ELEC0014 - Introduction to power and energy systems

The power transformer

Thierry Van Cutsem

[email protected] www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/~vct

November 2017

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 The power transformer

Power transformers are used:

to transmit electrical energy under high voltages
step-up transformers at the terminal of generators
step-down transformers to distribute energy at the end-users
to control the voltages at some busbars:
in sub-transmission networks
in distribution networks
to control the power flows in some parts of a meshed network.

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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

The single-phase transformer

Principle

step-up transformer: secondary voltage > primary voltage

step-down transformer: secondary voltage < primary voltage.

alternating voltage v1 at terminals of coil 1 −→ alternating current i1 in coil 1

−→ alternating magnetic field −→ voltage induced in coil 2 −→ current i2 in
coil 2 −→ magnetic field superposed to the one created by i1 .
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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

Fluxes in coils

n1 i1 +n2 i2 = Rφm
φm : magnetic flux in a cross section of the iron core
R : reluctance of the magnetic circuit

+ sign: due to the way coils are wound and the direction of currents

ψ1 = ψ`1 + n1 φm
ψ1 : flux linkage in coil 1
ψ`1 : leakage flux in coil 1 (lines of magnetic field crossing coil 1 but not
passing through the iron core)

ψ2 = ψ`2 + n2 φm
ψ2 : flux linkage in coil 2
ψ`2 : leakage flux in coil 2 (lines of magnetic field crossing coil 2 but not
passing through the iron core)

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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

Ideal transformer

The coils have no resistance

the coils have no leakage flux
the permeability of the core material is infinite.
n1
R ' 0 ⇒ i2 = − i1
n2
dψ1 dφm dψ2 dφm n2
v1 = = n1 v2 = = n2 ⇒ v2 = v1
dt dt dt dt n1

Step-down transformer: v2 < v1 ⇒ n2 < n1 ⇒ i2 > i1

coil 2 has fewer turns but higher cross-sectional area

v1 i1 = −v2 i2 : no losses in the ideal transformer!

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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

Equations of the real transformer

ψ`1 ψ`2
Leakage inductances: L`1 = L`2 =
i1 i2
n12
Magnetizing inductance (seen from coil 1) : Lm1 =
R
Flux linkages:

n1 i1 + n2 i2 n2 n1 n2 n2
ψ1 = L`1 i1 + n1 = L`1 i1 + 1 i1 + i2 = L`1 i1 + Lm1 i1 + Lm1 i2
R R R n1

n1 i1 + n2 i2 n2 n1 n2 n2 n2
ψ2 = L`2 i2 + n2 = L`2 i2 + 2 i2 + i1 = L`2 i2 + ( )2 Lm1 i2 + Lm1 i1
R R R n1 n1

Voltages at the terminals of the coils:

dψ1 di1 di1 n2 di2
v1 = R1 i1 + = R1 i1 + L`1 + Lm1 + Lm1
dt dt dt n1 dt
dψ2 di2 n2 2 di2 n2 di1
v2 = R2 i2 + = R2 i2 + L`2 + ( ) Lm1 + Lm1
dt dt n1 dt n1 dt

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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

The transformer is a particular case of magnetically coupled circuits

- if the currents enter by the terminals marked with •, their contributions to

the flux φm are added
- if the currents are counted positive when entering the terminals marked
with •, the mutual inductance is positive
- the • also indicate AC voltages which are in phase when the transformer is
supposed ideal.

One easily identifies:

n12 n1 n2 n22
L11 = L`1 + L12 = L22 = L`2 +
R R R

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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

Equivalent circuits of the real transformer

R1 i12 + R2 i22 : copper losses

Passing R2 et L`2 from side 2 to side 1:

Possible improvements:
shunt resistance to account for iron losses (due to eddy currents)
kept small by using laminated cores
negligible compared to the power passing through the transformer
non-linear inductance Lm1 to account for iron saturation.
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 The power transformer The single-phase transformer

Usual simplified equivalent circuit

Usual simplification taking into account that:

ωLm1 >> R1 , R2 , ωL`1 , ωL`2

n2 R2 ωL`2
n= R = R1 + X = ωL`1 + Xm = ωLm1
n1 n2 n2

Equivalent circuit justified by the measurements provided by manufacturers

X = leakage reactance (combined)
X = short-circuit reactance = reactance seen from port 1 when port 2 is
short-circuited (considering that Xm is very large compared to X )

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

The three-phase transformer

First type

Three separate single-phase transformers. No magnetic coupling between phases.

