Alternating Current

Introduction

Electrical
Energy

Mechanical
Potential Energy
Energy

Kinetic
Energy
 Introduction

Induced emf

Time
𝑇/4 𝑇/2 3𝑇/4 𝑇
 Alternating Current

 An alternating current can be defined as a

current that changes its magnitude and
polarity at regular intervals of time.

 Time Period (𝑇) : The time period of AC is the

time taken by the AC to go through one
complete cycle of variation.

 Peak current 𝑖0 : the maximum value of

current
 Alternating Current

Square Wave 𝐴𝐶

Sinusoidal 𝐴𝐶

Triangular Wave 𝐴𝐶
 Which of the following graph(s) represent the alternating current ?
T

Solution:

• Alternating current periodically reverse its direction.

• It can be uniform or non-uniform.

 Sinusoidal Emf & Its Generation

 Angle between 𝐵 and 𝐴Ԧ is changing continuously.

𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝐴
𝑑𝜙
E = −
𝑑𝑡

E = E0 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 ) E0 = 𝑁 𝐴 𝐵 𝜔

𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
Symbol
 Average Value of Current

𝑥2 𝑡2
‫𝑥 𝑑 ) 𝑥 ( 𝑓 𝑥׬‬ ‫𝑡 𝑑 𝑖 𝑡׬‬
1 1
< 𝑓(𝑥) >= 𝑥2 𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = 𝑡
2
‫𝑥׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 ‫𝑡 𝑑 𝑡׬‬
1 1
 Average Value of a Sinusoidal AC Current

Average value of current for a full cycle: Average value of current for a half cycle:
𝑇ൗ 𝑇ൗ
2𝑖 𝑑𝑡 2𝑖
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
< 𝑖 >ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑇ൗ = 𝑇ൗ
‫׬‬0 2 𝑑𝑡 ‫׬‬0 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = Instantaneous value of current
𝑇ൗ
𝑖0 = Peak value of current 2𝑖0 2 2𝑖0
< 𝑖 >ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = න sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < 𝑖 >ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝑇 0 𝜋
𝑖 𝑎𝑣 = 0
Average value for a half cycle for:
Average value for a full cycle for:
< sin(𝜔𝑡) >= 2/𝜋
< sin(𝜔𝑡) >= 0
< cos(𝜔𝑡) >= 0 < cos(𝜔𝑡) >= 2/𝜋
 Average Value of a Sinusoidal AC Current

Average value of 𝑖 2 :

< 𝑖 2 >ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = < 𝑖 2 >𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖2

𝑇ൗ
2 𝑖 2 sin2 𝜔 𝑡
𝑡
‫׬‬0 0 𝑑𝑡 𝑇 3𝑇
< 𝑖 2 >ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑇
𝑇ൗ
‫׬‬0 2 𝑑𝑡 2 2

𝑇ൗ
2𝑖0 2 21 − cos 2𝜔𝑡
= න 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2
𝑖0 2 𝑇 1 𝑇ൗ
2
𝑖0 2
= − sin 2𝜔𝑡 0 =
𝑇 2 2𝜔 2

2 2
𝑖02
< 𝑖 >ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = < 𝑖 >𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
2
 Average Value of Sinusoidal AC

Element For Full Cycle For Half Cycle

2𝑖𝑜
< 𝑖 > 0
𝜋

2 𝑖𝑜2 𝑖𝑜2
< 𝑖 >
2 2

2E
<E > 0
𝜋

2 E2 E2
<E >
2 2
 RMS Value of Alternating Current

In kinetic theory of gases:

𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2 + 𝑣3 2 + 𝑣4 2 + …
Root mean square speed is defined as the square root of mean of squares 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑁
of the speed of different molecules.

Similarly in alternating current:

Root mean square current or voltage is defined as the square root of mean value of square of instantaneous current
or voltage, respectively.
2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < 𝑖2 > E 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = < E >

 Peak value of current has no significant in average value for one cycle

𝑡2
‫ 𝑖 𝑡׬‬2 𝑑 𝑡
1
𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖2 𝑎𝑣 = 2 𝑡
‫𝑡 𝑑 𝑡׬‬
1
 RMS Value of Sinusoidal AC Current

RMS value of sinusoidal current for a full and half cycle:

𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
1 𝑇 2 𝑖 02 𝑇 1 − c o s ( 2 𝜔 𝑡 )
𝑖 𝑟2𝑚 𝑠 2
= න 𝑖0 sin (𝜔𝑡) = න
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2 𝑖0
𝑡
𝑖0 𝑇 𝑇
𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 2

𝑉0 (𝑖0)2
𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 =
2 𝑖2

𝑇 𝑡
Average value for a full and half cycle for: 𝑇
2
1
< sin2(𝜔𝑡) > =
2
1
< cos2(𝜔𝑡) > =
2
 Form Factor

𝑖 𝑡
𝑖0
𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 0.707𝑖0
RMS Value
Form Factor = 𝑖 𝑎𝑣 0.637𝑖0
Average Value

For sinusoidal AC,

𝑖0 / 2 𝜋
Form Factor = = = 1.11
2𝑖0ൗ 2 2
𝜋
 RMS Value of Sinusoidal AC Current

 In Indian system, the voltage supply is 220 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧.

