coordinate System

• Spherical Coordinate System

18

Scalar and Vector

Scalar Vector
Quantity that has only magnitude Quantity that has both magnitude and direction

Eg – Time, mass, distance, temperature Eg – Velocity, force, displacement

19
Scalar and Vector Fields
z
Scalar Field Vector Field
Function that gives us value of some Vector is a quantity which has both
variable at every point in space magnitude and direction in space
Field corresponding to a vector quantity

Eg- Temperature distribution in a region Eg – Gravitational force on a body, Velocity

vector field
20 Unit Vector
▪ z unit magnitude and in the direction along 𝐴Ԧ
Vector with

𝐴Ԧ
𝑎ො𝐴 =
𝐴Ԧ

▪ 𝑎ො𝑥 , 𝑎ො𝑦 , 𝑎ො𝑧 - Unit vectors along x, y and z direction.

Example: Find the unit vector along the vector 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒ෝ

𝒂𝒙 − 𝟐ෝ
𝒂𝒚 + 𝟔ෝ
𝒂𝒛 .

Solution:

𝐴Ԧ 𝟏𝟒ෝ
𝒂𝒙 − 𝟐ෝ
𝒂𝒚 + 𝟔ෝ
𝒂𝒛
𝑎ො𝐴 = = = 0.9113𝑎ො 𝑥 − 0.1302𝑎ො𝑦 + 0.3906𝑎ො 𝑧
𝐴Ԧ 2 2
14 + −2 + 6 2
21 Position Vectors
▪ A point Pzin Cartesian coordinates may be represented as (x, y, z).

▪ The position vector,𝑟𝑝 (Radius vector) of point P as the directed distance from origin (O)
to P (x, y, z).

ෝ𝒙 + 𝒚ෝ
𝒓𝒑 = 𝐎𝐏 = 𝒙 𝒂 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒛ෝ
𝒂𝒛

Example: Mark the point (3, 4, 5) in cartesian coordinate system. Also, find the position
vector.

Solution:

𝒓𝒑 = 𝐎𝐏 = 𝟑ෝ
𝒂𝒙 + 𝟒ෝ
𝒂𝒚 + 𝟓ෝ
𝒂𝒛
22 Distance/Displacement Vector
▪ z
The distance vector is the displacement vector from one point to
another.
▪ If two points P and Q are given by (xP , yP , zP ) and (xQ , yQ , zQ ), then
the distance vector is

ෝ 𝒙 + 𝒚𝑸 − 𝒚𝑷 𝒂
𝒓𝑷𝑸 = 𝒓𝑸 − 𝒓𝑷 = 𝒙𝑸 − 𝒙𝑷 𝒂 ෝ 𝒚 + 𝒛𝑸 − 𝒛𝑷 𝒂
ෝ𝒛

Example: Points P and Q are located at (0, 2, 4) and (-3, 1, 5). Calculate the (a) Position vector
of P, (b) Distance vector between P and Q and (c) Distance between P and Q.
Solution:
(a) rԦP = OP = 0ොax + 2ොay + 4ොaz = 2ොay + 4ොaz
(b) rԦPQ = rԦQ − rԦP = −3,1,5 − 0,2,4 = −3ොax − aො y + aො z

(c) dPQ = rԦPQ = −3 2 + (−1)2 +12 = 3.317

(or) dPQ = −3 − 0 2 + (1 − 2)2 +(5 − 4)2 = 3.317

23 Vector Multiplication
Scalar (or z
dot) product
Represented as 𝐀. 𝐁
Defined geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the
angle between them
A. B = A B cos θAB

If A = Ax , Ay , Az and B = Bx , By , Bz , then
A. B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) to each other if
A. B = 0

Commutative Law: A. B = B. A
Distributive Law: A. B + C = A. B + A. C
aො x . aො y = aො y . aො z = aො z . aො x = 0
aො x . aො x = aො y . aො y = aො z. aො z = 1
24 Vector Multiplication
z
Vector (or cross) product
Represented as 𝐀 × 𝐁
Cross product of two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 is a vector quantity
whose magnitude is the area of the parallelepiped formed
by 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 and is in the direction of advance of a right
handed screw as 𝐴Ԧ is turned into 𝐵.