Appropriate for transformers of large nominal power:

in case of failure of one of the transformers, only that transformer is replaced
easier to carry.
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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Second type

The three phases are mounted on a common iron core.

”core” configuration ”shell” configuration

Volume of the common core smaller than three times the volume of a single core.
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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Star vs. Delta configuration

Four possible mountings.

Transformer side connected to extra high voltage network:

√ star configuration
preferred since the voltage across each winding is 3 times smaller
star configuration: possibility to connect the neutral to ground (safety)
star configuration preferred to place a load tap changer (see later in this
chapter)
transformer side carrying high currents (f.i. the generator side of a step-up
transformer):
√ delta configuration preferred since the currents in the branches
are 3 times smaller
delta configuration used to eliminate the harmonics of order 3, 6, 9, etc.

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Single-phase equivalents of three-phase transformers

transformer with single core: the phases are magnetically coupled

→ perform a per-phase analysis (see Chapter 2)
for simplicity, we consider a transformer with three separate cores
we focus on the impact of the star vs. delta configuration.

1. Star-star configuration Yy0

Per-phase equivalent circuit = equivalent circuit of one phase. 13 / 35

 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

2. Delta-delta configuration Dd0

Equivalent circuit:

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

3. Star-delta configuration Yd11 / Dy1

1 n2 n2
V̄a0 = √ e jπ/6 V̄a0 c 0 = √ e jπ/6 V̄1n = n̄V̄1n où n̄ = √ e jπ/6
3 3n1 3 n1
√
√ jπ/6 3 n1 1 1
¯ ¯ ¯
Ia0 = Ia0 c 0 − Ib0 a0 = 3 e ¯
Ia 0 c 0 = I¯1 = ? I¯1
n2 e −jπ/6 n̄ 15 / 35
 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Equivalent circuit:

Ideal transformer with complex ratio n̄ :

is characterized by : V̄a0 = n̄V̄1 I¯a0 = I¯1 /n̄?
reduces to the standard ideal transformer if n̄ is real
1
transfers complex power without losses: V̄a0 I¯a?0 = n̄ V̄1 I¯1? = V̄1 I¯1?
n̄

I¯a V̄a =0,V̄ 0 =1 6= − I¯a0 V̄a =1,V̄ 0 =0

 
The above two-port is non reciprocal:
a a

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

4. Delta-star configuration Dy1 / Yd11

Derivation similar to that of the Star-delta configuration,

leading to a single-phase equivalent circuit with:

√
3 n2 −jπ/6
the complex transformer ratio: n̄ = e
n1
a series resistance R/3
a series reactance X /3
a shunt reactance Xm /3.

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Designation of a transformer

Standardized abbreviation of I.E.C. (International Electrotechnical Commission)

Also referred to as vector group of a transformer

3 symbols:
an uppercase letter for the high-voltage side: Y for a star connection or D for
a delta
a lowercase letter for the low-voltage side: y for a star connection or d for a
delta
an integer p ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 11}:
an indication of the phase displacement between the primary and secondary
voltages of the same phase, the transformer being assumed ideal
the phasor of the high voltage being on the number 12 of a clock, p is the
number pointed by the phasor of the low voltage
and for the star configuration:
n after y or Y to indicate that the neutral is grounded.

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Caution as regards using transformers with different phase displacements

When a given sub-network is fed by two (or more) transformers operating “in
parallel” (i.e. located in at least one loop), the latter must have the same phase
displacement p.

Otherwise, the different phase displacements would cause unacceptable power

flows.

