University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

UNIT-4
SYLLABUS
Work Study: Introduction, work study procedure, Human considerations in work study
concepts of work content, works study as a tool to improve productivity, Introduction to Lean
manufacturing, Kaizen, Kanban Approach, JIT, Six Sigma.
Time Study: Objectives, Techniques of work measurement, Time study equipment's,
Computation of standard time, Work sampling, Motion time analysis. (10 Hours)

WORK STUDY
Introduction
Work study is mainly concerned with the examination of human work. In fact
planning is not possible unless one knows how long it will take to do a particular job. Thus
time is very important to the manufacturer who must keep to promise, to estimate quantities
and to other industrial and business arrangements or organizations.
Work study is not a theoretical concept but essentially a practical one and deals with
human beings who have their own attitude and style of working. So the success of work study
is dependent upon the relations between the labour/employees and the management.
Work study involves lot of changes in various working methods. Since the manpower
in general does not like changes but prefers to continue as already doing, so there will always
be a tendency to resist any modification or new method suggested by work study people
(officers/workers) and the manpower and the workers have confidence in the ability, integrity
and fair-mindedness of work study man, there is a good chance that sound proposals will be
accepted willingly by the manpower.

Meaning of Work Study:

Work study is the investigation, by means of a consistent system of the work done in
an organization in order to attain the best utilisation of resources i.e. Materials, Machines,
Men and Money. All the technologies and management systems are related with productivity.

Work Study Aims:

 To analyse the work in order to achieve work simplification and thereby improving
productivity of the system.
 To have optimum utilization of resources i.e., 4 Ms.
 To evaluate the work content through work measurement.
 To set time standards for various jobs.
Work study is most valuable tool of management because:
 It is a direct means of improving productivity of the system involving very less or no
cost.
 The approach is simple, systematic, consistent and based on handling of facts. Thus
the part played by opinions in taking decisions is minimized.
 No factor affecting the efficiency of operation is overlooked in this approach.
 It provides most accurate means of setting standards of performance which are helpful
in the process of production planning and control.
 Application of work study result in immediate savings.
 It is a universal tool for management.
 It is a most penetrating tool of investigation available to the management of the
industrial unit.
DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Techniques of Work Study

Basically there are two techniques:

Method study and work measurement as shown in Fig. 17.1.
Thus work study is the term used to embrace the techniques of Method Study and
Work Measurement which are used to ensure the best utilization of manpower and material
resources in carrying out specified activity.

 Select the work/procedure to be analysed.

 Record all the relevant information related with the existing work system with the
help of various recording devices or techniques.

 Make critical examination of collected data/facts.

 Develop and improve the method which is economical and practical after giving due
consideration to the alternative method possible.
 Install the new selected method with proper instructions.
 Maintain the latest standards of methods through periodic verification etc.

Objectives of Method Study:

Some important objectives of method study are:
 Better design of plant equipment and buildings.
 Less fatigue or workers by avoiding unnecessary movements of manpower.
 Better working conditions and environment for workers/employees.
 To have more effective utilisation of materials, machines and manpower and money.
 Better Product quality.
 Efficient and fast material handling equipment.
 Leads to standardisation, rationalisation, simplification and specialisation.
 Efficient planning of the section.
 Streamlined working procedures.
Advantages of Work Study:
 It is direct means of improving productivity.
 It results in uniform and improved production flow.
 It reduces the manufacturing cost.
 With its help fast and accurate delivery dates are possible.
 It provides better service and consumer satisfaction.
 It improves employee-employer relations.
 It provides job satisfaction and job security to workers.
 Better working conditions are possible for workers.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

 It is most important tool of analysis and can help in providing better wages to workers
on scientific basis.
 Most accurate method and yet provides a sound basis for production planning, control
and incentives for man power.
 Everyone concerned with industries is benefited from it such as worker, consumer and
management of the unit.

Human consideration in work study concept of work content

When it is possible to simplify the existing work or new methods are designed and
introduced such that the task/activity becomes simpler than following advantages are
possible:
 More production with less effort so goods/products are available at cheaper rates.
 Better equipment utilization shall lead to marked increase in the total production
without addition of new resources, thus productivity may improve.
These advantages are possible through the willing cooperation of the people engaged in
production work. In view of these far reaching benefits, work study has become an important
tool of management.

Role of Work Study in Improving Productivity

In order to understand the role of work study, we need to understand the role of
method study and that of time study.

Method study (also sometimes called Work Method Design) is mostly used to improve the
method of doing work. It is equally applicable to new jobs. When applied to existing jobs and
existing jobs, method study aims to find better methods of doing the jobs that are economical
and safe, require less human effort, and need shorter make-ready / put-away time. The better
method involves the optimum use of best materials and appropriate manpower so that work is
performed in well-organized manner leading to increased resource utilization, better quality
and lower costs.
It can therefore be stated that through method study we have a systematic way of developing
human resource effectiveness, providing high machine and equipment utilization, and making
economical use of materials.

