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EM Waves
 Ampere’s Circuital Law

𝐵1
• Line integral or circulation of 𝐵 along
𝐵4
the curve

𝑖
ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

𝐴
𝜇0 = Permeability of free space
𝐵2
𝐴 = Area bounded by the loop
𝑑𝑙Ԧ
𝑖 = Net current intersecting the area
𝐵3
𝐵
 Ampere’s Circuital Law

Inconsistency in
Ampere’s law
𝜇0 𝑖(𝑡) 𝐵𝑃 = 0
𝐵𝑃 =
𝜇0 𝑖 2𝜋𝑟
𝐵𝑃 =
2𝜋𝑟
 Ampere’s Circuital Law

• Displacement current :

A fictitious current which is produced due to the change of electric flux

with respect to time.
𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡

• Ampere-Maxwell Law :

The line integral of magnetic field along a closed loop in free space
is equal to 𝜇0 times the total current (sum of conduction current
and displacement current) threading the loop.

𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝜙𝐸
ර 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑐 + = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖 𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑑
𝑑𝑡

• Conduction current : Current in a conductor due to flow of charge carriers.

Show that the displacement current is equal to conduction current
during charging of a capacitor.

+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
𝑖 𝑡 + −
+ −
𝐴 + −
+ −
+𝑄 𝑡 −𝑄 𝑡
Assumption :

Area of the plates of the capacitor = 𝐴

Instantaneous charge on the plates = 𝑄(𝑡)

Solution :
Electric field between plates of capacitor at any instant 𝑡 :
𝑄(𝑡)
𝐸(𝑡) =
𝐴𝜀0

Electric flux of this field passing through the surface between the plates :

𝑄 𝑡
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑡 × 𝐴 =
𝜀0

𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑑𝑄 𝑡
Displacement current : 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄 𝑡
∶ It is also the rate at which charge is accumulating at positive
𝑑𝑡 plate of capacitor through conducting wire.

𝑑𝑄 𝑡 𝑑𝑄 𝑡
Therefore, conduction current is also equal to . Hence, 𝑖𝑐 = = 𝑖𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Finding The Induced Magnetic Field

𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑟 2
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖(𝑡) and 𝑖𝑑 = 0 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 = 2 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑄(𝑡) 𝑖𝑐 = 0
𝜙𝐸 = × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜀0 𝜋𝑅2
𝜇0 𝑖(𝑡)
𝐵𝑃 = 𝑄(𝑡)𝑟 2 𝜇0 𝑖 𝑡
2𝜋𝑟 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐵𝑅 = 𝑟
𝜀0 𝑅2 2𝜋𝑅2
 Calculation of Induced Magnetic Field

• Inside the capacitor plates (𝑟 > 𝑅) : • Inside the capacitor plates (𝑟 > 𝑅) :

Conduction current, 𝑖𝑐 = 0 Apply Ampere-Maxwell Law :

Electric field between the plates of capacitor : ර 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑

𝑄(𝑡) 𝐿
𝐸(𝑡) =
𝐴𝜀0
𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 0 + 𝑖(𝑡)
Electric flux of this field passing through the
surface between the plates : 𝜇𝑜 𝑖 𝑡
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
𝑄 𝑡
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑡 × 𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑑𝑄 𝑡 𝜇0 𝑖(𝑡)
Displacement current : 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 = =𝑖 𝑡 𝐵𝑄′ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2𝜋𝑟
 Direction of Induced Magnetic Field

Charging of capacitor Discharging of capacitor

Observer : Induced magnetic field is in clockwise Observer : Induced magnetic field is in anti-clockwise
direction. direction.

