Trigonometric functions

In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular

functions, angle functions or goniometric functions[1][2]) are real
functions which relate an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of
two side lengths. They are widely used in all sciences that are related
to geometry, such as navigation, solid mechanics, celestial
mechanics, geodesy, and many others. They are among the simplest
periodic functions, and as such are also widely used for studying
periodic phenomena through Fourier analysis.

The trigonometric functions most widely used in modern

mathematics are the sine, the cosine, and the tangent. Their
reciprocals are respectively the cosecant, the secant, and the
cotangent, which are less used. Each of these six trigonometric
functions has a corresponding inverse function, and an analog
among the hyperbolic functions.

The oldest definitions of trigonometric functions, related to right-

angle triangles, define them only for acute angles. To extend the sine Basis of trigonometry: if two right triangles have
and cosine functions to functions whose domain is the whole real equal acute angles, they are similar, and their side
line, geometrical definitions using the standard unit circle (i.e., a lengths are proportional. It follows that the ratios of
two sides are the same in all figured triangles, and
circle with radius 1 unit) are often used; then the domain of the other
are trigonometric functions of one of the angles, as
functions is the real line with some isolated points removed. Modern
explicited in the figure.
definitions express trigonometric functions as infinite series or as
solutions of differential equations. This allows extending the domain
of sine and cosine functions to the whole complex plane, and the
domain of the other trigonometric functions to the complex plane with some isolated points removed. The domains of all
of the functions can be extended to the entire real line or complex plane if we allow the codomain to be the projectively
extended real line (in the real case) or the Riemann sphere (in the complex case).

Contents
Right-angled triangle definitions
Radians versus degrees
Unit-circle definitions
Algebraic values
Simple algebraic values
In calculus
Definition by differential equations
Power series expansion
Partial fraction expansion
Infinite product expansion
Relationship to exponential function (Euler's formula)
Definitions using functional equations
In the complex plane
Basic identities
Parity
Periods
Pythagorean identity
 Sum and difference formulas
Derivatives and antiderivatives
Inverse functions
Applications
Angles and sides of a triangle
Law of sines
Law of cosines
Law of tangents
Law of cotangents
Periodic functions
History
Etymology
See also
Notes
References
External links

Right-angled triangle definitions

In this section, an upper-case letter denotes a vertex of a triangle and the
measure of the corresponding angle; The lower-case form of the same letter
denotes the opposite side of the triangle and its length. In the definitions that
follow, θ corresponds to A in the diagram.

If the angle θ is given, then all sides of the right-angled triangle are well-defined
up to a scaling factor. This means that the ratio of any two side lengths depends
only on θ. Thus these six ratios define six functions of θ, which are the
trigonometric functions. More precisely, the six trigonometric functions are:[3][4]
a
In this right triangle: sin A = ;
c
cos A = bc ; tan A = ab .

sine cosecant

cosine secant

tangent cotangent

π
In a right-angled triangle, the sum of the two acute angles is a right angle, that is, 90° or 2 radians.
 Plot of the six trigonometric
functions, the unit circle, and a line
for the angle θ = 0.7 radians. The
points labelled 1, Sec(θ), Csc(θ)
represent the length of the line
segment from the origin to that point.
Sin(θ), Tan(θ), and 1 are the heights
to the line starting from the x-axis,
while Cos(θ), 1, and Cot(θ) are
lengths along the x-axis starting from
the origin.

Summary of relationships between trigonometric functions[5]

Relationship
Function Abbreviation Description
using radians using degrees

opposite
sine sin hypotenuse

adjacent
cosine cos hypotenuse

opposite
tangent tan (or tg) adjacent

cot (or cotan

adjacent
cotangent or cotg or ctg opposite
or ctn)

hypotenuse
secant sec adjacent

hypotenuse
cosecant csc (or cosec) opposite

Radians versus degrees

In geometric applications, the argument of a trigonometric function is generally the measure of an angle. For this purpose,
any angular unit is convenient, and angles are most commonly measured in conventional units of degrees in which a right
angle is 90° and a complete turn is 360° (particularly in elementary mathematics).