Time study, on the other hand, provides the standard time, that is the time needed by worker
to complete a job by the standard method. Standard times for different jobs are necessary for
proper estimation of
 manpower, machinery and equipment requirements
 daily, weekly or monthly requirement of materials
 production cost per unit as an input to better make or buy decision
 labour budgets
 Worker’s efficiency and make incentive wage payments.

By the application of method study and time study in any organization, we can thus achieve
greater output at less cost and of better quality, and hence achieve higher productivity.

In industries work study is considered as a tool of improving productivity

by way of:
 Resource utilization to a satisfactory level.
 Capital investment to introduce latest technology.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

 Better management of the system.

I. British Standard Institution defines work study as a generic term for those techniques
particularly “Method study” and “Work Measurement” which are used in the examination
of work in all its contexts and which leads systematically to the investigation of all the factors
which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed in order to
incorporate improvements at various levels.

II. Work study may be defined as “The systematic critical, objective and imaginative
examination of all factors governing the operational efficiency of any specific activity in
order to achieve/ effect improvement.”

Thus work study is the investigation by means of a consistent system of the work
done in an organization in order to achieve the best possible utilization of resources i.e. man,
machines and materials available. Every organization tries to achieve best quality production
of various products in the minimum possible time.

The time required manufacturing a product/item depends on the manufacturing

procedure. One phase of work study called Method Study or Motion Study aims at
determining the best possible manufacturing procedure which involves least time and cause
minimum fatigue to workers employed for performing the work.
In short method study is concerned with determination of the best way of doing a job.

Method study may be defined as the systematic investigation of the existing method
of doing a job in order to develop and install an easy, quick, effective, efficient and
comparatively less tiring method or procedure for doing the same job at cheaper rates.
This is generally achieved by eliminating unnecessary movements or motions involved in a
certain procedure or by changing the sequence of the operation of the process itself

The role of time study or work measurement starts with the determination of the time
allowed to complete the job by the developed improved procedure for doing that job. Thus
work measurement may be defined as the application of different techniques to measure and
establish the time required to complete the job by a qualified worker at a defined level of
performance.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Lean Manufacturing
Lean manufacturing is a production process based on an ideology of maximising
productivity while simultaneously minimising waste within a manufacturing operation. The
lean principle sees waste is anything that doesn’t add value that the customers are willing to
pay for.. Also known as lean production, the methodology is based on a specific
manufacturing principles that have influenced production systems across the world as well as
those of other industries including healthcare, software and various service industries.
What is the Meaning of Lean Manufacturing?
Lean manufacturing entails streamlining processes and procedures to eliminate waste
and thereby maximise productivity. Womack and Jones (see above) defined lean as, “a way
to do more and more with less and less - less human effort, less equipment, less time, and less
space - while coming closer and closer to providing customers exactly what they want."

Why is Lean Manufacturing Important?

Waste in industry, whether that is idle workers, poor processes or unused materials
are a drain on productivity, and lean manufacturing aims to eliminate these. The motives
behind this vary depending on opinion, from increasing profits to providing benefits to
customers.  However, whatever the over-arching motives, there are four key benefits to lean
manufacture:
 Eliminate Waste: Waste is a negative factor for cost, deadlines and resources. It
provides no value to products or services
 Improve Quality: Improved quality allows companies to stay competitive and
meet the changing needs and wants of customers. Designing processes to meet
these expectations and desires keep you ahead of the competition, keeping quality
improvement at the forefront
 Reducing Costs: Overproduction or having more materials than is required
creates storage costs, which can be reduced through better processes and materials
management
 Reducing Time: Wasting time with inefficient working practices is a waste of
money too, while more efficient practices create shorter lead times and allow for
goods and services to be delivered faster

The basis of lean is often translated into five core principles.

What are the 5 Principles?

The five core principles of lean manufacturing are defined as value, the value stream,
flow, pull and perfection. These are now used as the basis to implement lean.
1. Value: Value is determined from the perspective of the customer and relates to how much
they are willing to pay for products or services. This value is then created by the
manufacturer or service provider who should seek to eliminate waste and costs to meet the
optimal price for the customer while also maximising profits.

