SAFETY ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

FUNDAMENTALS OF

FIRES AND
EXPLOSIONS
AIChE SACHE Faculty Workshop
Baton Rouge - Sep 29, 2003
 What’s Coming
 Quiz  H-Oil Incident

 Terminology & Definitions  Video - Explosions & Detonations

 Flash Point  Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions

 Autoignition  Impact of UVCE

 Minimum Ignition Energy  Models

 Video - Flames & Explosions  BLEVE

 Ignition Sources  Impact of BLEVE

 Flammability Relationships  Video - BLEVE

 Classification of Explosions  Quiz Review

 Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and Explosions
1. What is the flash point of a liquid?

2. What is the fundamental difference between flammable and combustible stock?

3. What is the cut off point between a “flammable liquid” and a “combustible liquid”
as defined by the NFPA standards?

4. What is the difference between the terms “lower explosive limit (LEL)” and
“lower flammable limit (LFL)”?

5. A material whose flash point is 212oF (100oC) is being stored at 203oF (95oC). Is
this treated as a flammable or combustible material under ExxonMobil
practices?

6. There is a correlation of flash point with upper flammable limit (UFL) by means
of the vapor pressure curve. (True/False)

7. A pipe whose surface temperature is 662oF (350oC) represents a likely source of

ignition for a flammable vapor whose autoignition temperature (A.I.T.) is 608oF
(320oC). (True/False).
 Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and Explosions

8. Pressure has a significant effect on the flammable range of most hydrocarbons.

(True/False).

9. Deflagration is another word for detonation. (True/False)

10. Typical pressures reached in a confined deflagration are 6 to 8 times the initial
pressure. (True/False)

11. Stoichiometric mixtures generally require higher ignition energies than other
mixtures within the flammable range. (True/False)

12. The only factors that determine the strength of a vapor cloud explosion are the
type of molecule and the amount released. (True/False)

13. The TNT model is still the best for modeling explosions. (True/False)
 Terminology
 Auto Ignition Temperature  Flash Point
 BLEVE  High Flash Stocks
 Combustible Liquids  Ignition Energy
 Deflagration  Intermediate Vapor Pressure
 Detonation Stocks
 Explosion  Light Ends
 Explosive Limits  Low Flash Stocks
 Fire  Phyrophoric Materials
 Flammable Limits  Reid Vapor Pressure
 Flammable Liquids  UCVE
 Vapor Pressure
 Definitions
 Flash Point
– Lowest temperature at which a flammable liquid
exposed to air will burn when exposed to sparks
or flame.
 Auto Ignition Temperature
– Temperature above which spontaneous
combustion can occur without the use of a spark
or flame.
 Ignition Energy
– Lowest amount of energy required for ignition.
 Definitions
 Flammable Liquids (NFPA)
– Liquids with a flash point < 100F (38o C)

 Combustible Liquids (NFPA)

– Liquids with a flash point > 100F (38o C)

 High Flash Stocks

– Liquids with flash point > 130F (55o C) or stored at least 15F(8o C)
below its flash point (Heavy Fuel Oil, Lube Oil)

 Low Flash Stocks

– Liquid with flash point < 130F (55o C) or stored within 15F (8o C) of
its flash point (Kero, Diesel, etc.)
 Definitions
 Light Ends
– Volatile flammable liquids which vaporize when exposed to
air. Design Practices defines as pentanes and lighter napthas
of RVP > 15 PSIA.

 Intermediate Vapor Pressure Stocks

– Low flash stocks heavier than light ends where the vapor
space must be assumed to be mainly in the flammable range.

 Pyrophoric Material
– Material which will spontaneously burn in air at ambient
temperature.
 Definitions
 Flammable Limits
– Range of composition of material in air which will burn.
 U.F.L.........Upper Flammable Limit
 L.F.L..........Lower Flammable Limit

 Explosive Limits
– Same as flammable limits.

 Vapor Pressure
– Pressure exerted by liquid on vapor space.