However, in calculus and mathematical analysis, the trigonometric functions are generally regarded more abstractly as
functions of real or Complex numbers, rather than angles. In fact, the functions sin and cos can be defined for all complex
numbers in terms of the exponential function via power series[6] or as solutions to Differential equations given particular
initial values[7] (see below), without reference to any geometric notions. The other four trigonometric functions (tan, cot,
sec, csc) can be defined as quotients and reciprocals of sin and cos, except where zero occurs in the denominator. It can be
proved, for real arguments, that these definitions coincide with elementary geometric definitions if the argument is
regarded as an angle given in radians.[6] Moreover, these definitions result in
simple expressions for the Derivatives and indefinite integrals for the
trigonometric functions.[8] Thus, in settings beyond elementary geometry, radians
are regarded as the mathematically natural unit for describing angle measures.

When Radians (rad) are employed, the angle is given as the length of the arc of
the unit circle subtended by it: the angle that subtends an arc of length 1 on the
unit circle is 1 rad (≈ 57.3°), and a complete turn (360°) is an angle of 2π (≈ 6.28)
rad. For real number x, the notations sin x, cos x, etc. refer to the value of the
trigonometric functions evaluated at an angle of x rad. If units of degrees are
intended, the degree sign must be explicitly shown (e.g., sin x°, cos x°, etc.).
Using this standard notation, the argument x for the trigonometric functions
satisfies the relationship x = (180x/π )°, so that, for example, sin π = sin 180°
when we take x = π . In this way, the degree symbol can be regarded as a
mathematical constant such that 1° = π /180 ≈ 0.0175.

Unit-circle definitions Top: Trigonometric function sin θ for

selected angles θ, π − θ, π + θ, and
The six trigonometric functions can be defined as coordinate values of points on 2π − θ in the four quadrants.
the Euclidean plane that are related to the unit circle, which is the circle of radius Bottom: Graph of sine function
one centered at the origin O of this coordinate system. While right-angled triangle versus angle. Angles from the top
definitions allow for the definition of the trigonometric functions for angles panel are identified.
between 0 and radian (90°), the unit circle definitions allow the domain of
trigonometric functions to be extended to all positive and negative
real numbers.

Let be the ray obtained by rotating by an angle θ the positive half

of the x-axis (counterclockwise rotation for and clockwise
rotation for ). This ray intersects the unit circle at the point
The ray extended to a line if necessary, intersects
the line of equation at point and the line of
equation at point The tangent line to the unit
circle at the point A, is perpendicular to and intersects the y- and
x-axes at points and The coordinates of
these points give the values of all trigonometric functions for any
arbitrary real value of θ in the following manner.

The trigonometric functions cos and sin are defined, respectively, as

the x- and y-coordinate values of point A. That is,
In this illustration, the six trigonometric functions
and [10] of an arbitrary angle θ are represented as
Cartesian coordinates of points related to the unit
In the range , this definition coincides with the right- circle. The ordinates of A , B and D are sin θ,
angled triangle definition, by taking the right-angled triangle to have tan θ and csc θ, respectively, while the abscissas
of A , C and E are cos θ, cot θ and sec θ,
the unit radius OA as hypotenuse. And since the equation
respectively.
holds for all points on the unit circle, this
definition of cosine and sine also satisfies the Pythagorean identity

The other trigonometric functions can be found along the unit circle as

and
and

By applying the Pythagorean identity and geometric proof methods, these definitions can readily be shown to coincide
with the definitions of tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant in terms of sine and cosine, that is
Since a rotation of an angle of does not change the position or size of a
shape, the points A, B, C, D, and E are the same for two angles whose
difference is an integer multiple of . Thus trigonometric functions are periodic
functions with period . That is, the equalities

and

hold for any angle θ and any integer k. The same is true for the four other
trigonometric functions. By observing the sign and the monotonicity of the
functions sine, cosine, cosecant, and secant in the four quadrants, one can show
Signs of trigonometric functions in
that 2π is the smallest value for which they are periodic (i.e., 2π is the
each quadrant. The mnemonic "all
fundamental period of these functions). However, after a rotation by an angle ,
science teachers (are) crazy" lists
the points B and C already return to their original position, so that the tangent the functions which are positive from
function and the cotangent function have a fundamental period of π . That is, the
quadrants I to IV.[9] This is a
equalities variation on the mnemonic "All
Students Take Calculus".
and

hold for any angle θ and any integer k.