2. Map the Value Stream: This principle involves analysing the materials and other
resources required to produce a product or service with the aim of identifying waste and
improvements. The value stream covers the entire lifecycle of a product, from raw materials
to disposal. Each stage of the production cycle needs to be examined for waste and anything
that doesn’t add value should be removed. Chain alignment is often recommended as a means
to achieve this step.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Modern manufacturing streams are often complex, requiring the combined efforts of
engineers, scientists, designers and more, with the actual manufacturing of a physical product
being just one part of a wider stream of work.
3. Create Flow: Creating flow is about removing functional barriers to improve lead times.
This ensures that processes flow smoothly and can be undertaken with minimal delay or other
waste. Interrupted and disharmonious production processes incur costs and creating flow
means ensuring a constant stream for the production or service delivery.
4. Establish a Pull System: A pull system works by only commencing work when there is
demand. This is the opposite of push systems, which are used in manufacturing resource
planning (MRP) systems. Push systems determine inventories in advance with production set
to meet these sales or production forecasts. However, due to the inaccuracy of many
forecasts, this can result in either too much or not enough of a product being produced to
meet demand. This can lead to additional warehousing costs, disrupted schedules or poor
customer satisfaction. A pull system only acts when there is demand and relies on flexibility,
communication and efficient processes to be successfully achieved.
The pull system can involve teams only moving onto new tasks as the previous steps have
been completed, allowing the team to adapt to challenges as they arise in the knowledge that
the prior work is mostly still applicable to delivering the product or service.
5. Perfection: The pursuit of perfection via continued process improvements is also known
as ‘Kaizen’ as created by Toyota Motor Corporation founder Kiichiro Toyoda (see ‘When
and Who Invented Lean Manufacturing?’ above). Lean manufacturing requires ongoing
assessment and improvement of processes and procedures to continually eliminate waste in
an effort to find the perfect system for the value stream. To make a meaningful and lasting
difference, the notion of continuous improvement should be integrated through the culture of
an organisation and requires the measurement of metrics such as lead-times, production
cycles, throughput and cumulative flow.
It is important for the culture of continuous improvement to filter through all levels of
an organisation, from team members and project managers right up to the executive level, to
create a collective responsibility for improvement and value creation.
Wastes of Lean Manufacturing
The Toyota Production System originally detailed seven wastes that don’t provide value to
the customer. These wastes were:
 Unnecessary transportation
 Excess inventory
 Unnecessary movement of people, equipment or machinery
 Waiting – either people or idle equipment
 Over-production of a product
 Over processing or adding unnecessary features to a product
 Defects that require costly correction
These types of waste can be broadly split into three specific types:
1. Mura: Unevenness or waste as a result of fluctuating demand, whether from
customer requests or new services (and thereby additional work) being added by an
organisation.
2. Muri: Overburden or waste due to trying to do too much. This relates to resource
allocation and involves people being asked to do too much. Time can be wasted as
people switch tasks or even lose motivation due to being overburdened.
3. Muda: This is process-related waste and work that adds no value. If an activity
doesn’t add value, or directly support one that adds value, then it is unnecessary and
should be eliminated.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Advantages of Lean manufacturing

1. Saves Time and Money
Cost-saving is the most obvious advantage of lean manufacture. More efficient
workflows, resource allocation, production and storage can benefit businesses regardless of
size or output. Time saving allows for reduced lead times and better service in providing
products quickly to customers, but can also help save money through allowing for a more
streamlined workforce.
2. Environmentally Friendly
Reducing waste in time and resources and removing unnecessary processes can save
the costs in energy and fuel use. This has an obvious environmental benefit, as does the use
of more energy efficient equipment, which can also offer cost savings.
3. Improved Customer Satisfaction
Improving the delivery of a product or service, at the right cost, to a customer
improves customer satisfaction. This is essential to business success as happy customers are
more likely to return or recommend your product or service to others.

Disadvantages of Lean manufacturing

1. Employee Safety and Wellbeing
By focussing on removing waste and streamlining procedures it is possible to
overlook the stresses placed on employees who are given little margin for error in the
workplace. Lean has been compared to 19th Century scientific management techniques that
were fought against by labour reforms and believed obsolete by the 1930s.
2. Hinders Future Development
Lean manufacturing’s inherent focus on cutting waste can lead management to cut
areas of a company that are not deemed essential to current strategy. However, these may be
important to a company’s legacy and future development. Lean can create an over-focus on
the present and disregard the future.
3. Difficult to Standardise
Lean manufacturing is a culture rather than a set method, meaning that it is impossible
to create a standard lean production model. This can create a perception that lean is a loose
and vague technique rather than a robust one.

Kaizen
Kaizen is an approach to creating continuous improvement based on the idea that
small, ongoing positive changes can reap significant improvements. Typically, it is based on
cooperation and commitment and stands in contrast to approaches that use radical or top-
down changes to achieve transformation. Kaizen is core to lean manufacturing and the
Toyota Way. It was developed in the manufacturing sector to lower defects, eliminate waste,
boost productivity, encourage worker purpose and accountability and promote innovation. As
a broad concept that carries myriad interpretations, it has been adopted in many other
industries, including healthcare. It can be applied to any area of business and even on the
individual level. Kaizen can use a number of approaches and tools, such as value stream
mapping -- which documents, analyzes and improves information or material flows required
to produce a product or service -- and Total Quality Management -- which is a management
framework that enlists workers at all levels to focus on quality improvements. Regardless of
methodology, in an organizational setting, the successful use of Kaizen rests on gaining
support for the approach across the organization and from the CEO down.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Kaizen is a compound of two Japanese words that together translate as "good change"
or "improvement." However, Kaizen has come to mean "continuous improvement" through
its association with lean methodology and principles.

