AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No.

1, 2021

LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES: BEHAVIOURISM, MENTALISM AND

AFFECTIVISM

Professor Ngozi Ezenwa-Ohaeto

Department of English Language & Literature
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
Email:[email protected]
&
Eucharia Nkechinyere Ugochukwu
School of General Studies
Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
This work focuses on the pedagogical implications of language learning theories, namely
behaviourism, mentalism, and affectisim, and their applications in the learning of English as a second
language. The behaviourist emphasized on observable traits in learning language through imitation,
repetition and memorization. The mentalist is of the view that language learning is a mental concept
that involves an innate processing machine in an individual that enables one to learn a second
language known as language acquisition device (LAD). From affectivist’s point of view, the
emotional needs, motives and attitudinal disposition of the learner are the primary factors in language
learning. Exposure to this work will enable both learners and teachers of language to differentiate
learning theories and adopt the most suitable ones into teaching and learning.
Keywords: Behaviourism, Mentalism and Affectivism

Introduction
The learning theory of language acquisition suggest that children learn a language much like they
learn to tie their shoes or how to count; through repetition and reinforcements. According to this
theory, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them. The
process of speech and language development in children is complex and interrelated. For normal
communication to develop, there must be an integration of anatomy and physiology of the speech
systems, neurological development, and interactions that encourage them. Language development
includes both receptive and expressive language (Yule, 1996).

Language is specie-specific. That is, only human beings possess the capacity to use language. The
genetic make-up of human beings makes language acquisition, and comprehension is unique to man.
Pinker (1975), asserts that the shape of human vocal tract seems to have been modified in evolution
for the demands of speech. Also, (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010), says that young children have
certain characteristics that predispose them to learn language. These characteristics include the
structure of the vocal tract which enables children to make the sound used in language and the ability
to understand general grammatical principles, such as the hierarchical nature of syntax. Moreover, a
look at animal communication reveals a rigid pattern of signs. Chimpanzees used in language learning
experience are taught in a contrived way by humans to acquire rudimentary abilities to request for
food and to tickle. This contrasts sharply with the natural ability of children to acquire language in a
seamless unencumbered manner. No animal has been trained to learn human language. Animal
vocalism remains fixed as it was ages before history. Human beings usually learn or gain knowledge
either in a conscious or sub-conscious way. Learn is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral
tendency and is a result of reinforced tendency. There are actually few theories that has been used to
describe the language that is acquired or learned. This work will dwell on behaviorism, mentalisim,
and affectivism as learning theories and their pedagogical implication to language learning.

Concept of Learning
According to Alhassan (1985: 17), learning is the totality of the acquisition of factual information, the
mastering of skills and means to aid further study (understanding); the entire socialization process, the

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acquisition of behaviour patterns, the styles of tackling problems of everyday life and more. Learning
is a dynamic process whereby, through interactive experience, insights or cognitive structures of life
spaces are changed and so becomes more useful for future guidance. Gagne (1970:3) attempts a
definition which seems to have a wide appeal when he writes that learning even takes place when the
situation affects the learner in such a way that his/her performance changes from a time before being
in that situation to a time after being in it. The change in performance is what leads to the conclusion
that learning has occurred. Thus, learning is a change in human disposition of capability which can be
retained, and which is not ascribable to the process of growth. It is important for you to note that all
changes in performance that brought about by the environment may properly be referred to as
learning. This view of learning is identical to the definition that says that learning is a modification in
behaviour due to experience. When you look at the stages of a child’s development, you can see that
he first knows how to eat, then sit, to crawl about, to be able to stand, to walk, to run about, and to
speak. The child is now capable of doing some things which he could not do earlier in his life. It may
be said that in these respects, the child has learned because ‘observed changes in behaviour are
evident of learning’ (Balogun, 2001:43). Many psychologists agree that learning is a general term for
relatively lasting or permanent changes in performance or behaviour caused or produced directly by
experience. O’Connor (1993) submits that a study of learning is part of the larger study of
psychology, which may be defined as the scientific study of human experience and human and animal
behaviour. Olaitan (1992) defines learning as a collection of experiences which a person progressively
acquires to be regarded as educated in his/her society. Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing
more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental conditions. According to
behaviorist thinking it wasn’t really necessary for learners to internalize rules; instead they learn the
right patterns of linguistic behaviour, and acquire the correct habits.