 Reid Vapor Pressure

– Vapor Pressure measured at 100F (37.8o C).
 Flash Point From Vapor Pressure
 Most materials start to burn at 50% stoichiometric
– For heptane:
 C7H16 + 11 O2 = 7 CO2 + 8 H2O
 Air = 11/ 0.21 = 52.38 Moles/mole of heptane at
stoichiometric conditions
 At LEL with 50% stoichiometric, heptane is 0.5/52.38 =
1 vol. %
 Experimental is 1.1%
 For 1 vol. %, vapor pressure is 1 kPa temperature =
23o F (-5o C)
 Flash point = 25o F (-4o C)
 Flash Point Curve

HEL Too Rich

Vapor
Pressure
% In Air

LEL

Too Lean

Temperature ->
Flash Point
 Flash Point Determination Methods
 Laboratory tests are:

– Closed cup tag (ASTM D-65) for materials of 194°F (90 o C)

flash point or less

– Pensky Martens (ASTM D-93) for materials of 194°F (90 o

C) flash point or more

– Open cup tag (ASTM D-1310) or Cleveland (ASTM D-92)

 Auto Ignition Temperature
 Varies with:
– size of containment
– material in contact
– concentration
 Is specific to a given composition
 Be careful of global numbers
 Auto Ignition Temperature
 Measured value very apparatus related, NFPA data:

– Benzene in: quartz flask 1060o F (571oC)

iron flask 1252o F (678oC)

– CS2 in: 200 ml flask 248o F (120oC)

1000 ml flask 230o F (110oC)
10000 ml flask 205o F ( 96oC)

– Hexane with different apparatus:437o F (225oC)

950o F (510oC)
 Auto Ignition Temperature

 Measured value also concentration dependent,

NFPA data:

– C5= in air: 1.5% 1018o F (548oC)

3.75% 936o F (502oC)
7.65% 889o F (476oC)
Auto Ignition Temperature
 Minimum Ignition Energy
 Lowest amount of energy required for
ignition
– Major variable
– Dependent on:
 Temperature
 % of combustible in combustant
 Type of compound
Minimum Ignition Energy
Effects of Stoichiometry
 Minimum Ignition Energies
FLAMMABLE MIN. IGNITION ENERGY mJ

CS2 0.009
H2 0.011
C2° 0.017
C2= 0.07
CH3OH 0.14
n- C6° 0.22
n-C7° 0.24
IPA 0.65
ACETONE 1.15
i-C8° 1.35
“FINE” SULPHUR DUST 1.0
“NORMAL” DUSTS >10.
 Video
Bureau of Mines
Flames & Explosions
COMMON IGNITION SOURCES BASIC CONTROLS

Fire or Flames:

– Furnaces and Boilers Spacing & Layout

– Flares Spacing & Layout
– Welding Work Procedures

– Sparks from Tools Work Procedures

– Spread from other Areas Sewer Design, Diking,
Weed Control,
Housekeeping
– Matches and Lighters Procedures
COMMON IGNITION SOURCES BASIC CONTROLS

Hot Surfaces:

– Hot Pipes and Equipment Spacing

(>600 oF)
– Automotive Equipment Procedures
COMMON IGNITION SOURCES BASIC CONTROLS

Electrical:

– Sparks from Switches Area Classification

& Motors

– Static Grounding, Inerting,

Relaxation

– Lightning Geometry, snuffing

– Hand Held Electric Equipment Procedures

Flammability Diagram for the System Methane-
Oxygen-Nitrogen
at Atmospheric Pressure and 26oC
 Flammability Relationships
CONCENTRATION OF FUEL

AUTO
IGNITION
FLAMMABLE REGION
MIST

FLASH AIT
TEMPERATURE
POINT
Flammable Limits Change With:

Inerts

Temperature

Pressure
 Limits of Flammability of Various
Methane-Inert Gas-Air Mixtures at 25oC
and Atmospheric Pressure
 Effect of Temperature on Lower Limits of
Flammability of Various Paraffin
Hydrocarbons in Air at Atmospheric Pressure
Effect of Pressure of Flammability of
Natural Gas In Air at 28oC

% air = 100% - % natural gas

NATURAL GAS, volume-percent

Flammable mixtures

Increasing Pressure:
- Reduces LEL Somewhat
- Increases HEL Considerably
- Reduces Flash Point & AIT
- Increases Maximum Attainable Pressure
- Increase Rate of Pressure Rise

Initial Pressure, Atm.