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 The power transformer The three-phase transformer

Simplification of computations

Two transformers with the same phase displacement: ϕA = ϕB = ϕ

The ideal transformers with complex ratio e jϕ can be removed without changing:
the magnitudes of the branch currents and bus voltages
the complex powers flowing in the branches.

The phase displacements in the transformer models are ignored when computing
the steady-state balanced operation of power systems.
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 The power transformer Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Nominal values

Nominal primary voltage U1N and nominal secondary voltage U2N :

voltages for which the transformer has been designed (in particular its
insulation).
The real voltages may deviate from these values by a few %.
Nominal primary current I1N and nominal secondary current I2N :
currents for which the transformer has been designed (in particular the
cross-sections of the conductors).
Maximum currents that can be accepted without limit in time.
nominal apparent power SN :
√ √
SN = 3U1N I1N = 3U2N I2N

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 The power transformer Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Conversion of parameters in per unit values

choose the (three-phase) base power SB = SN

√
on primary side, choose the (phase-to-neutral) base voltage V1B = U1B / 3
√
on secondary side, choose the (phase-to-neutral) base voltage V2B = U2B / 3
the impedances of the equivalent circuit, which are located on the primary
2 2
side, are divided by Z1B = 3V1B /SB = U1B /SB
the value of the transformer ratio n = n2 /n1 in per unit is obtained as follows:

n2 v2 n2 n2 V1B v1 n2 V1B
v2 = v1 ⇔ v2pu = = v1 = = v1pu
n1 V2B n1 V2B n1 V2B V1B n1 V2B
n2 V1B
⇒ npu =
n1 V2B

If V2B /V1B = n2 /n1 : npu = 1 : the ideal transformer disappears from the
equivalent circuit !

In practice, V2B /V1B ' n2 /n1 : the ideal transformer remains in the equivalent
circuit but with a ratio npu ' 1.
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 The power transformer Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Orders of magnitude

resistance R < 0.005 pu

leakage reactance1 ωL range: 0.06 − 0.20 pu
magnetizing reactance ωLm range: 20 − 50 pu
transformer ratio n = n2 /n1 range: 0.85 − 1.15 pu
values on the (SB , V1B , V2B ) base of the transformer !!

Network computation in another base: convert the parameters to that base (see
formula in the chapter on per unit system)

1 or short-circuit reactance
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 The power transformer Autotransformers

Autotransformers

Single-phase autotransformer

Transformer whose primary and secondary sides are connected in such a way that
they have a winding in common:

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 The power transformer Autotransformers

Let us assume that the inner transformer operates with its voltages and currents
at their nominal values (all losses neglected, transformer assumed ideal).

auto auto
I1N = I1N V2N = V2N
auto n2
V1N = V1N + V2N = (1 + )V1N
n1
auto n2
I2N = I1N + I2N = ( + 1)I2N
n1
Ratio of the autotransformer ?
auto 2 n
V2N V2N n1
nauto = = =
auto
V1N V1N + V2N 1 + nn21
For the chosen primary and secondary, the transformer is of the step-down type.
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 The power transformer Autotransformers

Nominal apparent power of the autotransformer ?

n2 n2
SNauto = V1N
auto auto
I1N = (1 + )V1N I1N = (1 + )SN
n1 n1

The autotransformer allows for a power transfer higher than SN .

⇒ reduced investment costs and reduced losses !
True for any n1 , n2 values but for a higher “amplification”: n2  n1
However, if n2  n1 , the autotransformer ratio nauto → 1.
Hence, the device cannot connect two very different voltage levels

Autotransformers used to transfer high powers between two networks with

relatively close nominal voltages
Belgium : 550 MVA autotransformers between 400 and 150 kV
France: autotransformers between 400 and 225 kV.
drawback: metallic connection between primary and secondary ⇒ voltage
disturbances propagate more easily.

Three-phase autotransformer

Assembly of three single-phase autotransformers.