Language is considered to be determined not by experimentation or self discovery, but by selective

reinforcements from speech and language models, usually parents or other family members. This
means that there are external forces that shapes a child’s language acquisition and learning, which
sees the child as a reactor of these forces (Cohen et al, 1996).

Concept of Language Learning Theories

Cohen et al (1996), posits that learning theories differ in method and conclusion because the theories
focused attention on certain aspects of the total learning processes. Difference in the results are
uninspiring if it is remembered that psychologist have used animals of nearly every species, are
generated no less than six theories of learning. In addition, theoretical approaches to the study of
behaviour are bye-product of such experiments. The engineer has theories of light, electricity, and
matter, the medical doctor has theories of genetics, just as the teacher/ educator is in command of
learning theories. Particular attention will be paid to behaviourism, mentalism and affectivism as
language learning theories in this section.

Hutchison and Waters (1987) speak about “learning theories’ which provide the theoretical basis for
the methodology, by helping us to understand how people learn’’ (Hutchison & Water, 1987, p.23). It
is the psychological processes involved in language use and language learning. It is natural that
learning strategies vary and corresponds with learners’ their age, level or for what reason they study
English. The ways adults acquire language differ from the way children do. Advanced group expects
different attitudes from beginners, and teachers determine which aspects of ESP learning will be
focused on to meet learners’ needs and expectations successfully. Some of these theories are: (a)
Behaviourism (b) Mentalism (c) Affective/Humanistic Theory.

Behaviorism
Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviours which are changed as the symptoms of learning.
According to Brown (1987:17), the behaviouristic approach focuses on the immediately perceptible
aspects of linguistic behaviour- the publicly observable responses. Learning only occurs when there
are changes in behaviour and observable as an evidence of changing. Feeling and mental processes
are not acceptable in Skinner’s human behavior’s theory. However, he still accepted the existence of
mind. Behaviorists consider learning a language as a set of mechanical habits which are formed

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through a process of imitation and repetition. Humans learn a language through repeating the same
form and text until it becomes a habit. Children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear
around (Lightbown & Spada, 1999). So, it was proposed that learners would repeat words they heard
and tried to use it in their conversation until it becomes regular basis of life. Behaviorists therefore
think learning a language especially second language (L2) should be learnt through extensive drill and
practice. Besides that, behaviorists also justified that learning a new language is learning a new set of
habit.

According to Ellis (1999), learning could be a manipulation of the environment to provide the
required experience. This theory formation of habit is related to the environment where learning is
recognized as Stimulus-Response (S-R) by Pavlov and Skinner. In 1950s, schools of psychology
successfully prevailed S-R in the form of behaviorism to ensure the connection between both
elements. Behaviorists might consider effective language behaviour to be the production of correct
responses to stimuli (Brown 1987). According to the theory, behavior happens in casual, associative
chains; all learning is thus characterized as associative learning, or habit formation, brought about by
the repeated association of a stimulus with a response Hadley (1988 cited in Rubeling 1993, p.45). So,
its best known proponent, B.F. Skinner used rats to conclude that conditioning has a 3-state
procedure: stimulus, response and reinforcement. From here, Skinner presumed that human learning
and animal learning are parallel; thus, L2 learning is also similar as well as other kinds of learning can
be explained by the same laws and principles. Every process of learning has to be followed by
reinforcement. Every learning is the establishment of habits and the result of reinforcement and
reward (Demirezen: 1988). In behaviorism, there are two different types of reinforcement, where the
response or behavior is strengthened and positively augmented by praise or reward. For instance,
when a student answers a question correct, and the teacher awards him/her a star, then the student will
try to answer another question because he/she is more confident and motivated. In contrast, the second
reinforcement will be negative reinforcement If a student is been scolded by his/her teacher after
getting an answer wrong, he/she would tend not to give an answer by the next question and answer
session because it would make him/her feel embarrassed. In short, positive reinforcement helps
learners develop correct habits. Furthermore, behaviorist learning theory also claimed that old habits
interfere with the acquisition of new ones. Learning of the L2 would be facilitated since all the
learners had to do was to transfer L1 habits (Ellis: 1990). That means errors in first language learning
(L1) are the results of interference in L2. It has to be avoided and prevented. L1 interference should
be avoided as well as corrected on the spot if they do occur. One of the examples of extensively
drilling in learning is Audio-Lingual Method, which is an American method. Audio Lingual Method
focuses on accuracy (pronunciation and intonation). Ellis (1990: 23), asserts that “for learning to be
effective, habits have to become automatic.” In short, language learning pattern has to be “over-
learnt” and the contents based on common day’s dialogues as well as expression, followed by the
positive reinforcement which will help students to develop correct habits. Learning the structures of
language is more emphasized if compare to the vocabulary. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) speak
about “learning theories’ which provide the theoretical basis for the methodology, by helping us to
understand how people learn” (Hutchison & Waters, 1987, p. 23). It is the psychological processes
involved in language use and language learning. It is natural that learning strategies vary and
corresponds with learners’ groups, their age level, or for what reason they study English. The ways
adults acquire language differ from the way children do. Advanced group expects different attitudes
from beginners, and teachers determine which aspects of ESP learning will be focused on to meet
learners’ needs and expectations successfully. Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on
objectively observable behaviours and discounts any independent activities of the mind, such as
classic conditioning and behavioural operant conditioning.