 More Definitions
 Deflagration
– Propagating reactions in which the energy
transfer from the reaction zone to the unreacted
zone is accomplished thru ordinary transport
processes such as heat and mass transfer.
 Detonation
– Propagating reactions in which energy is
transferred from the reaction zone to the
unreacted zone on a reactive shock wave. The
velocity of the shock wave always exceeds
sonic velocity in the reactant.
 Fire
– A slow form of deflagration
 Classification of Explosions
EXPLOSION= Equilibration of high pressure gas with
environment so rapid that energy is dissipated via shock wave.

Physical explosions result from dissipation Chemical explosions result from a

of pre-existing potential energy (without chemical reaction creating the high
chemical change). pressure gas (may be confined or
unconfined).

Uniform reactions occur (more or less) Propagating reactions start at a point and
uniformly throughout the mass of reactants. propagate as a front through the mass of
reactants.

Thermal explosions result from

Deflgrations occur when energy transfer Detonations occur when energy transfer
exothermic reactions under confinement
across the front is due solely to normal across the front is enhanced by reactive
with inadequate dissipation of heat.
transport phenomena. shock wave.
 Potential Energy
Stored Volumes of Ideal Gas at 20° C

PRESSURE, psig TNT EQUIV., lbs. per ft3

10 0.001
100 0.02
1000 1.42
10000 6.53

TNT equiv. = 5x 105 Calories/lb

 Bayway, NJ
H-Oil Incident 1970
 Video
Industrial Safety Series
Explosions and Detonations
 Deflagration
 Combustion with flame speeds at non turbulent
velocities of 0.5 - 1 m/sec.
 Pressures rise by heat balance in fixed volume
with pressure ratio of about 10.
CH4 + 2 O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O + 21000 BTU/lb
Initial Mols = 1 + 2/.21 = 10.52
Final Mols = 1 + 2 + 2(0.79/0.21) = 10.52
Initial Temp = 298oK
Final Temp = 2500oK
Pressure Ratio = 9.7
Initial Pressure = 1 bar (abs)
Final Pressure = 9.7 bar (abs)
 Detonation

 Highly turbulent combustion

 Very high flame speeds
 Extremely high pressures >>10 bars
Pipeline Detonation Mechanics
 U V C E
N A L X
C P O P
O O U L
N R D O
F S
I I
N O
E N
D S

 An overpressure caused when a gas cloud detonates or

deflagrates in open air rather than simply burns.
 What Happens to a Vapor Cloud?
 Cloud will spread from too rich, through flammable range to too
lean.

 Edges start to burn through deflagration (steady state

combustion).

 Cloud will disperse through natural convection.

 Flame velocity will increase with containment and turbulence.

 If velocity is high enough cloud will detonate.

 If cloud is small enough with little confinement it cannot

explode.
 What Happens to a Vapor Cloud?

 Increasing unsaturation will increase chance of

explosion (flame speeds higher).

Guggan says “All ethylene clouds explode!”

 Effect of explosion readily modeled by analogy

with TNT.
Factors Favoring High Over Pressures
 Confinement
– Prevents combustion products escaping, giving higher
local pressures even with deflagration.

– Creates turbulence, a precursor for detonation.

– Terrain can cause confinement.

– Onsite leaks have a much higher potential for UVCE

than offset leaks.
Factors Favoring High Over Pressures
 Cloud composition
– Highly unsaturated molecules are bad

 High flammable range

 Low ignition energy

 High flame speeds

(Guggan says all ethylene clouds give high

overpressures when they burn!)

 Most UVCE C2 - C6 light gases disperse readily, heavy

materials do not form vapor clouds easily
Factors Favoring High Over Pressures

 Weather
– Stable atmospheres lead to large clouds.