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 The power transformer Adjustment of the turn ratio

Adjustment of the turn ratio

Principle

Objective: adjust voltage at a busbar (usually one of the transformer ends)

adjustment in steps: between 15 and 25 tap positions
to modify the number of turns in service:
transformer taken out of service
transformer kept in service: the on-load (or under-load or load) tap changer
modifies the windings without interrupting the current (avoid electric arcs!)
load tap changers can be controlled
manually: remotely by operator supervising the network from a control center
automatically: local feedback system (see chapter on voltage control)
placement of tap changer:
usually on the high-voltage side: current smaller, more turns in winding
three-phase transformer: near neutral in Y configuration (lower voltages).
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 The power transformer Adjustment of the turn ratio

Accounting the tap position changes in equivalent circuit

In principle, one set of (R, ωL, ωLm1 , n) values for each tap position.

In practice, ωL and n are the most affected, while R  and ωLm1 .

Possible simplification: let us assume that:

the turns are adjusted on side 2 in equivalent circuit
the leakage inductance L`2 vary with the number of turns n2 according to:
n2 2
L`2 = Lo`2 ( )
n2o

and similarly for the resistance R2 :

n2 2
R2 = R2o ( )
n2o

This is arguable, but R2 is small. . .

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 The power transformer Adjustment of the turn ratio

After passing R2 and L`2 on the other side of the ideal transformer:

When the tap position (and, hence, the number of turns n2 ) changes:
impedances located on the non-adjusted side remain constant
only the transformer ratio n2 /n1 changes.

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 The power transformer Three-winding transformers

Three-winding transformers
Shortcut for “transformers with three windings per phase”.

Principle

Single-phase transformer with 3 windings (= 1 phase of a 3-phase transformer) :

Power transfer between three voltage levels

share of power flows between the windings depends on what is connected to
the transformer
nominal apparent powers of the three windings usually different.
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 The power transformer Three-winding transformers

Other uses
in switching stations, power supplied to auxiliaries by the third winding
connection of a shunt inductance or capacitor for compensation purposes
improvement of operation in unbalanced condition
improvement of power quality in the presence of harmonics.

Equivalent circuit

R1 + R2 + j(X1 + X2 ) : impedance seen from 1 with 2 short-circuited and 3 opened

R1 + R3 + j(X1 + X3 ) : impedance seen from 1 with 3 short-circuited and 2 opened

Some reactances of this equivalent circuit can be negative

(for instance if the windings have very different nominal apparent powers).
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 The power transformer Phase shifting transformer

Phase shifting transformer

Also called simply phase shifter.

Transformer aimed at shifting the secondary voltage phasor with respect to the
primary voltage phasor, in order to adjust active power flows in the network.

Two main configurations:

transformer connecting two networks with different nominal voltages (as
usual) to which a device is added to adjust the phase angle
dedicated device, with the same primary and secondary nominal voltages,
aimed at adjusting the phase angle.

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 The power transformer Phase shifting transformer

First scheme

adjustment in quadrature
some variation of the voltage magnitude with the phase angle
there exist more elaborate schemes where the voltage magnitude is kept
constant while the phase angle is adjusted
drawback of this scheme: the whole line current passes through the tap
changer (unavoidable electric arcs).

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 The power transformer Phase shifting transformer

Second scheme

excitation shunt transformer + series transformer

nominal voltage of series transformer = fraction of nominal phase-to-neutral
voltage VN ⇒ nominal apparent power = fraction of 3VN Imax
compared to previous scheme: lower current in the tap changer.

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 The power transformer Phase shifting transformer

Example: phase shifting transformers on the borders of Belgium

380/380 kV : in series with:

1 line Zandvliet (B) - Borssele (NL) and Zandvliet (B) - Geertruidenberg (NL)
2 line Meerhout (B) - Maasbracht (NL)
3 line Gramme (B) - Maasbracht (NL)
nominal power 3VN Imax = 1400 MVA
phase shift adjustment: 35 positions, +17/-17 × 1.5o (at no load)

220/150 kV : in series with the Chooz (F) - Monceau (B) line

nominal power: 400 MVA
in-phase adjustment : 21 positions, +10/-10 × 1.5 %
quadrature adjustment: 21 positions, +10/-10 × 1.2o
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