(Use “Right hand thumb rule”) (Use “Right hand thumb rule”)
 A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius 1 𝑚 has a capacitance of 1 𝑛𝐹.
At 𝑡 = 0, it is connected for charging in series with a resistor 𝑅 = 1 𝑀Ω across a
2 𝑉 battery. Calculate the magnetic field at a point 𝑃, halfway between the centre
𝑡
and the periphery of the plates after 𝑡 = 10−3 𝑠.Take 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉[1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ]
Solution : 𝑟
−
𝑡 𝐵. 2𝜋 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑′
Instantaneous charge : 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉[1 − 𝑒 𝜏] 2

Conduction current at 𝑡 = 10−3 𝑠 : Conduction current between the plates is zero.

𝑑𝑞 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡
𝐵. 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑑′
𝑖𝑐 = = 𝑒 − 𝜏 = 𝑒 − 𝐶𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅
𝜇0 𝑖𝑑′ 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 1.84 × 10−7
2 10−3 2 1 𝐵= =
𝑖𝑐 =
−
𝑒 10−9 ×106 = × = 7.36 × 10−7 𝐴 𝜋𝑟 𝜋×1
106 106 𝑒

Displacement current is assumed to flow

uniformly throughout the volume. 𝐵 = 0.74 × 10−13 𝑇

Displacement current = Conduction current

Displacement current through the reddish patch :

𝑖𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑐
𝑖𝑑′ = × 𝜋 = = = 1.84 × 10−7 𝐴
𝜋𝑟 2 2 4 4
 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two circular plates of radius 𝑅 = 0.1 𝑚. They are
separated by a distance 𝑑 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚. If electric field between the capacitor plates
𝑑𝐸 𝑉
changes as = 5 × 1013 , find the displacement current between the plates.
𝑑𝑡 𝑚×𝑠

Given :

Radius of the circular plates of capacitor : 𝑅 = 0.1 𝑚

𝑅
𝑑𝐸 𝑉
Rate of change of electric field : = 5 × 1013
𝑑𝑡 𝑚×𝑠
Solution :
𝑑𝜙𝐸
Displacement current : 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐸 × 𝜋𝑅 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝜋𝑅 2
𝑑𝑡

𝑖𝑑 = 8.854 × 10−12 × 𝜋 × (0.1)2 × 5 × 1013

𝑖𝑑 = 13.9 𝐴
 In charging a parallel plate capacitor of capacity 10 𝜇𝐹, it takes 0.5 𝑠 to reach
potential difference of 50 𝑉. If plate area of the capacitor is 10 × 10−12 𝑚2 , then find:
(a) Average conduction current during that time.
(b) Average displacement current during that time.
(c) Rate of change of electric field during that time.

∆𝑉
Given: = 100 𝑉/𝑠 Area, 𝑆 = 10 × 10−2 𝑚2
∆𝑡
Solution :
𝑄
(a) Charge on a capacitor, (b) Displacement current, (c) Electric field : 𝐸 =
𝑆𝜀𝑜
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜
𝑑𝑡 Rate of change of electric field :
Average conduction current, 𝑄 𝑄
Electric Flux : 𝜙𝐸 = .𝑆 = ∆𝐸 1 ∆𝑄 𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣
∆𝑄 ∆𝑉 𝑆𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 = =
𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣 = =𝐶 ∆𝑡 𝑆𝜀𝑜 ∆𝑡 𝑆𝜀𝑜
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 Average displacement current,
∆𝐸 10−3
∆𝜙𝐸 ∆𝑄 =
𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣 = 10 × 10−6 × 100 𝐴 𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀𝑜 = = 𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣
∆𝑡 10 × 10−12 × 8.854 × 10−12
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑉
𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣 = 10−3 𝐴 𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑣 = 10−3 𝐴 = 1.1 × 1019
𝑑𝑡 𝑚×𝑠
 Maxwell’s Equations

Unification of theories of electricity & magnetism when fields are varying with time.

Gauss’s Law for Electrostatics Gauss’s law for Magnetism

𝑄𝑖𝑛
ර 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = ර 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 0
𝜀0

Faraday’s law of EMF Ampere – Maxwell law

𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑𝜙𝐸
ර 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = − JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜀0 𝜇0
𝑑𝑡 (1831-1879) 𝑑𝑡
 Maxwell’s Equations

• Accelerated motion of a charged particle generates EM Waves.