 Peak Value supply voltage:
 The current becomes zero twice in each cycle, which
means the current becomes zero, 100 times in 1 𝑠. 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = 220 2 𝑉0 = 311 𝑉

 This 220 𝑉 is the RMS value of the supply voltage.  The reading provided on the home appliances is
also the RMS value.
 Why RMS ?

𝑡
2
‫׬‬0 𝑖0 2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑡 ….Equation 1
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡

Heat energy produced in AC circuit

through resistor 𝑅 in time 𝑡:
𝑡 • Even if we replace the AC voltage V =
𝐻 = න 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑉 0 s i n 𝜔 𝑡 by constant voltage 𝑉0 / 2, the
0
heat energy produced through resistor 𝑅
in time 𝑡 will still be the same.
𝑡
⇒ 𝐻 = න 𝑖0 2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑅𝑑𝑡 (From equation 1)
0

• As it is difficult to understand the time

𝑡 varying AC for common people, RMS
⇒ 𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅 න 𝑑𝑡 values are used to make calculations
0
easier.

𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅 𝑡
• The electricity bill at home is calculated
with RMS value.
 Hot Wire Ammeter

Construction and Working:

 Hot Wire Ammeter is based on the  The construction of Hot Wire

• Elongation in wire: ∆𝑙 = 𝑙 𝛼 ∆𝑇
Voltmeter is identical to a
thermal expansion of platinum iridium
wire due to current flowing through it. Hot Wire Ammeter except a
• Scale of AC measuring devices is high resistance 𝑅 is
 A small resistance 𝑟 is connected in nonlinear. connected in series.
parallel to the platinum iridium wire as a
shunt. 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∝ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 2  The deflection is proportional
to 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
.
 When current flows through wire it
bends due to elongation. A spring is • The scale is graduated in such  The scale is graduated in
attached as shown which generates a way that the reading gives such a way that the reading
torque, thus rotating the needle. directly RMS current. gives directly RMS voltage.
 A resistance of 20Ω is connected to a source of alternating current rated
110 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧. Find
(𝑎) the rms current?
(𝑏) the maximum instantaneous current in the resistor?
(𝑐) the time taken by the current to change from its maximum value to the rms
value?

Solution:
(𝑎) the rms current?
20 Ω
𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 110
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 5.5 𝐴
𝑅 20

(𝑏) the maximum instantaneous current in the resistor?

𝑖0
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖0 = 2 × 5.5 = 7.8 𝐴 110 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧
2

(𝑐) the time taken by the current to change from its maximum value to the rms value?
At 𝑡 = 0 assume current is maximum. At 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (𝑖 = 𝑖0 → 𝜙 = 90°) 𝑖0 / 2 = 𝑖0 cos(𝜔𝑡) ω𝑡 =
4
1 Time taken = 2.5 − 0 = 2.5 𝑚𝑠
𝑖 = 𝑖0 cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑡= = 2.5 𝑚𝑠
8 × 50
At t = 0 → 𝑖 = 𝑖0 At t = 2.5 𝑚𝑠 → 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
 Phasor Diagram

Alternating current and voltage of same frequency are represented as rotating vectors
(phasors) along with proper phase angle between them.

V = V0 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝜔
𝑖0
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝒊 V0
𝜙
V
𝜔𝑡
𝑥
 Find out the heat dissipated in 𝑘𝑊ℎ in 2Ω resistor in 1 hour for the given circuit.

Given: 𝑉 = 311 sin(100𝜋𝑡) , 𝑅 = 2Ω

To find: Heat dissipated (𝐻)

Solution:
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡
Heat dissipated, 2
𝐻 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝑡 =
𝑅

𝑉0 311
𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 = = = 220 𝑉
2 2

2202 × 3600 2202 × 3600

⇒𝐻= 𝐽= 𝑘𝑊ℎ
2 2 × 3.6 × 106

𝐻 = 24.2 𝑘𝑊ℎ
• An AC source connected only to: • An AC source connected to more than one element:

LC
RC
Circuit
Circuit
A Resistor Purely Resistive Circuit

A Capacitor Purely Capacitive Circuit

LR LCR
Circuit Circuit
An Inductor Purely Inductive Circuit
 Purely Resistive Circuit

Instantaneous current:

𝑉0
𝑖(𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑅

Relation between RMS current and voltage:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅

Relation between peak current and voltage:

𝑉0
𝑖0 =
𝑅

Relation between instantaneous current and voltage:

𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑉(𝑡) • Current and Voltage are in phase for purely resistive circuit
𝑅
 Purely Capacitive Circuit

Capacitive reactance:

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = Ω
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Relation between peak current and voltage:

𝑉0
𝑖0 =
𝑋𝐶

Relation between RMS current and voltage:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 V0 𝜋
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖= cos(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1ൗ 2
𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐶
Phase difference
(between the 𝑖 and 𝑉)
 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor

+ − + −
+ − + −
+ − + −
𝐶 𝐶

A A
V0 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

• The capacitor gets fully charged • When AC supply is given to the

instantly when a direct current is capacitor, it continuously charges
supplied to it. and discharges and hence, the
current never becomes zero.