A × B = A B sin θAB 𝑎ො𝑛

𝑎ොx 𝑎ොy 𝑎ොz
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

A × B = 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝑎ො𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝑎ො𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 𝑎ො𝑧

Cross Product using Cyclic Permutation

Moving clockwise – Positive results
Moving anticlockwise – Negative results
25 Example: For the vectors, 𝐀 = 𝟑𝐚ො 𝐱 + 𝟒𝐚ො 𝐲 + 𝐚ො 𝐳 and 𝐁 = 𝟐𝐚ො 𝐲 − 𝟓𝐚ො 𝐳 . Find
(a) Dot Product
z
(b) Cross Product

Solution:
A. B = (3ොax + 4ොay + aො z ). (2ොay − 5ොaz )

A. B = 0 + 8 − 5 = 3

𝑎ොx 𝑎ො y 𝑎ො z
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

𝑎ොx 𝑎ො y 𝑎ොz
A×B = 3 4 1 = 𝑎ොx (−20 − 2) − 𝑎ොy −15 + 𝑎ො z (6)
0 2 −5
A × B = −22𝑎ොx + 15𝑎ො y + 6𝑎ොz
26
Coordinate Systems
z

Rectangular/Cartesian Coordinate System

• Sheets

Cylindrical Coordinate System

• Wires/Cables

Spherical Coordinate System

• Spherical objects
27 Cartesian/Rectangular Coordinate System
z
A point P can be represented as (x, y, z)

z
5

Eg: Mark the point P(2, 3, 5) in P(2, 3, 5)

Cartesian coordinate system
5
3
y

x
28 Cartesian Coordinate System
z P can be represented as (x, y, z)
A point
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑦 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞

A vector in cartesian coordinate system can be

represented by
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎ො𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎ො𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎ො𝑧 𝑎ො 𝑥 . 𝑎ො𝑥 = 𝑎ො𝑦 . 𝑎ො𝑦 = 𝑎ො 𝑧 . 𝑎ො 𝑧 = 1
𝑎ො 𝑥 . 𝑎ො𝑦 = 𝑎ො 𝑦 . 𝑎ො 𝑧 = 𝑎ො𝑧 . 𝑎ො𝑥 = 0

𝑎ො𝑥 , 𝑎ො𝑦 , 𝑎ො𝑧 → Unit vectors along x, y and z 𝑎ො𝑥 × 𝑎ො𝑦 = 𝑎ො𝑧
direction 𝑎ො𝑦 × 𝑎ො𝑧 = 𝑎ො𝑥

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 𝑎ො𝑧 × 𝑎ො𝑥 = 𝑎ො 𝑦

29
Cartesian Coordinate System
z

x= constant
Three infinite planes

z= constant
• x=constant, y=constant, z=constant

Intersection of two planes - LINE

• x = constant, y = constant
y= constant
• Line parallel to the z-axis

Intersection of three planes - POINT

• x = constant, y = constant, z = constant

• Point P(x, y, z)
30
Practice Problems
z
1. Find the unit vector along the vector 𝐴Ԧ = 5𝑎ො 𝑥 − 2𝑎ො𝑦 + 4𝑎ො 𝑧 .
[Ans: 0.745𝑎ො 𝑥 − 0.298𝑎ො𝑦 + 0.596𝑎ො𝑧 ]

2. Points P and Q are located at (0, 1, 2) and (-2, 4, 3). Calculate the (a) Distance
vector between P and Q and (b) Distance between P and Q. [Ans: rԦPQ = −2ොa x +
3ොay + aො z, 𝑑PQ = 3.742]

3. For the vectors, A = 2ොax + 4ොay and B = 6ොay − 4ොaz. Find (a)Dot product, (b) Cross
product.

[Ans: (a) 24, (b) −16𝑎ො 𝑥 + 8𝑎ො 𝑦 + 12𝑎ො𝑧 ]