• Accelerated charged particle produces time varying electric field and it produces time varying magnetic field.

• The oscillating E.F. and M.F. are perpendicular to each other.

• The energy associated with the propagating wave comes at the expense of the energy of the source.
 Some Other Sources of Electromagnetic Waves

• An electron orbiting around its nucleus in a stationary orbit does not emit
electromagnetic wave. It will emit only during transition from higher energy orbit
to lower energy orbit.

• Electromagnetic wave (𝑋-ray) is produced when high speed electron enters into a
target of high atomic weight.

• Electromagnetic wave (𝛾-ray) is produced during de-excitation of nucleus in

radioactivity.
 Characteristics and Nature of EM Waves

• EM waves do not require medium for their

propagation.

• These waves travel with speed of light in vacuum.

• These waves are transverse in nature.

• They carry both energy and momentum.

• They can be reflected, refracted or absorbed.

• Frequency is inherent characteristic of EM waves.

When it travels from one medium to another only
its speed and wavelength changes.
 Summary

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑍 = 𝐵0 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑍 = 𝐵0 sin 𝜔 𝑡 −
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑑𝜙𝐵
ර 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = − 𝑑𝜙𝐸 Ampere’s Law
𝑑𝑡 Faraday’s Law ර 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝜀0 𝜇0
(for vacuum) 𝑑𝑡 (for vacuum)

𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0
1
𝑐=
𝜇0 𝜀0
 Speed of EM Wave in a medium

𝑦
1
• Speed of EM Wave in vacuum : 𝑐 =
𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸𝑦

• Speed of EM Wave in medium 𝐵𝑧

1
𝑣=
𝜇𝜀
𝜇 ∶ Permeability of the medium
𝑧 𝑥
1
𝑣= 𝜀 ∶ Permittivity of the medium
(𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 )(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 )
1 𝜇𝑟 ∶ Relative permeability of the medium
𝑣=
(𝜇0 𝜀0 )(𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 )
𝜀𝑟 ∶ Relative permittivity of the medium
𝑐
𝑣=
𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
 The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given by
𝐵𝑦 = 2 × 10–7 sin 0.5 × 103 𝑥 + 1.5 × 1011 𝑡 𝑇.
(a) What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
(b) Write an expression for the electric field.

(a) Given : 𝐵𝑦 = 2 × 10–7 sin 0.5 × 103 𝑥 + 1.5 × 1011 𝑡 𝑇 (b) EM Waves are transverse wave. So, electric field of
the given EM Wave will be along 𝑧-axis.
General equation magnetic field of EM wave :
𝐵𝑦 = 𝐵0 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 𝐸z = 𝐸0 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡

We know : 𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0
Therefore,
𝐵0 = 2 × 10−7 𝑇 𝜔 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 𝑘 = 0.5 × 103 𝑚−1 𝐸0 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 × (2 × 10−7 𝑇)

Wavelength of the wave : Frequency of the wave : 𝐸0 = 60 𝑉/𝑚

2𝜋 2 × 3.14 𝜔 1.5 × 1011 Therefore, the expression of electric field :

𝜆= = 𝑓= =
𝑘 0.5 × 103 2𝜋 2 × 3.14
𝐸𝑧 = 60 sin 0.5 × 103 𝑥 + 1.5 × 1011 𝑡 𝑉/𝑚

𝜆 = 1.26 𝑐𝑚 𝑓 = 23.9 𝐺𝐻𝑧

 A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 25 𝑀𝐻𝑧 travels in free space along
the 𝑥-direction. At a particular point in space and time, 𝐸 = 6.3 𝑗Ƹ 𝑉/𝑚. What is 𝐵
at this point?