Thus, capacitor stops direct current

but allows alternating current.
 Find the equation of current in the circuit shown.
T

Given: 𝑉0 = 20 𝑉 ; 𝜔 = 10 ; 𝜙 = 60°

To Find: Equation of current 2 𝜇𝐹

1 1
Solution: 𝑋𝐶 = = = 5 × 104 Ω
𝜔𝐶 10 × 2 × 10−6

𝑉0 20 𝑉 = 20 sin(10𝑡 + 60°)
𝑖0 = = = 4 × 10−4 𝐴
𝑋𝐶 5 × 104

Equation of current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 90°

𝑖 = 4 × 10−4 sin 10𝑡 + 60° + 90°

𝑖 = 4 × 10−4 sin 10𝑡 + 150°

 Purely Inductive Circuit

𝑑𝑖
𝑉 𝑡 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡

𝜋
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2

𝑉0 = 𝑋𝐿 𝑖0 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑋𝐿 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

• 𝑋𝐿 is inductive reactance 𝑖=−

V0
cos(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝜋
𝜔𝐿 2
• 𝐿 is inductance
Phase difference
 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor

𝐿 𝐿

+ −

A A
V0 V0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

• A inductor becomes redundant • When AC supply is given to the

in a DC circuit (after some time). inductor, the direction of induced EMF
alter periodically. Since the ammeter
measure the RMS value of AC, it shows
a fixed value of current.
 Impedance (𝒁) & Phase Factor (𝝓)

• The opposition offered by an electric circuit to an alternating current by the

combined effect of resistance and reactance is known as impedance.

• 𝑋 is reactance which is equal to impedance(𝑍) in purely inductive or capacitive

circuit.

𝑉0 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍= =
𝑖0 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠

• Phase factor

V = V0 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

Phase factor
 Impedance (𝒁) of Pure Circuit

Current 𝑖 𝑡
Circuit Element assuming 𝑍=𝑋 𝜙
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

Purely 𝑉0
Resistor sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑅 0
resistive 𝑅

Purely 𝑉0 𝜋 1
Capacitor sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2
capacitive 1/𝜔𝐶 2 𝜔𝐶

Purely 𝑉0 𝜋
Inductor sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝜔𝐿 −𝜋/2
inductive 𝜔𝐿 2
 Find the equation of current 𝑖 𝑡 for the pure inductive circuit shown in the figure.
T

Solution:
𝐿 = 2𝐻
X𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 10 × 2 = 20 Ω 𝑖(𝑡)

𝑉0 10 1
𝑉0 = 𝑋𝐿 𝑖0 ⇒ 𝑖0 = = = A
𝑋𝐿 20 2
𝑉(𝑡) = 10 sin(10𝑡 + 30°)

𝑉
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖0 sin(10𝑡 + 30° − 90°)

1
𝑖 𝑡 = sin(10𝑡 − 60°)
𝑖 2
 Series LCR Circuit

- Analytical solution
𝑑𝑖 𝑞 𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + = V0 sin(𝜔𝑡) ⇒ 𝐿 2 + 𝑅 + = V0 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑖
Let 𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 2 +𝑅 + ⇒ 𝑞0 𝜔 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 V0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
Let 𝑍 = 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅2 tan 𝜙 =
𝑅

𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 2 +𝑅 + ⇒ 𝑍𝑞0 𝜔 𝑐𝑜s 𝜙 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
 Series LCR Circuit

- Analytical solution

𝑉 = 𝑉0 s i n ( 𝜔 𝑡 )

V0 𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍 𝑖

𝑍 = 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅2
V0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
𝜙 = t a n −1
𝑅
 Series LCR Circuit

- Phasor Diagram Solution

𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑅 = 𝑖 0 𝑅
𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍
𝑉0 𝐶 = 𝑖 0 𝑋 𝐶
𝑉 02 = 𝑉0 𝐶 − 𝑉0 𝐿 2
+ 𝑉 02𝑅
𝑉0 𝐿 = 𝑖 0 𝑋 𝐿
𝑖 02 𝑍 2 = 𝑖 0 𝑋 𝐶 − 𝑖 0 𝑋 𝐿 2
+ 𝑖 02 𝑅 2
𝑉0 = 𝑖 0 𝑍

𝑍 2 = 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2
+ 𝑅2

𝑍 = 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑅2 𝑍
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑉0 𝜙
𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍
𝑅
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 Impedance Triangle
𝜙 = t a n −1
𝑅
 Series LCR Circuit

𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 : 𝑉0
-The circuit is predominantly capacitive
𝑖0 𝜙
-𝜙 is positive 𝜔 𝑡1
-Current leads voltage

𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 : 𝑉0
- The circuit is predominantly inductive
- 𝜙 is negative 𝜔 𝑡1
- Current lags the voltage 𝜙
𝑖0
 In the given circuit, the potential difference across the inductor and the capacitor
is 300 𝑉 each. What is the potential difference across the resistor and the reading
of the ammeter(hot wire) respectively?