4. Find the value of ‘x’ if A = 𝑥ොa x − 2ොay − aො z and B = aො 𝑥 + 4ොay − 4ොaz are perpendicular.
(Hint: Find dot product and equate to 0) [Ans: x = 4]

5. Find the smaller angle between A = 3ොa x + 4ොa y + aො 𝑧 and B = 2ොa y − 5ොa z . (Hint: Use
the expression for dot product A. B = A B cos θAB and find θAB ) [Ans:83.73°]
EC303: Applied Electromagnetic Theory

Module 1
Vector Calculus (Part 2)

SHYAMA SREEKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology
32
TOPICS COVERED
z

• Coordinate Systems

• Cartesian Coordinate System

• Cylindrical Coordinate System

• Spherical Coordinate System

33 Cylindrical Coordinate System → P (ρ, ∅, z)
z z z
z

y y y

∅
x Cylinder ρ = constant x x
Half plane ∅ = constant z = constant
0≤ρ<∞ −∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
0 ≤ ∅ < 2𝜋

Intersection of ρ = constant, ∅ = constant and z = constant

→ Point P on the cylinder
34 Cylindrical Coordinate System
z

(ρ, ∅, z)

ρ
35 Cylindrical Coordinate System
z P(𝜌, ∅, 𝑧)
Cylindrical coordinates = P (ρ, ∅, z)
ρ →Radius of cylinder passing through P or radial distance from
z-axis
∅→ Angle measured from x-axis in xy-plane 𝜌
z → same as z in Cartesian coordinates ∅
0≤ρ<∞
0 ≤ ∅ < 2π
−∞ < z < ∞

A in Cylindrical coordinate system can be represented by

A = Aρ aො ρ + A∅ aො ∅ + Az aො z

aො ρ , aො ∅ , aො z → Unit vectors along ρ, ∅ and z direction

A = A2ρ + A2∅ + A2z

36 Coordinate Transformation
z
Cylindrical to Cartesian Cartesian to Cylindrical
x = ρ cos ∅ ρ= x2 + y2
y = ρ sin ∅ y
∅= tan−1
z=z x
z=z

NOTE:
aො ρ . aො ρ = aො ∅ . aො ∅ = aො z . aො z = 1 aො ρ , aො ∅ and aො z are
mutually
aො ρ . aො ∅ = aො ∅ . aො z = aො z . aො ρ = 0 perpendicular to each
other
aො ρ × aො ∅ = aො z
aො ∅ × aො z = aො ρ
aො z × aො ρ = aො ∅
37 Spherical Coordinate System → P (r, θ, ∅)
z

Sphere r = constant

0≤𝑟<∞ Half plane ∅ = constant

Half Cone θ = constant 0 ≤ ∅ < 2𝜋
0≤𝜃<𝜋

Intersection of r = constant, θ = constant and ∅ = constant

→ Point P on the sphere
38 Spherical Coordinate System
z

(r, θ, ∅)
r
39 Spherical Coordinate System
z
Spherical coordinates = P(r, 𝜃, ∅)
𝑟 →Distance from origin to P or radius of sphere centred at
origin and passing through P
𝜃→Angle between z-axis and position vector of P
∅→ Angle measured from x-axis in xy-plane
0≤𝑟<∞
0≤𝜃<𝜋
0 ≤ ∅ < 2𝜋

𝐴Ԧ in Spherical coordinate system can be represented by

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎ො 𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎ො𝜃 + 𝐴∅ 𝑎ො ∅

𝑎ො𝑟 , 𝑎ො𝜃 , 𝑎ො∅ → Unit vectors along 𝑟, 𝜃 and ∅ direction

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴2𝑟 + 𝐴2𝜃 + 𝐴2∅

40
Coordinate Transformation
z Cartesian
Spherical to Cartesian to Spherical

x = r sin θ cos ∅ r= x2 + y2 + z2
y = r sin θ sin ∅ y
∅= tan−1
z = r cos θ x

x2 + y2
θ= tan−1
z

NOTE:

𝑎ො𝑟 . 𝑎ො𝑟 = 𝑎ො𝜃 . 𝑎ො 𝜃 = 𝑎ො∅ . 𝑎ො∅ = 1

𝑎ො 𝑟 . 𝑎ො𝜃 = 𝑎ො 𝜃 . 𝑎ො∅ = 𝑎ො∅ . 𝑎ො 𝑟 = 0 aො r , aො θ and aො ∅ are

mutually
perpendicular to each
𝑎ො𝑟 × 𝑎ො𝜃 = 𝑎ො∅ other
𝑎ො𝜃 × 𝑎ො ∅ = 𝑎ො 𝑟

𝑎ො∅ × 𝑎ො 𝑟 = 𝑎ො 𝜃
EC303: Applied Electromagnetic Theory

Module 1
Vector Calculus (Part 3)

SHYAMA SREEKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology
42
TOPICS COVERED
z

• Problem – Coordinate Transformation

• Differential length, area and volume

43 Example: Consider a point P(-2, 6, 3), express point P in cylindrical and spherical
coordinates.
Solution: z y
Cylindrical * 𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝟑)
ρ= x2 + y2 = (−2)2 +62 = 6.32
x

6
∅= tan−1 = 108.43°
−2
Cylindrical Coordinates
z=z=3 (𝟔. 𝟑𝟐, 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟑°, 𝟑)
Spherical

r= x2 + y2 + z2 = (−2)2 +62 + 32 = 7

(−2)2 +62
θ = tan−1 = 64.62°
3
Spherical Coordinates
6 (𝟕, 𝟔𝟒. 𝟔𝟐°, 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟑°)
∅= tan−1 = 108.43°
−2
44

Differential length, area and volume

45 Cartesian Coordinate System (x, y, z)
z

Differential Displacement

dԦl = dxොax + dyොay + dzොaz

Differential Surface Area

dSx = dydz aො x
dSy = dxdz aො y
dSz = dxdy aො z

Differential Volume

dV = dx dy dz
46
Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, ∅, z) 𝛒𝐝∅
z
Differential Distances: (𝐝𝛒, 𝛒𝐝∅, 𝐝𝐳)

Differential Displacement 𝛒

dԦl = dρ aො ρ + ρ d∅ෝa∅ + dz aො z

Differential Surface Area

𝑑𝑆Ԧ𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑧 𝑎ො𝜌
𝑑𝑆Ԧ∅ = 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑧 𝑎ො∅
𝑑𝑆Ԧ𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝜌 𝑎ො𝑧

Differential Volume

dV = ρ dρ d∅ dz
47
Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, ∅)
z
Differential Distances: (𝐝𝐫, 𝐫𝐝𝛉, 𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 𝐝∅)

Differential Displacement

dԦl = drොar + rdθොaθ + rsinθ d∅ොa∅

Differential Surface Area

dSr = r 2 sinθ dθ d∅ aො r
dSθ = r sinθ dr d∅ aො θ
dS∅ = r dr dθ aො ∅

Differential Volume

dV = r 2 sinθ dr dθ d∅
48 General Orthogonal Coordinate System (u, v, w)
u v w 𝐡𝟏 𝐡𝟐 𝐡𝟑
z
Cartesian x y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical ρ ∅ z 1 ρ 1
Spherical r θ ∅ 1 r r sin θ
Differential Length

dԦl = h1 du aො u + h2 dv aො v + h3 dw aො w

Differential Surface Area

dSu = h2 h3 dv dw aො u
dSv = h1 h3 du dw aො v
dSw = h1 h2 du dv aො w
Differential Volume
dV = h1 h2 h3 du dv dw
49 Example: Determine the expression for the volume of sphere of radius ‘a’ using the concept
of differential volume.
Solution: z
dV = r 2 sinθ dr dθ d∅
Total volume,

a π 2π

V = න න න r 2 sinθ dr dθ d∅
r=0 θ=0 ∅=0

a
r3 π 2π
a3
V= − cos θ 0 ∅ 0 = × 1 + 1 × 2π
3 0
3

𝟒 𝟑
𝐕 = 𝛑𝐚
𝟑
EC303: Applied Electromagnetic Theory

Module 1
Vector Calculus (Part 4)