We know : 𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0

𝐸0
𝐵0 =
𝑐
6.3
𝐵0 = = 2.1 × 10−8 𝑇
3 × 108

Since the wave is propagating along +𝑣𝑒 𝑥-

direction, the magnetic field should be along
+ 𝑣𝑒 𝑧-direction.

This is because 𝐸 × 𝐵 should be parallel to the

direction of propagation of wave.

𝐵 = 2.1 × 10−8 𝑘෠ 𝑇
 Summary

• Energy stored in a unit volume (𝑑𝑉) in any electric/magnetic field is known as Energy density.

1
• Energy density in electric field : 𝜀 𝐸2
2 𝑜
𝐵2
• Energy density in magnetic field :
2𝜇𝑜

• Average energy density in electric field :

1 𝑇1 2
𝜀𝑜 𝑇 2 2
𝑈𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2 2𝑇 0 0

𝜀𝑜 𝑇 1
𝑈𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = × 𝐸02 × 𝑈𝐸 = 𝜀 𝐸2
2𝑇 2 𝑎𝑣𝑔
4 𝑜 0

• Average energy density in magnetic field : • Average energy density of EM Wave :

1 𝑇 1 2 1 𝑇
𝑈𝐵 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝐵 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐵02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜇0 2𝜇0 𝑇 0 1 1 2
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸02 + 𝐵
1 2 4 4𝜇𝑜 0
𝑈𝐵 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐵
4𝜇𝑜 0
 Summary

1
• Average energy density of EM Wave :
𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0 𝑐=
𝜇0 𝜀0 1 1 2
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸02 + 𝐵
4 4𝜇𝑜 0

Or
1 1 1
𝑈𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸02 = × 2 × 𝑐 2 𝐵02 1 1 2
4 4 𝑐 𝜇0 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸02 = 𝐵
2 2𝜇𝑜 0

1 2
𝑈𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐵 = 𝑈𝐵 𝑎𝑣𝑔
4𝜇𝑜 0
 A plane electromagnetic wave has frequency 2 × 1010 𝐻𝑧 and its energy density is
1.02 × 10−8 𝐽/𝑚3 in vacuum. The amplitude of the magnetic field of the wave is
close to :

Given :

Frequency of EM wave, 𝑓 = 2 × 1010 𝐻𝑧

Energy density, 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1.02 × 10−8 𝑗/𝑚3

Solution :

Energy density,

𝐵02
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2𝜇0

𝐵0 = 2 × 𝜇0 × 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝐵0 = 2 × 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 1.02 × 10−8 𝑇

𝐵0 = 160 𝑛𝑇
𝐵0 = 160 × 10−9 𝑇
 Intensity of EM Waves

• The energy crossing per unit area per unit time

perpendicular to the direction of propagation
𝑐∆𝑡
of wave is called the intensity
of wave.
• Energy passing through cylindrical area 𝐴
per unit time:

𝑈 1 2
𝐵𝑜2
= 𝜀 𝐸 ×𝐴×𝑐 = ×𝐴×𝑐 𝐴
Δ𝑡 2 𝑜 𝑜 2𝜇𝑜

𝑈 1 2
𝐵𝑜2
𝐼 = = 𝜀 𝐸 𝑐= 𝑐
𝐴∆𝑡 2 𝑜 𝑜 2𝜇𝑜
 Intensity due to a Point Source

• The power of the source : 𝑃

• Intensity at a distance 𝑟 due to the source :

𝐸 𝑃 𝑟
𝐼= =
𝐴×𝑡 𝐴

𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑟 2

Intensity is inversely proportional to square of 𝑟.