Given: 𝑉𝐿 = 300; 𝑉𝐶 = 300; 𝑉 = 220 𝑉

To find: 𝑉𝑅 and 𝐼

Solution:

𝑉= 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 2

220 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 300 − 300 2

𝑉 220
𝑉𝑅 = 220 𝑉 and 𝐼= = = 2.2 𝐴
𝑅 100
 RC Circuit

𝑉0
𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍
𝑅 𝐶
Impedance in 𝑅𝐶 circuit is given by:

1
𝑍 = 𝑋 𝐶2 + 𝑅 2 𝜙 = t a n −1
𝜔𝐶𝑅

V0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑖0 𝑉0𝑅

1 𝜙
𝑍
𝜔𝐶
𝜙 𝑉0𝐶
𝑉0
𝑅
 A series RC circuit is connected to AC voltage source. Consider two cases; 𝐴
when 𝐶 is without dielectric medium and 𝐵 when 𝐶 is filled with dielectric of
constant 4. The current 𝐼𝑅 through the resistor and voltage 𝑉𝐶 across the capacitor
are compared in two cases. Which of the following is true?

𝑉0
Solution: 𝐼 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑉𝑟2𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟2𝑚 𝑠 , 𝑐 + 𝑉 𝑟2𝑚 𝑠 , 𝑅
𝑍 Case: A

𝑍𝐴 > 𝑍 𝐵 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 . 𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅 𝑅
1
𝑋𝐶𝐴 =
𝜔𝐶
𝐼 𝑅𝐴 < 𝐼 𝑅𝐵 𝑉 𝑟𝐴𝑚 𝑠 . 𝑅 < 𝑉 𝑟𝐵𝑚 𝑠 . 𝑅

𝑉 𝑟𝐴𝑚 𝑠 . 𝐶 > 𝑉 𝑟𝐵𝑚 𝑠 . 𝐶 Case: B

1
𝑋𝐶𝐵 =
4𝜔𝐶

If capacitance increases in a RC series circuit current in circuit

increases and voltage across capacitor decreases.
 LR Circuit

𝑉0
𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑍
𝑅 𝐿
Impedance in 𝐿𝑅 circuit is given by:

𝜔𝐿
𝑍 = 𝑋 𝐿2 + 𝑅 2 𝜙 = − t a n −1
𝑅
V0 sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑉0𝐿
𝑉0
𝑍
𝜔𝐿
𝜙
𝜙
𝑖0 𝑉0𝑅
𝑅
 In the given circuit, find the expression of current 𝑖(𝑡).

2
Given: 𝑉 = 200 sin(100𝜋𝑡) , 𝑅 = 200 Ω, 𝐿 = 𝜋 𝐻

To find: 𝑖(𝑡)

Solution: In 𝑅𝐿 circuit, the current lags behind the voltage by phase difference of 𝜙.

𝑉0
𝑖 𝑡 = sin(100𝜋𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑍

Inductive reactance is given by:

2
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 ⇒ 𝑋𝐿 = 100𝜋 × = 200 Ω
𝜋
Impedance is given by:

𝑍 = 2002 + 2002 = 200 2 Ω

Phase angle is given by:

𝑉0 1 𝜋
𝑋𝐿 200 𝑖 𝑡 = sin(100𝜋𝑡 − 𝜙) = sin 100𝜋𝑡 −
tan 𝜙 = = =1 ⇒ 𝜙 = 45° 𝑍 2 4
𝑅 200
 Power in AC Circuit

Average power in AC Circuit over one cycle:

𝑉0 𝑖0
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos(𝜙)
2
𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = V𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

cos 𝜙 : Power factor of the circuit.

𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
2
V𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = V𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 = cos 𝜙
𝑍 𝑍

2
𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = ( 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑍)𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑍 cos 𝜙
 Power in AC Circuit

For purely resistive circuit: For purely reactive circuit:

• 𝜙 = 0° • 𝜙 = 𝜋2 or 𝜙 = −
𝜋
2

• 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = V𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 • 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = V𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 c o s ±

𝜋
2
• 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = V𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 • 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = 0

• Power drawn is maximum in • The net power utilized for a full cycle in
a purely resistive circuit. No resistance, only capacitance and/or
inductance circuit is zero.