What is Kanban Methodology?

Kanban methodology is an agile method that aims at continuous improvement,
flexibility in task management, and enhanced workflow. With this illustrative approach, the
progress of the whole project can be easily understood in a glance. Kanban was used in
manufacturing settings to control inventory throughout the supply chain, using a practice called
just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing. In project management, the Kanban methodology adapts the
same concept by ensuring that the amount of required work is the same as the work capabilities
of the team.
10 principles of Kaizen
Because executing Kaizen requires enabling the right mindset throughout a company, 10
principles that address the Kaizen mindset are commonly referenced as core to the
philosophy. They are:
1. Let go of assumptions.
2. Be proactive about solving problems.
3. Don't accept the status quo.
4. Let go of perfectionism and take an attitude of iterative, adaptive change.
5. Look for solutions as you find mistakes.
6. Create an environment in which everyone feels empowered to contribute.
7. Don't accept the obvious issue; instead, ask "why" five times to get to the root cause.
8. Cull information and opinions from multiple people.
9. Use creativity to find low-cost, small improvements.
10. Never stop improving.

Kaizen advantages
 Kaizen's focus on gradual improvement can create a gentler approach to change in
contrast to big efforts that may be abandoned due to their tendency to provoke change
resistance and pushback.
 Kaizen encourages scrutiny of processes so that mistakes and waste are reduced.
 With fewer errors, oversight and inspection needs are minimized.
 Employee morale improves because Kaizen encourages a sense of value and purpose.
 Teamwork increases as employees think beyond the specific issues of their
department.
 Client focus expands as employees become more aware of customer requirements.
 Systems are in place to ensure improvements are encouraged both in the short and
long terms.

Kaizen disadvantages
 Companies with cultures of territorialism and closed communication may first need to
focus on cultural changes to create a receptive environment.
 Short-term Kaizen events may create a burst of excitement that is shallow and short-
lived and, therefore, is not sustained.

Some of the benefits Kanban methodology offers are:

 Enhanced flexibility
 Continuous improvement

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

 Increased collaboration
 Employee empowerment
 Smoother workflow
 Better inventory management
 Improved quality control

Just-in-Time (JIT)
What Is Just-in-Time (JIT)?
The just-in-time (JIT) inventory system is a management strategy that aligns raw-
material orders from suppliers directly with production schedules. Companies employ this
inventory strategy to increase efficiency and decrease waste by receiving goods only as they
need them for the production process, which reduces inventory costs. This method requires
producers to forecast demand accurately.
How Does Just-in-Time Inventory Work?
The just-in-time (JIT) inventory system minimizes inventory and increases
efficiency. JIT production systems cut inventory costs because manufacturers receive
materials and parts as needed for production and do not have to pay storage costs.
Manufacturers are also not left with unwanted inventory if an order is canceled or not
fulfilled.
One example of a JIT inventory system is a car manufacturer that operates with low
inventory levels but heavily relies on its supply chain to deliver the parts it requires to build
cars on an as-needed basis. Consequently, the manufacturer orders the parts required to
assemble the vehicles only after an order is received.
Advantages of JIT
JIT inventory systems have several advantages over traditional models. Production
runs are short, which means that manufacturers can quickly move from one product to
another. Also, this method reduces costs by minimizing warehouse needs. Companies also
spend less money on raw materials because they buy just enough resources to make the
ordered products and no more.
Disadvantages Of JIT
The disadvantages of JIT inventory systems involve potential disruptions in the
supply chain. If a raw-materials supplier has a breakdown and cannot deliver the goods
promptly, this could conceivably stall the entire production line. A sudden unexpected order
for goods may delay the delivery of finished products to end clients.

Example of JIT
Famous for its JIT inventory system, Toyota Motor Corporation orders parts only
when it receives new car orders. Although the company installed this method in the 1970s, it
took 20 years to perfect it.4 Sadly, Toyota's JIT inventory system nearly caused the company
to come to a halt in February 1997, after a fire at Japanese-owned automotive parts supplier
Aisin decimated its capacity to produce P-valves for Toyota's vehicles. Because Aisin is the
sole supplier of this part, its weeks-long shutdown caused Toyota to halt production for
several days.5 This caused a ripple effect, where other Toyota parts suppliers likewise had
to temporarily shut down because the automaker had no need for their parts during that time
period. Consequently, this fire cost Toyota 160 billion yen in revenue.
Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a process that makes use of statistics and data analysis to analyze and
reduce errors or defects. In this process, the purpose is to improve cycle times while reducing
manufacturing defects to no more than 3.4 defects per million units or events.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Six Sigma is a method that offers organizations tools to improve their capabilities in
managing their businesses. This increase in performance and decreasing process variation, it
is possible to reduce defect rates, improve employee morale, and improve the quality of
products or services, which all contribute to a higher level of profitability.
Six Sigma is a set of management tools and techniques designed to improve the
capability of the business process by reducing the likelihood of error. Six sigma is a data-
driven approach that uses a statistical methodology for eliminating defects, defect reduction
and profits improvement. Digital transformation has become the hottest buzzword of this
decade. New technologies and tools are supporting the transformation journey of companies
big and small as they compete to get a bigger slice of business in a fast-paced competitive
environment.  Yet, is it enough to smooth a company's transformative process? Can a
standalone technology implementation remove a bottleneck in the production process or
support troubleshooting a service design flaw? Although digital transformation fast-tracks a
company's growth, it has to be equally supported by management methods of quality
control and business transformation.