– Low wind speed encourages large clouds.

Factors Favoring High Over Pressures

 Vapor Cloud Size impacts on:

– probability of finding ignition source
– likelihood of generating any overpressure
– magnitude of overpressure
Factors Favoring High Over Pressures
 Source
– flashing liquids seem to give high overpressure
– vapor systems need very large failures to cause UVCE
– slow leaks give time for cloud to disperse naturally
without finding an ignition source
– high pressure gives premixing required for large
combustion
– equipment failures where leak is not vertically upwards
increases likelihood of large cloud
 Impact of Vapor Cloud
 World of explosives is dominated by TNT impact which is
understood.

 Vapor clouds, by analysis of incidents, seem to respond

like TNT if we can determine the equivalent TNT.

 1 pound of TNT has a LHV of 1890 BTU/lb.

 1 pound of hydrocarbon has a LHV of about 19000 BTU/lb.

 A vapor cloud with a 10% efficiency will respond like a

similar weight of TNT.
 Impact of Vapor Cloud
 Guggan analysis of vapor clouds plotted efficiency
against cloud size and several other theoretical
factors and reached no effective conclusions.
Efficiencies were between 0.1% and 50%

 Traditional EMRE view was 3% for offsite leak and

10% for onsite leak

 Pressure is function of distance from the blast and

(blast size)1/3
Pressure vs Time Characteristics

DETONATION
OVERPRESSURE

VAPOR CLOUD DEFLAGRATION

TIME
Impact of Vapor Cloud Explosions on
People
PEAK OVERPRESSURE, psi EFFECTS

1 Knock personnel down

5 Rupture eardrums

15 Damage lungs

35 Threshold fatalities

50 50% fatalities

65 99% fatalities
 Damage from Vapor Cloud Explosions
Peak Overpressure Typical Damage
(psi)

0.5 - 1 Glass windows break

1-2 Common siding types fail

- corrugated asbestos, shatters
- corrugated steel, panel joints fail
- wood siding, blows in

2-3 Unreinforced concrete or cinder

block walls fail
 Damage from Vapor Cloud Explosions
Peak Overpressure Typical Damage
(psi)

3-4 Self-framed steel panel buildings

collapse.

Oil storage tanks rupture.

5 Utility poles snap

7 Loaded rail cars overturn

7-8 Unreinforced brick walls fail

 Impact of Vapor Cloud Explosions
Equivalent Overpressure Wind Velocities

Peak Overpressure, psi Wind Velocity, mph

2 70

5 160

10 290

20 470

30 670

50 940
Impact of Vapor Cloud Explosions

1500 1500

1000 1000
MAXIMUM INCIDENT OVERPRESSURE (PSI)

700 700
OR

400 400
LONG AXIS OF BODY PERPENDICULAR TO BLAST
WINDS, SUBJECT FACING ANY DIRECTION
200 200

100 100
70 70

40 40

20 20

10 10
0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000 2000 5000

DURATION OF POSITIVE INCIDENT OVERPRESSURE (MSEC)

Impact of Vapor Cloud Explosions
107
SURFACE BURST, STANDARD SEA-LEVEL CONDITIONS
ASSUMED GROUND REFLECTION FACTOR: 1.8
106
WEIGHT OF TNT (tons)

105

104

103

102
OR
101 LONG AXIS OF BODY PERPENDICULAR TO BLAST WINDS
subject FACING ANY DIRECTION

1
1 10 100 1000 10000
RANGE (ft)
 Multi-Energy Models for Blast Effects
 Recent developments in science suggest too many
unknowns for simple TNT model.
 Key variables to over pressure effect are:
– Quantity of combustant in explosion
– Congestion/confinement for escape of combustion
products
– Number of serial explosions
 This is key to EMR&E basis for calculation of impact.
 Multi-energy is consistent with models and pilot
explosions.
 Video
BP LPG
 B L E V E
O I X A X
I Q P P P
L U A O L
I I N R O
N D D S
G I I
N O
G N
S

– The result of a vessel failure in a fire and release of a

pressurized liquid rapidly into the fire. A pressure wave, a
fire ball, vessel fragments and burning liquid droplets are
usually the result.
 Flammability Consequence
Comparison
Limits selected:

 BLEVE - 1% lethality

 UVCE - 1 PSI over pressure, 3%

efficiency

 Fire - 1 meter deep bund, 3 KW/m2 flux.