SHYAMA SREEKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology
51 General Orthogonal Coordinate System (u, v, w)
u v w 𝐡𝟏 𝐡𝟐 𝐡𝟑
z
Cartesian x y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical ρ ∅ z 1 ρ 1
Spherical r θ ∅ 1 r r sin θ
Differential Length

dԦl = h1 du aො u + h2 dv aො v + h3 dw aො w

Differential Surface Area

dSu = h2 h3 dv dw aො u
dSv = h1 h3 du dw aො v
dSw = h1 h2 du dv aො w
Differential Volume
dV = h1 h2 h3 du dv dw
52
DEL OPERATOR
z
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
𝛁 = 𝐚ො 𝐱 + 𝐚ො 𝐲 + 𝐚ො 𝐳
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
Del operator is both a vector and a differential symbol
Gradient of scalar, V
(∇V)

Divergence of vector A
(∇. A)
Operations with ∇ operator
Curl of vector A
(∇ × A)

Laplacian of a scalar V
(∇2 V)
53 Expression for Del operator
z Expression
General
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
∇= aො u + aො v + aො w
h1 𝜕u h2 𝜕v h3 𝜕w

Cartesian Coordinate System

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇cartesian = aො x + aො y + aො z
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

Cylindrical Coordinate System

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
∇cylindrical = aො ρ + aො ∅ + aො z
𝜕ρ ρ 𝜕∅ 𝜕z

Spherical Coordinate System

𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
∇spherical = aො r + aො θ + aො ∅
𝜕r r 𝜕θ rsin θ 𝜕∅
54
Gradient of a Scalar
z
▪ Denotes the rate of change of a function

▪ It’s a vector that points in the direction of greatest increase of a function

𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝐕
𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝐕 = 𝛁𝐕 = 𝐚ො 𝐱 + 𝐚ො 𝐲 + 𝐚ො 𝐳
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
▪ Properties

▪ Magnitude of gradient of V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit

distance.

▪ Gradient of V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.

▪ If 𝐴Ԧ = 𝛻V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A

55
Gradient of a Scalar
z
▪ Denotes the rate of change of a function

▪ It’s a vector that points in the direction of greatest increase of a function

𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝐕
𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝐕 = 𝛁𝐕 = 𝐚ො 𝐱 + 𝐚ො 𝐲 + 𝐚ො 𝐳
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
▪ Properties

▪ Magnitude of gradient of V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit

distance.

▪ Gradient of V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.

▪ If 𝐴Ԧ = 𝛻V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A

56

In the above two images, the values of the function are

represented in black and white, black representing higher values,
and its corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows
57 Expression for Gradient of a scalar
General
z Expression
1 𝜕V 1 𝜕V 1 𝜕V
∇V = aො u + aො v + aො w
h1 𝜕u h2 𝜕v h3 𝜕w

Cartesian Coordinate System

𝜕V 𝜕V 𝜕V
∇V cartesian = aො x + aො y + aො z
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

Cylindrical Coordinate System

𝜕V 1 𝜕V 𝜕V
∇V cylindrical = aො ρ + aො ∅ + aො z
𝜕ρ ρ 𝜕∅ 𝜕z

Spherical Coordinate System

𝜕V 1 𝜕V 1 𝜕V
∇V spherical = aො r + aො θ + aො ∅
𝜕r r 𝜕θ rsin θ 𝜕∅
58 Example: Find the gradient of the scalar,
(a) 𝐕 = 𝐱 𝟐 𝐲 + 𝐳
(b) 𝐔 = 𝛒𝟐 𝐳z𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐∅
Solution:
1 𝜕V 1 𝜕V 1 𝜕V
∇V = aො u + aො v + aො w
h1 𝜕u h2 𝜕v h3 𝜕w

(a)
𝜕V 𝜕V 𝜕V
∇V cartesian = aො + aො + aො
𝜕x x 𝜕y y 𝜕z z
∇V = 2𝑥𝑦ොa x + 𝑥 2 aො y + aො z