Algebraic values
The algebraic expressions for the most important angles are as
follows:

(straight angle)

Trigonometric functions: Sine, Cosine, Tangent,

Cosecant (dotted), Secant (dotted), Cotangent
(dotted) – animation (https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/2/27/Trigonometric_functions_
derivation_animation.svg)

(right angle)

Writing the numerators as square roots of consecutive non-negative

integers, with a denominator of 2, provides an easy way to
remember the values.[11]

Such simple expressions generally do not exist for other angles

which are rational multiples of a right angle. For an angle which,
measured in degrees, is a multiple of three, the sine and the cosine
may be expressed in terms of square roots, see Trigonometric
constants expressed in real radicals. These values of the sine and the
cosine may thus be constructed by ruler and compass.

For an angle of an integer number of degrees, the sine and the cosine
may be expressed in terms of square roots and the cube root of a
non-real complex number. Galois theory allows proving that, if the
angle is not a multiple of 3°, non-real cube roots are unavoidable.
The unit circle, with some points labeled with their
For an angle which, measured in degrees, is a rational number, the cosine and sine (in this order), and the
sine and the cosine are algebraic numbers, which may be expressed corresponding angles in radians and degrees.
in terms of n th roots. This results from the fact that the Galois groups
of the cyclotomic polynomials are cyclic.

For an angle which, measured in degrees, is not a rational number, then either the angle or both the sine and the cosine are
transcendental numbers. This is a corollary of Baker's theorem, proved in 1966.

Simple algebraic values

The following table summarizes the simplest algebraic values of trigonometric functions.[12] The symbol represents the
point at infinity on the projectively extended real line; it is not signed, because, when it appears in the table, the
corresponding trigonometric function tends to on one side, and to on the other side, when the argument tends to
the value in the table.

Radian Degree sin cos tan cot sec cosec

0°
π
12 15°

π
10
18°

π
8
22.5°

π
6 30°

π
5
36°

π
4 45°

3π
10
54°

π
3 60°

3π
8
67.5°

2π
5
72°

5π
12 75°

π
2
90°

In calculus
The modern trend in mathematics is to build geometry from calculus rather than the converse. Therefore, except at a very
elementary level, trigonometric functions are defined using the methods of calculus.

Trigonometric functions are differentiable and analytic at every point where they are defined; that is, everywhere for the
sine and the cosine, and, for the tangent, everywhere except at π/2 + kπ for every integer k.
The trigonometric function are periodic functions, and their primitive period is 2π
for the sine and the cosine, and π for the tangent, which is increasing in each
open interval (π/2 + kπ, π/2 + (k + 1)π). At each end point of these intervals,
the tangent function has a vertical asymptote.

In calculus, there are two equivalent definitions of trigonometric functions, either

using power series or differential equations. These definitions are equivalent, as
starting from one of them, it is easy to retrieve the other as a property. However
the definition through differential equations is somehow more natural, since, for Graphs of sine, cosine and tangent
example, the choice of the coefficients of the power series may appear as quite
arbitrary, and the Pythagorean identity is much easier to deduce from the
differential equations.