Distance Comparison
(meters)
INVENTORY BLEVE UVCE FIRE
(tonnes)

1 18 120
2 36 150
5 60 200
10 90 250 20
20 130 310 30
50 200 420 36
100 280 530 50
200 400 670 60
500 600 900 100
1000 820 1150 130
 Video
BLEVE
 Conclusions
 We know directionally what factors cause UVCE.
 We can estimate roughly what the damage is from a UVCE.
 We can take precautions to minimize damage.
 We can make emergency plans to ameliorate offsite
damage.

We must take all reasonable measures to prevent

significant leaks from our plant and adhere to
high levels of design, inspection, maintenance
and operation.
Quiz Review
 Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions

1Q. What is the flash point of a liquid?

1A. Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a

liquid exposed to the air gives off sufficient vapor
to form a flammable mixture, or within the
apparatus used, that can be ignited by a suitable
flame. More precisely, it is the temperature of a
liquid at which the partial pressure of its vapor
reaches the lower flammable limit when the liquid
is heated in air.
 Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions

2Q. What is the fundamental difference between

flammable and combustible stock?

2A. Flammable stock is capable of being ignited

without having to be heated. Combustible
material must be heated by some external
source in order to be capable of burning.
Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions

3Q. What is the cut off point between a “flammable

liquid” and a “combustible liquid” as defined by
the NFPA standards?

3A. NFPA defines a flammable liquid as one having

a flash point below 100oF (37.8oC). A
combustible liquid is one with a flash point of
100oF (37.8oC) or above.
Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions

4Q. What is the difference between the terms “lower

explosive limit (LEL)” and “lower flammable limit
(LFL)”?
4A. None. The terms are synonymous.

5Q. A material whose flash point is 212oF (100oC) is

being stored at 203oF (95oC). Is this treated as a
flammable or combustible material under
ExxonMobil practices?
5A. Flammable (Stored within 15oF (10oC) of its
flash point.
Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions

6Q. There is a correlation of flash point with upper

flammable limit (UFL) by means of the vapor
pressure curve. (True/False)

6A. False. The correlation is with the lower

flammable limit (LFL).
Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions
7Q. A pipe whose surface temperature is 662oF
(350oC) represents a likely source of ignition for a
flammable vapor whose autoignition temperature
(A.I.T.) is 608oF (320oC). (True/False).

7A. False. In order to be a source of ignition in open

air, a hot line would have to be at least 220oF
(105oC) higher than the AIT. This has been
found by experiment. Apparently, natural
convection prevents the vapor from remaining in
contact with the pipe long enough to cause
ignition.
Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions
8Q. Pressure has a significant effect on the
flammable range of most hydrocarbons.
(True/False).

8A. True. Flammable range widens with increasing

pressure.

9Q. Deflagration is another word for detonation.

(True/False)

9A. False. Deflagration is characterized by sub-sonic

flame velocities, whereas detonation shock
waves are supersonic.
Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions
10Q. Typical pressures reached in a confined
deflagration are 6 to 8 times the initial pressure.
(True/False)

10A. True.

11Q. Stoichiometric mixtures generally require higher

ignition energies than other mixtures within the
flammable range. (True/False)

11A. False. They require lower energies.

Answers to Quiz on Fundamentals of Fires and
Explosions

12Q. The only factors that determine the strength of a

vapor cloud explosion are the type of molecule
and the amount released. (True/False)

12A. False. Other factors are confinement, weather,

and source consideration.

13Q. The TNT model is still the best for modeling

explosions. (True/False)

13A. False. Although explosions are still reported as

“tons of TNT equivalent”, the Multi-Energy Model
is more accurate in most cases.