(b)
𝜕V 1 𝜕V 𝜕V
∇V cylindrical = aො + aො + aො
𝜕ρ ρ ρ 𝜕∅ ∅ 𝜕z z
1
∇V = 2ρ𝑧 cos 2∅ aො ρ + × ρ2 𝑧 × (−2 sin 2∅)ොa∅ + ρ2 cos 2∅ොa z
ρ
∇V = 2ρ𝑧 cos 2∅ aො ρ − 2ρ𝑧 sin 2∅ aො ∅ + ρ2 cos 2∅ොa z
59
Divergence of a vector
• z amount of electric field passing through a surface.
Flux is the
• The total flux depends on
• Strength of the field,
• Size of the surface it passes through, and
• Its orientation.
• Describes the extent to which there is more flux exiting an infinitesimal region of space
than entering it
60 • Divergence (div) is “flux density”—the amount of flux entering or leaving a point
• Divergence at a point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume
shrinkszabout point P
‫𝐀 𝐒ׯ‬. 𝐝𝐒Ԧ
𝐝𝐢𝐯 𝐀 = 𝛁. 𝐀 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝐯→𝟎 ∆𝐯

Positive Divergence

Negative Divergence

Zero Divergence
61 Ԧ
Divergence Operator (𝛻. 𝐴)
General
z Expression
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. A = A u h2 h 3 + Av h1 h3 + Aw h1 h2
h1 h2 h3 𝜕u 𝜕v 𝜕w

Cartesian Coordinate System

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. A cartesian
= Ax + Ay + Az
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

Cylindrical Coordinate System

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. A = ρAρ + A + ρAz
cylindrical ρ 𝜕ρ 𝜕∅ ∅ 𝜕z

Spherical Coordinate System

1 𝜕 2 𝜕 𝜕
∇. A spherical
= 2 r sin θ Ar + r sin θ Aθ + rA∅
r sinθ 𝜕r 𝜕θ 𝜕∅
62
Divergence
z
Theorem

ර A. dS = න ∇. A dv
S v

• Divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of vector

field, 𝐴Ԧ through a closed surface S is same as the volume
Ԧ
integral of the divergence of 𝐴.
• Theorem is applicable for a volume, V enclosed by a closed
surface, S.
63 Example: Find the divergence of the vector,
(a) 𝑨 = 𝐱 𝟐 𝐲𝐳ෝ
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙𝒛ෝ
𝒂𝒛
z
Solution:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. A = A + A + A
cartesian 𝜕x x 𝜕y y 𝜕z z

(a)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇. Acartesian = A + A + A
𝜕x x 𝜕y y 𝜕z z
∇. A = 2xyz + x
EC303: Applied Electromagnetic Theory

Module 1
Vector Calculus (Part 5)

SHYAMA SREEKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Rajagiri School of Engineering and Technology
65 Curl of a vector
z
• The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector
whose
• Magnitude is the maximum circulation of A
per unit area as the area tends to zero
and
• Direction is the normal direction of the
area when the area is oriented so as to
make the circulation maximum.

Ԧ 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
‫𝐴 𝐿ׯ‬.
curl 𝐴Ԧ = 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ = lim 𝑎ො𝑛
∆𝑆→0 ∆𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥

• Where the area ∆𝑆 is bounded by the curve L and 𝑎ො𝑛 is the unit vector normal
to the surface, ∆𝑆 and is determined using the right hand rule.
66
• Curl provides maximum value of circulation of field per unit area and
z
indicates the direction along which maximum value occurs.
• Curl of a vector regarded as a measure of circulation or how much the field
curls around P

Curl at P points out of the page

(Right Hand Rule)

Curl at point P is zero

67

z
In Cartesian coordinate system,
𝐚ො 𝐱 𝐚ො 𝐲 𝐚ො 𝐳
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
𝛁×𝐀 =
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
𝐀𝐱 𝐀𝐲 𝐀𝐳