1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. We are biologically
“wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. One of the more common
examples of classical conditioning is the educational environment is in situations where students
exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of failure, fear of public speaking and general school
phobia.

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2. Behavioural or Operant Conditioning occurs when a response to stimulus is reinforced.

Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: if a reward or reinforcement follows the
response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in future. For example, leading
behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a
mini-alley. This is like reinforcing a child each time he does something right. Behaviorism does not
account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind. Behaviorism does not
explain some learning-such as the recognition of new language patterns by young children-for which
there is no reinforcement mechanism. Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns
to new information. For instance, a rat can shift its behaviour to respond to changes in the layout of a
maze it has previously mastered through reinforcements. Behaviorism can also be thought of as a
form of classroom management. Behaviorists believe that if teachers should provide positive
reinforcement or rewards whenever students perform a desired behaviour, they will learn to perform
the behaviour on their own. The same concept applies to punishments.

Mentalisim
The leading proponent of this theory is Noam Chomsky, who criticized the behaviorist theory of
language learning. He contradicted that “if all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child
produce a sentence that has never been said by others before?” According to Chomsky, language is
not a form of behaviour, rather it is an intricate rule based system and a large part of language
acquisition in the learning of this system. He argues that thinking is rule-governed. It is a finite, and
fairly small sets of rules that enable the mind to deal with the potentially infinite range of experience
it may encounter. He insisted that learning consists not of forming habits but of acquiring rules, a
process in which individuals experiences are tested and modified by subsequent experience
(Chomsky, 1965). The hypothesis that language acquisition and learning is not random but systematic
is evidenced on the fact that all normal children are endowed with similar brains and mental capacities
that direct the way and order language is used irrespective of the variations in the sample they are
exposed to. Furthermore, the mentalists call attention to the fact that no adult has to teach a child that
language is organized according to general principles or rules. This is apparent when a child makes
“mistakes” on the generalization of a given concept like the word “brought”. The child says “bringed”
instead of “brought”, having no knowledge of an exception to the rules he has learnt. This
generalization occurs in the learning of syntax and semantics.

The view that every child is born with innate characteristics or a disposition to acquire the language of
his immediate environment, is in the assertion that within every human person, there is an innate
processing machine which is concerned with linguistic information. This processing machine or
device is known as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This LAD is known currently as Universal
Grammar (UG). UG is located in human mind or brain. One important fact about UG is that it is
exclusive to humans alone and it is capable of giving every human being the grammar of his
language. The device also explains why children master their language/s at a fairly good speed, being
able to handle new linguistic situations that arise (Otagburuagu and Anyanwu, 2003). Another credit
to the mentalist theory is the view that the human child is creative and is capable of churning out new
expressions which the adult had not given the child to imitate. This disputes the behaviorist theory
that human being is a tabula rasa, a blank and recipient entity that depends entirely on the adult input.
The human being is seen as a dynamic and creative participant in both word processing and structural
ordering (Lyons, 1981).