The 5 Key Principles of Six Sigma

The concept of Six Sigma has a simple goal – delivering near-perfect goods and
services for business transformation for optimal customer satisfaction (CX).

Six Sigma has its foundations in five key principles:

1. Focus on the Customer
This is based on the popular belief that the "customer is the king." The primary goal is
to bring maximum benefit to the customer. For this, a business needs to understand its
customers, their needs, and what drives sales or loyalty. This requires establishing the
standard of quality as defined by what the customer or market demands.
2. Measure the Value Stream and Find Your Problem
Map the steps in a given process to determine areas of waste. Gather data to discover
the specific problem area that is to be addressed or transformed. Have clearly defined
goals for data collection, including defining the data to be collected, the reason for the data
gathering, insights expected, ensuring the accuracy of measurements, and establishing a
standardized data collection system. Ascertain if the data is helping to achieve the goals,
whether or not the data needs to be refined, or additional information collected. Identify
the problem. Ask questions and find the root cause.
3. Get Rid of the Junk
Once the problem is identified, make changes to the process to eliminate variation,
thus removing defects. Remove the activities in the process that do not add to the customer
value. If the value stream doesn't reveal where the problem lies, tools are used to help
discover the outliers and problem areas. Streamline functions to achieve quality control
and efficiency. In the end, by taking out the above-mentioned junk, bottlenecks in the
process are removed.
4. Keep the Ball Rolling
Involve all stakeholders. Adopt a structured process where your team contributes and
collaborates their varied expertise for problem-solving.
Six Sigma processes can have a great impact on an organization, so the team has to be
proficient in the principles and methodologies used. Hence, specialized training and

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

knowledge are required to reduce the risk of project or re-design failures and ensure that
the process performs optimally.
5. Ensure a Flexible and Responsive Ecosystem
The essence of Six Sigma is business transformation and change. When a faulty or
inefficient process is removed, it calls for a change in the work practice and employee
approach. A robust culture of flexibility and responsiveness to changes in procedures can
ensure streamlined project implementation. The people and departments involved should
be able to adapt to change with ease, so to facilitate this, processes should be designed for
quick and seamless adoption. Ultimately, the company that has an eye fixed on the data
examines the bottom line periodically and adjusts its processes where necessary, can gain
a competitive edge.

TIME STUDY
Definition of Time Study:
Time study may be defined as “the art of observing and recording the time required
to do each detailed element of an industrial activity/operation.”
Time study was proposed by Frederick Taylor and later modified to include a
performance rating (PR) adjustment. Once the method is established, the next objective is
to set the standard time for the work. This aspect of work study is called Time study (or Work
measurement).

The main objectives of time study are:

 To determine the standard time for various operations which helps in fixing
wage rates and incentives.
 To estimate the cost of product accurately.
 To predict accurately the duration for a particular work and customer is
promised accordingly.
 To determine the number of machines an operator can run.
 To determine the optimum number of men and machine.
 To provide information for planning and scheduling.
 To balance the work of all workers working in a group.
 To compare the work efficiency of different workers/operators.

Procedure of Time Study

 Identifying the job to be timed and operations to be timed.
 Obtaining an improved procedure from method study department.
 Select worker for study
 Collecting the equipment and arrange machinery required to conduct time
study and ensure accuracy in recording time

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

 Explaining to the worker the improved working procedure and use of tools and
fixtures
 Breaking the job into operations and operations into elements and writing
them in a proper format
 Conducting the observations and recording them on the time study form
 Rating the performance of the worker
Applications of Time Study
 For determining schedules and planning of work
 For calculation of Standard costs and as an aid in preparing budgets
 For determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one
person can operate and also for construction activities.

Work Measurement
Definition: Work measurement can be defined as the implementation of a series of
techniques which are designed to find out the work content, of a particular task or activity, by
ascertaining the actual amount of time necessary for a qualified worker, to perform the task,
at a predetermined performance level.

The essence of work measurement is ascertaining the work content of the particular activity
under consideration. It helps in:
 Evaluating worker’s effectiveness
 Making comparison between two methods
 Developing labour standards, for planning and controlling operations.
The estimated time, needed by a qualified worker for carrying out the task, at a normal rate, is
known as the standard time. The standard time acts as a benchmark for productivity.