Curl of a vector field is another vector field

Divergence of curl of vector field is zero i.e.,

𝛻. 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ = 0

Curl of gradient of scalar field is also zero i.e.,

𝛻 × 𝛻𝑉 = 0
68
Expression of curl
z
h1 aො u h2 aො v h3 aො w
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×A=
h1 h2 h3 𝜕u 𝜕v 𝜕w
h1 Au h2 A v h3 A w

aො ρ ρොa∅ aො z
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×A =
cylindrical ρ 𝜕ρ 𝜕∅ 𝜕z
Aρ ρA∅ Az

aො r rොa θ r sin θ aො ∅
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×A = 2
spherical r sin θ 𝜕r 𝜕θ 𝜕∅
Ar rAθ rsinθ A∅
69 Example: Find the curl of the vector,
(a) 𝑨 = 𝐱 𝟐 𝐲𝐳ෝ
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙𝒛ෝ
𝒂𝒛
z
Solution:
aො x aො y aො z
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×A =
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
Ax Ay Az
(a)
aො x aො y aො z
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×A =
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 0 𝑥𝑧
∇ × A = 0 − 0 aො x − 𝑧 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 aො y + (0 − 𝑥 2 𝑧)ොaz
∇ × A = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 aො y − 𝑥 2 𝑧ොa z
70
Stokes’ Theorem
z

ර 𝐀. 𝐝Ԧ𝐥 = න (𝛁 × 𝐀) . 𝐝𝐒Ԧ
𝐋
𝐒

• Stokes' theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A

around a closed path is equal to the surface integral the curl of
𝐴Ԧ over the open surface S bounded by length L provided that 𝐴Ԧ
and 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ are continuous on S.
71
Illustration of Stokes’ Theorem
z 𝐋𝟐
Path
Path 𝐋𝟏 Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = ෍ ර 𝐴.
Ԧ 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
ර 𝐴.
𝐿 𝑘 𝐿𝑘

Ԧ 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
‫𝐴 𝐿ׯ‬.
Ԧ 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = ෍
ර 𝐴. 𝑘
∆𝑆𝑘
∆𝑆𝑘
𝐿 𝑘

(There is cancellation on every interior path – Sum

of line integrals around 𝐿𝑘 is same as the line
Path 𝐋𝒌 integral around the bounding curve L and
Applying lim )
∆𝑆→0

Path 𝐋
ර 𝐀. 𝐝Ԧ𝐥 = න (𝛁 × 𝐀) . 𝐝𝐒Ԧ
𝐋
𝐒
72
Solenoidal
z A vector 𝐀 is said to be solenoidal if
(or)
Divergenceless 𝛁. 𝐀 = 𝟎

Such a field has neither a source nor a sink of flux.

From divergence theorem,

ර A . dS = න (∇. A) dv = 0
S v

Flux lines of 𝐴Ԧ entering a surface must also leave it

73
Solenoidal
z The field of curl for any vector field F is purely
solenoidal.
∇. ∇ × 𝐹Ԧ = 0

For a solenoidal field,

∇. A = 0
Also,

ර A . dS = 0
S

Therefore, A can be expressed as

A=∇×F
74
Irrotational A vector 𝐀 is said to be irrotational if
z
𝛁×𝐀=𝟎

From Stokes theorem,

ර A . dԦl = න ∇ × A . dS = 0
L S

Ԧ the circulation of 𝐴Ԧ around a

For an irrotational field 𝐴,
closed path is identically zero.
This implies that the line integral of 𝐴Ԧ is independent of the
chosen path → CONSERVATIVE FIELD
75
Irrotational
z Field of gradient of any scalar V is purely irrotational
i.e., ∇ × ∇𝑉 = 0

For an irrotational field,

∇×A =0
Also,

ර A . dԦl = 0
L

Therefore, A can be expressed as

A = ∇V
A is called as the potential field and V is called as the
scalar potential of A
76
CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS
z

Vector Fields

∇. 𝐴Ԧ = 0 ∇. 𝐴Ԧ ≠ 0 ∇. 𝐴Ԧ = 0 ∇. 𝐴Ԧ ≠ 0
∇ × 𝐴Ԧ = 0 ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ = 0 ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ ≠ 0 ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ ≠ 0
77