This theory is of the opinion that thinking is rule governed. Chomsky sees learners are thinking
beings who are capable of coping with infinite range of possible situations from a finite range of
experience. The mentalist acknowledges that the mind use individual experiences to formulate
hypothesis. For example, knowing that words which ends in ‘-y’ take ‘-ies’ to form their plural, while
those that ends in ‘-f ’ will change to ‘–ives’, the learner given these rules can form a lot of plurals for
words they have not seen before.

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Affectivism
This school of thought sees learning, particularly the learning of a language as an emotional
experience. They believe the feelings that the learning process evokes will have a crucial bearing on
the success or failure of such learning. The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the
essential foundation for the initiation of the cognitive process. According to cognitive theory that has
an affinity with Affectivism, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of
data. This theory treats learners as thinking beings and puts them firmly at the center of the learning
process, by stressing that learning will only take place when the matter to be learnt is meaningful to
the learners. Hence, it is the emotional feelings of the learner towards what is being learnt that will
enhance his thoughts about the learning processes (Corder, 1973). The affective hypothesis stipulates
that anxiety, worry, distress and so on will hinder the improvement of language learning. (Bialystok,
1990).

Pedagogical Implications
Behaviorism relies only on observable behaviour and describes several universal laws of behaviour.
Its positive and negative reinforcement technique can be very effective-such as in treatment for
human disorders including autism, anxiety disorders, and antisocial behaviour. Behaviorism is often
used by teachers who reward or punish student behaviours. Behaviorism is often seen in contrast to
constructivism. Constructivists are more likely to allow for experimentation and exploration in the
classroom and place a greater emphasis on the experience of the learner in contrast to behaviorist. The
behaviorist postulates that language behaviours are learned by children through imitation,
reinforcement and copying adult language behaviours. Other important concepts of behavioural
theory are imitation, rewards and practice. This implies that a young child will try to imitate sounds
and words it hears from its parents the best it can. When a child attempts oral language or imitates the
sounds or speech patterns, they are usually praised or given affection. Behavioural theory is adapted
to study children’s language by observing, describing and counting specific language behaviours. This
basic stimulus-response model acquits a child to imitate sound and reinforces the sound production
with verbal praise by the teacher or parents. The children’s sounds are shaped into increasingly closer
approximations of the target sounds, and when they are able to produce the target sound correctly, the
sounds are practiced in a variety of words and sound combinations. When children do not use certain
language structures that are appropriate for their age they most likely have not acquired them naturally
and would need to improve in therapy. Helping children learn how to combine words, phrases and
sentences, make them convey massages to others. Also instructing about how to use language
appropriately in different social contexts and environment, allows them to use appropriate pragmatics
when communicating.

Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative or positive
effect. Negative affective factors are called affective filters and are an important idea in theories about
second language acquisition. For instance, a learner’s attitude to English, to the teacher, to other
learners in the group and to yourself as a learner are all affective factors that have impact on how well
we learn. Affective factors may be as important for successful language learning, if not more so, than
ability to learn. Teacher can reduce negative factors and develop positive ones by doing activities
aspects of the course and choosing activities that are motivating for the age and interests of the
learners. The cognitive theory tells us that learners will learn when they actively think about what they
are learning. This pre-supposes the affective factor of motivation. Motivation is important in the
development of ESP. Gardner and Lambert (cited in Hutchison & Waters, 1987) identified two forms
of motivation: instrumental and integrative motivation. Instrumental motivation is the reflection of the
external needs of the learners. The learners learn a language not because they want but because they
need the language for something such as for study or work purposes, to transact business with the
owners of the language, and learning a language for exam purpose and not for leisure, etc.

Integrative motivation, on the other hand, derives from the desire on the part of the learners to be
members of the speech community that uses a particular language. Integrative motivation, according
to Hutchinson and Waters (1987) “is an internally generated want rather than an externally imposed
need” (p.48). Example could be new trend of many parents speaking English to their children at home

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in order to hasten their children’s integration into English dominated prestigious social class in the
society. This implies that the value of learning is determined primarily by the society. People learn
what the social learning environment permits them to learn by way of subjects offered, quality of
teachers/ instruction facilitators, quality of the curriculum, quality of the learning environment, and so
on. It is important to note that what the learning society is capable of offering dose not suit its
definition of an educated man, a vacuum is created which has to be bridged by making learning more
meaningful and relevant to the societal perception of an educated man. Dinkmeyer (1985) defines
learning as a change in behaviour resulting from the interaction of the organism with its environment.
Learning is dependent upon activity or special training and in this sense, differs from behavioural
change which is as a result of experience.