Similarly, the logical order of correct procedure to be adopted for having effective results of
work measurement includes the followings:
 Divide the selected procedure into small work elements.
 By direct observations record the relevant information regarding the various work
elements.
 In the light of relevant information examine the work critically.
 Measure the work content in the terms of time of the work elements involved in
method being adopted.
 Define and design the new selected method.
 Finally convert the work content time in standard time.

Objectives of Work Measurement:

Effective planning and control of production, distribution and administration can not
be achieved unless these are based on facts. One of the most important of these facts is the
time required for job completion which can be obtained by motion study or work
measurement.

Other objectives of work measurement are as follows:

 When two alternative methods which seem equally advantageous, one which
requires less time for completion of the job (i.e. faster) can be established.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

 The man power required for a job or new plant can be determined on the basis
of accurate knowledge of the amount of work that has to be done so it helps in
manpower economy.
 Work measurement data provides reliable basis to decide equipment.
 Provides requisite information for effective production planning and
improving efficiency of the system.
 Provides basis for fair and reliable incentive schemes.
 Decides realistic labour budgeting and provides a basis for standard costing
system.

Techniques of Work Measurement

 Direct Time Study: Direct time study refers to the ascertainment of the time
needed to carry out a unit of work. In this method, observation and recording
of time is necessary for undertaking each unit of an operation are done, with a
view to ascertaining, the actual time, in which the work can be accomplished.
 Synthesis Method: A work measurement method, in which the job or activity
is divided into various parts, after which the time consumed in performing
each element of the job is recorded and then combined.
 Analytical Estimating: This method of time measurement is used to ascertain
the time values for the tasks, that are long and not repetitive in nature.
 Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS): In PMTS method, basic
times are set up for basic human motions. Such time values are used to
compute the time required by the job for its completion, with fixed standard. It
is a new and improved version of motion study.
 Work Sampling or Ratio Delay Method: A work measurement method, in
which the work of several employees is sampled randomly, at periodic
intervals, to ascertain the proportion of total operations, of a specific activity.
Work measurement techniques helps in preparing realistic work schedules, by proper
evaluation of human work. It helps in comparing the actual time taken by the worker, with
the time allowed, to keep a check on the workers and avoid idle time.

Time Study Equipment

The following equipment is needed for time study work.

 Timing device
 Time study observation sheet
 Time study observation board
 Other equipment

Timing Device
The stop watch is the most widely used timing device used for time study, although
electronic timer is also sometimes used. The two perform the same function with the
difference that electronic timer can measure time to the second or third decimal of a second
and can keep a large volume of time data in memory.
Time Study Observation Sheet.
It is a printed form with spaces provided for noting down the necessary information
about the operation being studied, like name of operation, drawing number, and name of the
worker, name of time study person, and the date and place of study.
DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Time Study Board.

It is a light -weight board used for holding the observation sheet and stopwatch in
position. It is of size slightly larger than that of observation sheet used.
Other Equipment.
This includes pencil, eraser, device like tachometer for checking the speed, etc.

Computation of Standard Time

Standard time is the time allowed to an operator to carry out the specified task under
specified conditions and defined level of performance. The various allowances are added to
the normal time as applicable to get the standard time “Components standard time”.

Standard time Calculation time study

Standard time may be defined as the, amount of time required to complete a unit of
work: (a) under existing working conditions,
(b) using the specified method and machinery,
(c) by an operator, able to the work in a proper manner, and
(d) at a standard pace.

Thus basic constituents of standard time are:

 Elemental (observed time).
 Performance rating to compensate for difference in pace of working.
 Relaxation allowance.
 Interference and contingency allowance.
 Policy allowance.

Steps in time study

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Components standard time

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Allowances
The normal time for an operation does not contain any allowances for the worker. It is
impossible to work throughout the day even though the most practicable, effective method
has been developed.
Even under the best working method situation, the job will still demand the expenditure of
human effort and some allowance must therefore be made for recovery from fatigue and for
relaxation. Allowances must also be made to enable the worker to attend to his personal
needs. The allowances are categorized as:
 Relaxation allowance,
 Interference allowance, and
 Contingency allowance.

Relaxation Allowance
Relaxation allowances are calculated so as to allow the worker to recover from
fatigue. Relaxation allowance is a addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker
with the opportunity to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of carrying
out specified work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs. The
amount of allowance will depend on nature of the job.
Relaxation allowances are of two types: fixed allowances and variable allowances.
Fixed allowances constitute:
 Personal needs allowance:
It is intended to compensate the operator for the time necessary to leave, the
workplace to attend to personal needs like drinking water, smoking, washing hands.
Women require longer personal allowance than men. A fair personal allowance is
5% for men, and 7% for women.
 Allowances for basic fatigue:
This allowance is given to compensate for energy expended during working. A
common figure considered as allowance is 4% of the basic time.
Variable Allowance
Variable allowance is allowed to an operator who is working under poor
environmental conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the
job. The variable fatigue allowance is added to the fixed allowance to an operator who is
engaged on medium and heavy work and working under abnormal conditions. The amount of
variable fatigue allowance varies from organization to organization.
Interference Allowance
It is an allowance of time included into the work content of the job to compensate the
operator for the unavoidable loss of production due to simultaneous stoppage of two or more
machines being operated by him. This allowance is applicable for machine or process

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

controlled jobs. Interference allowance varies in proportion to number of machines assigned

to the operator. The interference of the machine increases the work content.
Contingency Allowance
A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a
standard time to meet legitimate and expected items of work or delays. The precise
measurement of which is uneconomical because of their infrequent or irregular occurrence.