𝑅 𝐿 𝐶
 Power in RC Circuit

• 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 c o s 𝜙
𝑅 𝐶
• cos 𝜙 =
𝑅
𝑍
=
𝑅
1 2
𝑅2+
𝜔𝐶

𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Average Power in RC Circuit is,

𝑖 𝑉𝑅 𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜙 𝑍 𝑍
𝑋𝐶
𝜙 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝐶 ε 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑅 𝑍2
 Power in LR Circuit

• 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 c o s 𝜙
𝑅 𝐿
• cos 𝜙 =
𝑅
𝑍
=
𝑅
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2

𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Average Power in LR Circuit is,

V 𝑅
𝑉𝐿 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍 𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝜙 𝜙 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑖 𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑍2
 Power in AC Circuit

• Apparent Power (𝑆) is the total power flowing

in the circuit.
𝐼 cos 𝜙
𝑉 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠
𝜙

Current in phase • Active Power (𝑃) is the portion of the power

absorbed by the load.
𝐼
𝐼 sin 𝜙 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 c o s 𝜙
Current out of phase

• Reactive Power (𝑄) is the portion of the power

𝐼 sin 𝜙 is called Wattless which flows back and forth in the circuit.
component of current.
𝑄 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 s i n 𝜙
 Power in AC Circuit

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠

𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 s i n 𝜙 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 c o s 𝜙
𝑉
𝜙

Current in phase • Power factor is the ratio of active power to

apparent power.
𝐼 𝑃
𝐼 sin 𝜙 = cos 𝜙
Current out of phase 𝑆

𝐼 sin 𝜙 is called Wattless

• The relationship between 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑆 is:
component of current.
𝑆 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2
 The instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage in a circuit are given
1 1 𝜋
as, 𝑖 = sin 100𝜋𝑡 𝐴 and 𝑉 = sin 100𝜋𝑡 + 𝑉, respectively. The average power
2 2 3
consumed in the circuit is:

Solution: Comparing with standard equations, we get,

1 1 𝜋
𝑖0 = & 𝑉0 = & 𝜙=
2 2 3

The rms values of current and voltage are:

𝑖0 1 𝑉0 1
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝐴 & 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 𝑉
2 2 2 2

The average power is:

1 1 𝜋
𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 c o s 𝜙 = × × cos 𝑊
2 2 3

1
∴ 𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = 𝑊
8
 Choke Coil

Fluorescent tube Fluorescent tube

Resistance Choke
Box Coil

AC supply AC supply

• To reduce the current, resistance • Choke coil is simply a coil having

can be added in series. a large inductance but a small
resistance.

• But the power loss will be high • To reduce the current choke coil is
across the resistance box due to connected in series.
its high resistance.
 Choke Coil

• The rms voltage across the resistor is

𝑅 𝑅 𝐿
𝑉𝑅,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿)2

• By using choke coil, the voltage across

the resistor is reduced by a factor
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑅
𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿)2

• The advantage of using a choke coil to

reduce the voltage is that an inductor
does not consume power.
 An electric bulb is designed to consume 55 𝑊 when operated at 110 𝑉. It is
connected to a 220 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧 line through a choke coil in series. What should be the
T inductance of the coil for which the bulb gets correct voltage?

𝑉2 𝑉 2 1102
Solution: Power of bulb 𝑃= = 55 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑅=
𝑃
=
55
= 220 Ω
𝑅

Angular frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 50 = 100𝜋/𝑠

The rms voltage across the resistor is:

𝑅
𝑉𝑅,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2

𝑅
110 = 220 ⇒ 𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2 = 2𝑅
𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿)2

(𝜔𝐿)2 = 4𝑅 2 − 𝑅 2 = 3𝑅 2

3𝑅 1.73 × 220 𝐿 ≈ 1.2 𝐻

𝐿= = 𝐻
𝜔 100 × 𝜋
 Case 𝟏: Case 𝟐:
If 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 → 𝜙 ≠ 0 If 𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝐿 → 𝜙 ≠ 0
Circuit is predominantly Circuit is predominantly
capacitive. inductive.
Current leads source LCR Current lags behind
voltage Circuits source voltage

Case 𝟑:
If 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 → 𝜙 = 0°

RESONANCE
 Resonance in LCR Circuit

A series 𝐿𝐶𝑅 circuit is said to be in the resonance condition when the current through it has the maximum value.

• Current will be maximum when 𝑍 is minimum. • If 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

𝛧= 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅2 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜙 = =0 ⇒ 𝜙 = 0°
𝑅

• 𝑍 will be minimum, if • Current at resonance condition:

1
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔𝐿 = 𝑉0
𝜔𝐶 𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑅
1 1
𝜔0 =
𝐿𝐶
𝑓0 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
𝑍=𝑅 • Current amplitude at resonance condition :

𝑉0
𝑖0 =
Resonant frequency 𝑅
 Resonance: Graph of Impedance vs Frequency

Capacitive Inductive
𝑍 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 (𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝐿 )

2
1
𝑍= 𝑅2 + − 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 At
resonance,
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
𝑓0
𝑓
 Radio Tuning

To hear any radio station, frequency tuning is required.