Human beings learn. This statement looks and sounds simple, yet it has generated as much
controversy as any statement could in the behavioural, natural, or physical science. Travers (1996)
points that man is a philosopher before he is a psychologist or an educator, and as he sees human
nature, so he sees the nature of learning. Consequently, learning is viewed as a cognitive, problem-
solving process whereby man actively seeks and uses environmental clues that enable him to form
concepts, solve problems, and think creatively. Travers opines that human learning depends upon
three pre-conditions namely: a functioning biological organism; an on-going
social/cultural/religious/political/economic environment, and an opportunity for a biological being to
interact with any form or forms of the environment in two and thereby learn from it.

Human learning is the ultimate goal of our educational systems. Man turns to several disciplines to
discover what aids or hinders learning, and to grope towards a more adequate knowledge of the
process itself. From biology, the student of learning takes information about growth and development,
he utilizes facts about man’s activities in groups and what impact environmental forces have on
learning. From anthropology, he derives insights into the meaning of cultural difference. What the
specific cultural value its learning, and how the individual, reflecting his culture, has learned to learn.
Cultural is the total way of life of a people. It includes everything from how people welcome a
newborn baby to how the dead are buried. All disciplines can contribute to our knowledge about
learning. Learning may involve many variables. Cohen (1998) similarly states that learning may be
grouped into no less than five categories:
a. The characteristics of the learner, such as developmental aspects;
b. Characteristics of the teacher/instructional facilitator;
c. Classroom/study center interaction;
d. Characteristics of the learners group, and
e. The physical setting.

This tends to indicate that the nature of learning may not be all that easy to comprehend. Cohen again
attests to this when he writes that we do not as yet have any universally accepted description of the
learning process application to all kinds of learning, in all human beings, at all age levels, and in all
situations. It is important to note that the development of learning and intelligence and their great
educability are what distinguish humans from all other living creatures. An important distinction
between learning in lower animal and learning in humans is that even when simple association
learning is involved, one rarely sees the building up of isolated connections between singles sets of
stimuli and responses. Such connections occur, but in human learning we tend to notice their
appearances only as they form chains of associations. The type of association learning common to
humans, and the relative rapidity of the learning process, tends to obscure the observation of the
learning of the links themselves. In human learning, two particular abilities seem representative: the
first of these is a consequence of a highly developed sensory ability and manual which enables us to
learn the use of tools. This is variously referred to as sensor motor learning, motor learning or skill
learning. It includes all related abilities from manipulating a pencil, learning to operate a complex
machine, to playing a musical instrument with perhaps virtuoso ability. A second class of Human
learning results from an equally coincidence of physical and mental endowment, the ability to learn to
use verbal materials. As learning theory developed in the United States of America through the efforts
of Thorndike, Hull and others, so also developed was the view that learning, human and animal

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learning, maze learning and language learning, could potentially be understood merely by the
principles embodied in classical conditioning. This is one of the theories of learning discussed in
several study units of the course material. For all such theories, psychologist carried out experiments
mainly with the use of lower organisms such as rats, pigeons, chimpanzees, dogs, and such similar
creatures.

Conclusion
There are misconceptions as to what learning is. Learning is part of almost every aspect of
psychology. In addition, the concept of learning was examined. You have also learnt some definitions
of learning. Learning is the totality of the acquisition of factual information, the mastering of skills to
aid further study, the acquisition of behaviour patterns and styles of tackling problems of everyday
life. Observed changes in behaviour are evidence of learning. Speech involves the mental and
physical behaviour expressed by human being in his communication with his environment. The
learner has to articulate his physical and mental prowess in his bid to learn a second language. In
schools, teachers try to develop the motor and mental skills of learners and guide them for better
performance. For effective language learning to take place, all the language learning theories
behaviourism, mentalism and affectivism have to be put together or combined. The learner’s emotion,
physical and mental dispositions are accounted for in learning of a second language. With the
National Language Policy that enjoins the learning of another Nigerian language apart from one’s
mother tongue; the globalization and increasing multilingual needs of the world, it is beneficial to
learn as many languages as possible. Children acquire language because they are biologically
predisposed towards acquiring language of the immediate environment where they readily interact
with people around them.

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