This allowance provides for small unavoidable delays as well as for occasional minor extra
work: Some of the examples calling for contingency allowance are:
 Tool breakage involving removal of tool from the holder and all other activities to
insert new tool into the tool holder.
 Power failures of small duration.
 Obtaining the necessary tools and gauges from central tool store. Contingency
allowance should not exceed 5%.

Policy Allowance
Policy allowances are not the genuine part of the time study and should be used with
utmost care and only in clearly defined circumstances.The usual reason for making the policy
allowance is to line up standard times with requirements of wage agreement between
employers and trade unions.
The policy allowance is an increment, other than bonus increment, applied to a
standard time (or to some constituent part of it, e.g., work content) to provide a satisfactory
level of earnings for a specified level of performance under exceptional circumstances. Policy
allowances are sometimes made as imperfect functioning of a division or part of a plant.

ILLUSTRATION 1: Assuming that the total observed time for an operation of assembling an
electric switch is 1.00 min. If the rating is 120%, find normal time. If an allowance of 10% is
allowed for the operation, determine the standard time.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

Work Sampling
Meaning of Work Sampling:
Work sampling is a statistically based technique utilized for analysing work
performance and machine utilization by direct observation, but without a stop watch. So work
sampling is another useful technique of work study. This technique is particularly useful to
estimate the proportion of delays or idleness’s occurring in a enterprise/plant and attributing
the cause for it, such as power failures/input delays, machine cleaning, machine breakdowns
and manpower idling or in other words, estimating proportion of time spent by an executive
in attending meetings, telephoning or reading etc.
The stop watch technique for time estimation is extremely time consuming and
therefore not feasible. Work sampling is a technique for establishing standard times of
activities. This method also known as activity sampling was devised by L.H.C. Tippet in
1934. This technique is more suitable for analysing group activities and repetitive activities
which take longer duration.
If a given individual performs more than one activity, then the time standard for each
activity can be computed with the help of this method. For example, on a printing press, a
single operator/worker will be doing composing, proofreading, printing etc. The time
standards for all these activities can be determined with the help of work sampling method.
The method of work sampling consists of taking a large number of instantaneous
observations randomly, rather than taking observations continuously as is done in various
production investigations/ studies. This method is a sampling technique and depends upon
laws of probability.
A sample taken at random from a large population provides a good estimate of the
distribution of the population because it tends to have the same distribution as the population.

Some examples are as follows:

 A decision regarding the cooking of rice is taken by having a sample of rice
from a boiling/ cooking pot and pressed between fingers.
 A decision regarding the quality of wheat bag to be purchased is made by
examining a sample of wheat from a bag.
Hence, work sampling is a technique of determining the percentage occurrences of a
certain activity (a group of processes, machines, or workers) with the help of statistical
sampling and random observations. When the sample size is large enough and random
observations are made indeed, there is quite a high probability that the observations would
reflect the real situation plus minus a certain margin of error.

Definition of Work Sampling:

“Work sampling is a method in which a large number of instantaneous observations
are made at random time intervals over a period of time or a group of machines, workers or
processes/operations. Each observation records what is happening at that instant and the
percentage of observations recorded for a particular activity or delay/idleness is a measure of
the percentage of time during which that activity or delay/idleness occurs”.

Work Sampling Procedure:

The procedure to be adopted for conducting a work sampling investigation will
depend upon the type of application. As much as possible different methods will be applied
for taking observations. An analysis of the data shall be conducted to suit the case.

But the following general procedure is applicable in each study:

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

(1) Define the Problem: State the main objectives or purpose of the study clearly. This
invariably includes the detailed description of each element of the work. The analyst must
explicitly know what are the different states of the operator’s activity which are to be
observed. Sometimes it will be required to observe the operator as either working or idle.
(2) Design a chart for recording information’s.
(3) Make a pilot study i.e………… preliminary observation.
(4) From the preliminary observations, compute the delay percentage p.
(5) Determine the accuracy and confidence level desired for the investigation.
(6) Obtain the approval of the foreman of the department or section head concerned in which
study is to be made. Obtain the cooperation of the workers/operators to be studied and they
should also understand the aim/purpose of study.
(7) Calculate the number of observations required for a chosen level of confidence and
accuracy. Because work sampling is a statistical sampling procedure and the estimate
obtained would become more and more realistic as the sample size increases.
Thus, more number of observations will make the study more accurate. With this increase in
number of observations, the cost and time of study would increase. Thus the number of
observations to be taken are decided in the light of precision and confidence required.
(8) Determine the number of observers needed. Select and instruct these people.
(9) Determine the number of days/shifts required for the study.
(10) Plan the schedule of observations such as time for taking and the route to be followed by
the observer.
(11)Proceed with sampling of observations in the chart (record sheet) making notes of any
unusual points.
(12) Analysing the data and presenting the results. The work sampling data are analysed
during the study in order to check if the things are going according to plan or not. The data is
usually summarized at the end of each day.