So, the intensity due to a point source obeys
the inverse square law.
𝐽
• Unit: 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡/𝑚2 or
𝑠 𝑚2
 A 27 𝑚𝑊 laser beam has a cross-sectional area of 10 𝑚𝑚2 . The magnitude of the
maximum electric field in this electromagnetic wave is given by :

Given :

Power of laser beam, 𝑃 = 27 𝑚𝑊 = 27 × 10−3 𝑊

Cross-sectional area, 𝐴 = 10 𝑚𝑚2 = 10 × 10−6 𝑚2

Solution :

Intensity of EM wave,

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 1
𝐼= = 𝜀0 𝐸02 𝑐
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2

27 × 10−3 1
−6
= × 9 × 10−12 × 𝐸02 × 3 × 108
10 × 10 2

𝐸0 = 2 × 106 𝑉/𝑚

𝐸0 = 1.4 𝑘𝑉/𝑚
𝐸0 = 1.414 × 103 𝑉/𝑚
 Momentum and Radiation Pressure

• Electromagnetic wave carries energy and momentum with it.

• Momentum of EM waves :

𝑈
𝑝= 𝑈: Energy carried by EM wave in free space
𝑐

• Radiation pressure is defined as “Force exerted by EM Wave on unit surface area”.

Condition Radiation Pressure

Surface completely absorbs the 𝐼
radiation falling on it 𝑐
Surface completely reflects the 2𝐼
radiation falling on it 𝑐
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations according to their frequency (or

wavelength) is called “Electromagnetic spectrum”.
Visible Increasing wavelength

Gamma X-ray Ultraviolet Infrared Microwave Radio

(Wavelength in 𝑚)

Increasing frequency
Visible Light
 Different Region of Electromagnetic Spectrum

Heading 1
Gamma Rays Heading
X - Rays 1

• Produced by the disintegration • Produced due to sudden deceleration of

of radioactive atomic nuclei. fast-moving electrons when they collide
and interact with the target anode.

• Used in medicine to destroy • Used as a diagnostic tool in medicine

cancer cells. to detect fracture of bones and
foreign bodies.

Frequency: 1019 𝐻𝑧 – 1024 𝐻𝑧 Frequency: 1016 𝐻𝑧 – 1020 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: < 10−11 𝑚 Wavelength: 10−8 𝑚 − 10−13 𝑚

 Different Region of Electromagnetic Spectrum

Heading
Ultraviolet 1
Rays Heading
Visible Rays1

• Produced by special lamps and • Produced by atomic excitation.

very hot bodies (E.g., sun).

• Useful for eye surgery, detect skin • It is detected by the eyes, photocells
disease, water purification etc. and photographic films.

Frequency: 1015 𝐻𝑧 – 1017 𝐻𝑧 Frequency: 4 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 – 7 × 1014 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: 400 𝑛𝑚 – 1 𝑛𝑚 Wavelength: 700 𝑛𝑚 – 400 𝑛𝑚

 Different Region of Electromagnetic Spectrum

Heading 1
Infrared Rays Heading
Microwaves1

• Produced by hot bodies i.e., • Produced by special vacuum tubes.

vibration of atoms and molecules. (E.g., Klystrons, Gunn diodes etc.)

• Used in the remote switches of • Used in radar system for aircraft

household electronic system. navigation and microwave ovens.

Frequency: 1012 𝐻𝑧 – 1014 𝐻𝑧 Frequency: 3 × 1011 𝐻𝑧 – 1013 𝐻𝑧

Wavelength: 25 𝜇𝑚 – 2.5𝜇𝑚 Wavelength: 1 𝑚𝑚 – 25 𝑚𝑚

 Different Region of Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Radio waves1

Frequency: < 3 × 1011 Hz Wavelength: > 1 𝑚𝑚

Amplitude modulated Television Frequency modulated

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Radio Wave 1 Heading
Radio Wave1 Heading
Radio Wave 1

(530 kHz − 1710 kHz) (54 MHz − 890 MHz) (88 MHz − 108 MHz)

• They are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.

• They are used in radio and television communication system.

 Choose the correct option relating wavelength of different parts of
electromagnetic wave spectrum :

Solution :