Resonant Frequencies
𝑖 (𝐴)

1
𝑓0 = Knob
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

• Rotating the knob changes 𝐶 or 𝐿 due

to which frequency changes. 𝑓(𝐻𝑧)
𝑂
• When the frequency of the radio matches (91.9) 𝑓0 (92.7) (98.3)
the broadcasted frequency, the current is Radio Mango Big FM Radio Mirchi
maximum.

• Hence, we can tune into the FM channel.

 Sharpness of Resonance

• Resonance curve • Measure of sharpness of Resonance 𝜔0

2∆𝜔
• At 𝜔 = 𝜔1
𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑖0 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑖0 = ⇒ 2 2𝑅
2 1
𝑅2
𝜔1 𝐶 − 𝜔1 𝐿 +

1 1
𝑅= − 𝜔1 𝐿 ⇒ 𝑅= − (𝜔𝑜 + ∆𝜔)𝐿
𝜔1 𝐶 𝐶(𝜔𝑜 + ∆𝜔)

1 ∆𝜔
𝑅= − 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 1 +
∆𝜔 𝜔𝑜
𝐶𝜔𝑜 1 + 𝜔
𝑜

• If the circuit is operating between 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 , then 𝑅 = 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 1 −

∆𝜔
− 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 1 +
∆𝜔 1
= 𝜔0 𝐿, ∆𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0
the power dissipated in the circuit is going to be 𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜 𝐶𝜔𝑜
more than the half of the maximum possible
power dissipated. 𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 𝑅
2∆𝜔 = =𝑄 ∆𝜔 =
𝑅 = 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 − 2∆𝜔 𝑅 2𝐿
• Band width 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 2∆𝜔 𝜔𝑜
Quality factor
 Quality Factor

𝜔0
𝑄=
2∆𝜔

𝜔0 𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝑄= 𝑄=
𝑅 𝑉𝑅

1 𝐿
𝑄=
𝑅 𝐶

1 𝑉𝐶
𝑄= 𝑄=
𝜔0 𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝑅
 Sharpness of Resonance

𝜔0 ω0 𝐿
= =𝑄
2∆𝜔 𝑅

𝑅1 < 𝑅2

𝜔0 𝜔0
= 𝑄1 > = 𝑄2
2∆𝜔 1 2∆𝜔 2

Higher the quality factor(𝑄), lesser the band width

(2∆𝜔) and sharper the resonance.

Significance of Quality factor

If some circuit has high quality factor, then only a narrow
range of angular frequency will be able to drive the
substantial amount of current in this circuit.
If two channels have very close resonant frequencies,
there will be interference which creates noise. Thus, we
need to allot a bandwidth for all channels.
If the resonance is sharp, we can allot closer
frequencies to different channels.
 LC Oscillation

𝐿 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿 𝑖

C C C C

−𝑞0 𝑞0 −𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 −𝑞
0 0
𝑡 = 𝑇/4

𝑖 𝐿 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑖 𝑖=0

C C C C

−𝑞 𝑞 𝑞0 −𝑞0
0 0 𝑞 −𝑞
𝑡 = 3𝑇/4 𝑡 = 𝑇/2
 LC Oscillation

Current at any time (𝑡):

𝑑𝑖 𝑞
Apply KVL IN this loop: −𝐿 + = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑞
𝑖=− 𝑖 = −𝑞0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 When charge increases current
𝑖=−
𝑑𝑡 decreases and vice versa. At any time (𝑡):

𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑2 𝑞 1 𝑑2 𝑥
2
=− 𝑞 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑖 = −𝑞0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

If the initial condition is:

Angular frequency : 1
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = At 𝑡 = 0 → 𝑞 = 𝑞0
𝐿𝐶
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) ⇒ 𝑞0 = 𝑞0 sin(0 + 𝜙)
Charge at any time (𝑡):
𝜋
𝑑2 𝑞 1 𝑑2 𝑥 ∴ 𝜙=
2
= − 𝑞 2
= −𝜔2 𝑥 𝜋
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑞 = 𝑞0 cos(𝜔𝑡)
2
𝜋
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑖 = −𝑞0 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖 = 𝑞0 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 2
 Analogy between spring-mass system & L-C oscillations

𝑡=0

1
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑘𝐴2
2
1 𝑞02
𝐸0 = 𝑈𝐶 =
2𝐶

𝑡 = 𝑇/4

1 2
𝐸𝑇/4 = 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1
Spring-Mass 𝐸𝑇/4 = 𝑈𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖02 LC Oscillation
2
 Analogy between spring-mass system & L-C oscillations

𝑡 = 𝑇/2

1
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑘𝐴2
2
1 𝑞02
𝐸0 = 𝑈𝐶 =
2𝐶

𝑡 = 3𝑇/4

1 2
𝐸𝑇/4 = 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1
Spring-Mass 𝐸𝑇/4 = 𝑈𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖02 LC Oscillation
2
 Analogy between spring-mass system & L-C oscillations