This provides the trend for the next day’s work and gives information regarding
precision obtained in the study so far and how much more is required. At the end of study, the
final analysis are performed and required results are presented. These would provide
either ratio delay, performance study-or-work measurement.
Applications/Uses of Work Sampling:
Work sampling is a highly useful method to solve variety of problems in various types
of activities involving groups of machines, processes or people. With the expansion and
growth of industrial plants/ enterprises it has become increasingly difficult for
executives/managers to collect information and facts about what goes on in their
manufacturing sections.

Work sampling is useful and can be applied when:

(1) Work of teams has to be investigated/studied.

(2) There is clear distinction between working time and idle time.
(3) To indicate areas of delay.
(4) To investigate and to locate areas underutilization.
(5) For establishing overall performance levels.
(6) For determination of machine utilizations.
(7) In determining the distribution of duties among a group of workers.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

(8) In the study of nature, causes and extent of interference with effective accomplishment of
a project.
(9) For the purpose of cost control and accounting.
(10) To estimate allowances for unavoidable delay.
(11) In ware housing and shipping operations to pin-point delays so that changes in the layout
or method could be identified which reduces delays.
(12) It is preferred when the cost of using other work measurement techniques for timing a
job appears to be more.
Advantages of Work Sampling:
(1) It is a cheaper technique than time study and production study.
(2) Only one analyst can perform work sampling study of many activities.
(3) Observers does not require much training.
(4) It is more useful in non-repetitive and indirect jobs.
(5) Many operations or activities which are impractical or costly to measure by time study
can readily be measured by work sampling.
(6) Observations may be made over a period of days or weeks thus decreasing the change of
day to day or week to week variations.
(7) Observations are made at random intervals depicting the usual routine of the worker as
against continuous observations of a worker for a long time in time study which may not
reveal his usual routine (being conscious of being observed).
(8) The work sampling may be interrupted at any time without affecting these results.
(9) The study can be made with pre assigned degree of reliability.
(10) The study is less tiring and less tedious.
(11) It is less time consuming.
(12) As the study is spread over a number days, it is likely to be more representative and is
less affected by day to day variations.

Limitations of Work Sampling:

 Compared to time study, the statistical approach of work sampling study is
difficult to be understood by worker.
 The operators may not understand value of sample size and accuracy etc.
 It is not economical for the study of jobs of short duration or operators and
machines, spread or located over wide area.
 The worker may change his work patterns on the sight of work sampling
observer and try to look more productive, resulting incorrect information
which are meaningless.

Motion Time Analysis

Meaning of Motion Study:
The propounder of this concept was Frank Gilbesth. He defined motion study as
the “Science of eliminating wastefulness resulting from ill-directed and inefficient motions”.
The main aim of motion study is to find the scheme of least wastage of labour. Subsequently,
the scope of Motion Study was enlarged and it was named as Method Study.
` The method of study can also be defined as “Systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work as a means of developing and

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND
 University Of Visvesvaraya College Of Engineering (UVCE)

applying easier and more effective method and thereby reducing cost”. Method Study is a
technique which includes the standardisation of equipment, method and working conditions,
and training of the operator to follow the standard method. Motion economy was proposed
and developed by Frank Gilbreth through various articles and books and became an important
subject of industrial engineering as Time and Motion Study or Motion and Time Study. This
subject was modified by European thinkers and practitioners of productivity improvement as
Work Study, by proposing methods study as an additional component.
Principles of Motion Economy are to be used in motion design, motion analysis,
motion study of human operators. Motion design is a technique of Human Effort Industrial
Engineering, a core focus area of Industrial Engineering. They can also be used in robot
motion design.
The important objectives of the motion study are:
 To improve the process of doing work
 To improve the design of work place layout
 To find the best way of doing a job
 To ensure reduced health hazards
 To minimise the unnecessary human movements
 To have more effective utilisation of material, machines and workers
 To train the individual worker in its practice as per standardised
method.

Procedure In Motion Analysis

The steps in motion analysis are as follows:
 Select: Select the work to be studied.
 Record: Record all the relevant facts of the proposed work by direct observation.
 Examine: Examine the facts critically in sequence, using special critical examination
sheet.
 Develop: Develop the best method i.e. the most practical, economic and effective
method under prevailing circumstances using the principle of motion economy.
 Install: install that method as standard practice.
 Maintain: maintain that standard practice by regular routine check.

DR. H.K.SHIVANAND