𝑡=0 𝑡 = 𝑇/2 𝑡=𝑇

1
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑘𝐴2
2
1 𝑞02
𝐸0 = 𝑈𝐶 =
2𝐶

𝑡 = 𝑇/4 𝑡 = 3𝑇/4

1 2
𝐸𝑇/4 = 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1
Spring-Mass 𝐸𝑇/4 = 𝑈𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖02 LC Oscillation
2
 Analogy between spring-mass system & L-C oscillations

𝑑2𝑥 𝑘 𝑑2𝑞 1
Equation 2
= −𝜔2 𝑥, 𝜔 = Equation 2
= −𝜔2 𝑞, 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶

1/𝑘, 𝑚 𝐶, 𝐿

Displacement 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) Charge 𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑑𝑥 −𝑑𝑞
Velocity 𝑣 = Current 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Speed 𝑣Ԧ = 𝜔 𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 Magnitude of Current 𝑖 = 𝜔 𝑞𝑜2 − 𝑞 2

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑖
Acceleration 𝑎 = = −𝜔2 𝑥 Rate of change of current = 𝜔2 𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 1
Kinetic Energy = 𝑚𝑣 2 Magnetic Energy = 𝐿𝑖 2
2 2
1 1 𝑞2
Potential Energy = 𝑘𝑥 2 Potential Energy =
2 2 𝐶
 In the circuit shown, the symbols have their usual meanings. The cell has emf 𝑉.
𝑋 is initially joined to 𝑌 for a long time. Then, 𝑋 is joined to 𝑍. The maximum
charge on 𝐶 at any later time will be.

Solution: When 𝑋 is joined to 𝑌, in steady state, the maximum current is:

𝑉
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅

When 𝑋 is joined to 𝑍, the maximum current is:

𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔

1
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿𝐶

𝑉 𝐿𝐶
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿𝐶 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅
 Parallel AC Circuits

𝑖02 = 𝑖0𝑅
2
+ 𝑖0𝐶 − 𝑖0𝐿 2

𝑉02 𝑉02 𝑉0 𝑉0
2 𝑖𝑅 𝑅
2
= 2+ −
𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿

1 𝑖𝐶
𝑍=
2
𝐶
1 1 1
2 + 𝑋 −𝑋
𝑅 𝐶 𝐿
𝑖𝐿
Now, 𝐿
𝑖0𝐶 − 𝑖0𝐿
tan 𝜙 =
𝑖0𝑅
𝑖
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜙 =
𝑉0
𝑅
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝜋 𝑉0 𝜋
𝑖𝑅 = sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖𝐿 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑖𝐶 = sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1 1 𝑅 𝜔𝐿 2 1 2
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐶
𝜙 = tan−1
1
𝑅
In the circuit shown, 𝑋𝐿 = 10 𝛺, 𝑋𝐶 = 10 𝛺, 𝑅 = 10 𝛺. Calculate power factor of the
circuit.

Solution:
Step 1: Calculate 𝑖1 Step 2: Calculate 𝑖2

𝑍1 = 𝑋𝐶2 + 𝑅 2 = 10 2 𝑍2 = 𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑅 2 = 10 2

𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑖10 = = 𝑖20 = =
𝑍1 10 2 𝑍2 10 2

𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
𝜙 = tan−1 = 45° 𝜙 = − tan−1 = −45°
𝑅 𝑅
∴ Power factor

cos 𝜙 = cos 0° = 1

Net current 𝑖 and 𝑉0 are

in same phase
 Resonance Curve in Parallel AC Circuit

1
𝑍= 𝑖o
2
1 1 1
2 + −
𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿

• At 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 → 𝜔 = 𝜔0
1
𝑍 = 𝑅 (Maximum value of 𝑍) 𝜔0 =
𝐿𝐶
𝑖 0 𝑚𝑖𝑛
• At 𝜔0 , impedance (𝑍) became maximum
and current amplitude becomes
minimum. 𝜔𝑜 𝜔

• This is opposite to that of resonance in

series LCR circuit.
 How does electricity reach our home?

Current is low
Voltage is high
400𝑘𝑉

Power Plant Household

11 𝑘𝑉 220 𝑉

Voltage Voltage
increased here decreased here
 Transformer

Transformer : It is a device used to step up or down AC voltage by using the principle of

mutual induction.

𝑖2
𝑖1
𝜙2

𝜙1
 Transformer

Laminated Core
Primary • Iron core (ferromagnetic)
winding transfers flux.

𝑖1 𝑖2
• 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the number of turns
in the primary and secondary
AC E1 E2
𝑁1 𝑁2 windings, respectively.
supply
• Varying the number of turns in
Output the primary and secondary
windings, we can produce a
‘Step up’ or ‘Step down’
Secondary transformer.
winding
 Voltage in Transformer

• Same magnetic flux is linked through

Primary Laminated Core each winding. Let that flux through each
winding turn be 𝜙.

𝑖2 𝑑𝜙
𝑖1 E1 = 𝑁1
AC E1 E2 𝑑𝑡 E1 𝑁1
𝑁1 𝑁2 ∴ =−
supply E2 𝑁2
𝑑𝜙
E2 = −𝑁2
Output 𝑑𝑡
• The negative sign shows that the EMF
Secondary induced in the secondary coil (E2 ) is 180°
winding out of phase with (E1 ) .

E1 𝑁1
=
E2 𝑁2
 Power Relation in Transformer

• Assuming no loss of energy:

Laminated Core Input power = Output power
Primary
winding
∴ E1 𝑖1 = E2 𝑖2

𝑖1 𝑖2
E1 𝑖2 𝑁1
AC E1 E2 = =
supply
𝑁1 𝑁2 E2 𝑖1 𝑁2

Output • If power loss is 𝑃𝐿

Secondary E1 𝑖1 − 𝑃𝐿 = E2 𝑖2
winding
 Efficiency of Transformer

Output Power
𝜂% = × 100
Input Power
Laminated Core
Primary
winding • Ideal scenario
E2 𝑖2
𝑖1 𝑖2 𝜂% = × 100 = 100
E1 𝑖1
AC E1 E2
𝑁1 𝑁2
supply • Real life scenario
E1 𝑖1 − 𝑃𝐿
Output 𝜂% = × 100
E1 𝑖1

Secondary • Real transformers have efficiency

winding greater than 90%.
 Step-up Transformer

Primary • Used for increasing the output voltage

winding E1 < E2

𝑖1 𝑖2 Using the formula

AC E2
E1 𝑁1 𝑁2 E1 𝑖2 𝑁1
supply = =
E2 𝑖1 𝑁2
Output
• For Step-up transformer
Secondary
winding 𝑁1 < 𝑁2

Voltage is stepped up (increased)

 Step-down Transformer

Primary • Used for decreasing the output voltage

winding E1 > E2

𝑖1 𝑖2 Using the formula

AC E2
E1 𝑁1 𝑁2 E1 𝑖2 𝑁1
supply = =
E2 𝑖1 𝑁2
Output
• For Step-down transformer
Secondary
winding 𝑁1 > 𝑁2

Voltage is stepped down (decreased)

 Current is low
Voltage is high
400𝑘𝑉

Power Plant Household

11 𝑘𝑉 220 𝑉

Step-up Step-down
Transformer Transformer
 Losses in Transformer

Eddy current
Winding losses
losses

𝑖1 𝑖2
AC E2
E1 𝑁1 𝑁2
supply

Output

Flux losses Hysteresis

losses
 Losses in Transformer

Winding losses Hysteresis losses

• Winding loss: • Hysteresis loss:

Heat = ‫ 𝑖 ׬‬2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 • Continuous magnetization-
• To minimize them: demagnetization causes energy loss
through hysteresis
• Use material of low resistivity like
copper for windings • To minimize them:
1 • Use soft iron for transformer core as
• Use thick wires as 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∝
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 its hysteresis loop has smaller area
 Losses in Transformer

Eddy current losses Flux losses

𝜙
𝑖1 𝑖2

E1 𝑁1 𝑁2 E2

Flux leakage

• Eddy loss: • Flux loss:

• Due to alternating current, flux • All flux from primary winding does not
changes in the core continuously get linked to secondary winding
• This generates eddy currents and • Some flux leaks out of the core
hence, large amount of heat • To minimize them:
• To minimize the loss: • Use highly ferromagnetic core like soft
• Use laminated core instead of iron as it maximizes flux linkage
solid core
 The primary and the secondary coil of a transformer have 50 and 1500 turns,
respectively. If the magnetic flux 𝜙 linked with the primary coil is given by
T 𝜙 = 𝜙0 + 4𝑡, where 𝜙 is in 𝑊𝑏, 𝑡 is the time in 𝑠 and 𝜙0 is a constant, the output
voltage across the secondary coil is:

Given: 𝑁1 = 50, 𝑁2 = 1500, 𝜙1 = 𝜙0 + 4𝑡

To find: Voltage across secondary coil E2

Solution: 𝑑𝜙1 𝑑
Voltage induced in the primary coil, E1 = = 𝜙 + 4𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 0

⇒ E1 = 4 𝑉

𝑁2 1500
Voltage across the secondary coil, E2 = E1 = ×4𝑉
𝑁1 50

E2 = 120 𝑉
 A transformer has 𝑁2 /𝑁1 = 4. If a 200 𝑉 AC voltage is applied across its primary coil,
and it carries 1 𝐴 current, find the current in the circuit connected to the
secondary coil if the transformer is 80% efficient.

Given: 𝑁2 /𝑁1 = 4, E1 = 200 𝑉, 𝑖1 = 1 𝐴, 𝜂 = 80% = 0.8

Primary
To calculate: 𝑖2 winding

𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑁2 AC
E2 = E = 4 × 200 = 800 𝑉 E1 𝑁1 𝑁2 E2
𝑁1 1 supply

Output
E 2 𝑖2
𝜂= = 0.8
E1 𝑖1
Secondary
winding
800 × 𝑖2
⇒ 0.8 =
200 × 1

𝑖2 = 0.2 𝐴