Definition by differential equations

Sine and cosine can be defined as the unique solution to the initial value problem:

The sine function (blue) is closely

Differentiating again, and approximated by its Taylor
polynomial of degree 7 (pink) for a
, so both sine and cosine are solutions of the full cycle centered on the origin.
ordinary differential equation

Applying the quotient rule to the tangent , we derive

Power series expansion Animation for the approximation of

cosine via Taylor polynomials.
Applying the differential equations to power series with indeterminate
coefficients, one may deduce recurrence relations for the coefficients of the
Taylor series of the sine and cosine functions. These recurrence relations are easy
to solve, and give the series expansions[13]

together with the first Taylor

polynomials

The radius of convergence of these series is infinite. Therefore, the sine and the cosine can be extended to entire functions
(also called "sine" and "cosine"), which are (by definition) complex-valued functions that are defined and holomorphic on
the whole complex plane.
Being defined as fractions of entire functions, the other trigonometric functions may be extended to meromorphic
functions, that is functions that are holomorphic in the whole complex plane, except some isolated points called poles.
Here, the poles are the numbers of the form for the tangent and the secant, or for the cotangent and the
cosecant, where k is an arbitrary integer.

Recurrences relations may also be computed for the coefficients of the Taylor series of the other trigonometric functions.
These series have a finite radius of convergence. Their coefficients have a combinatorial interpretation: they enumerate
alternating permutations of finite sets.[14]

More precisely, defining

Un, the nth up/down number,

Bn, the nth Bernoulli number, and
En, is the nth Euler number,

one has the following series expansions:[15]

Partial fraction expansion

There is a series representation as partial fraction expansion where just translated reciprocal functions are summed up,
such that the poles of the cotangent function and the reciprocal functions match:[16]

This identity can be proven with the Herglotz trick.[17] Combining the (–n)th with the n th term lead to absolutely
convergent series:
Similarly, one can find a partial fraction expansion for the secant, cosecant and tangent functions:

Infinite product expansion

The following infinite product for the sine is of great importance in complex analysis:

For the proof of this expansion, see Sine. From this, it can be deduced that

Relationship to exponential function (Euler's formula)

Euler's formula relates sine and cosine to the exponential function:

This formula is commonly considered for real values of x, but it remains true for
all complex values.

Proof: Let and One has

for j = 1, 2 . The quotient rule implies thus that
. Therefore, is a constant function, which equals 1, as
This proves the formula. and are the real and
imaginary part of respectively.
One has

Solving this linear system in sine and cosine, one can express them in terms of the exponential function:

When x is real, this may be rewritten as

Most trigonometric identities can be proved by expressing trigonometric functions in terms of the complex exponential
function by using above formulas, and then using the identity for simplifying the result.

Definitions using functional equations

One can also define the trigonometric functions using various functional equations.

For example,[18] the sine and the cosine form the unique pair of continuous functions that satisfy the difference formula

and the added condition

In the complex plane

The sine and cosine of a complex number can be expressed in terms of real sines, cosines, and hyperbolic
functions as follows:

By taking advantage of domain coloring, it is possible to graph the trigonometric functions as complex-valued functions.
Various features unique to the complex functions can be seen from the graph; for example, the sine and cosine functions
can be seen to be unbounded as the imaginary part of becomes larger (since the color white represents infinity), and the
fact that the functions contain simple zeros or poles is apparent from the fact that the hue cycles around each zero or pole
exactly once. Comparing these graphs with those of the corresponding Hyperbolic functions highlights the relationships
between the two.

Trigonometric functions in the complex plane

Basic identities
Many identities interrelate the trigonometric functions. This section contains the most basic ones; for more identities, see
List of trigonometric identities. These identities may be proved geometrically from the unit-circle definitions or the right-
angled-triangle definitions (although, for the latter definitions, care must be taken for angles that are not in the interval
[0, π/2], see Proofs of trigonometric identities). For non-geometrical proofs using only tools of calculus, one may use
directly the differential equations, in a way that is similar to that of the above proof of Euler's identity. One can also use
Euler's identity for expressing all trigonometric functions in terms of complex exponentials and using properties of the
exponential function.

Parity

The cosine and the secant are even functions; the other trigonometric functions are odd functions. That is:

Periods

All trigonometric functions are periodic functions of period 2π . This is the smallest period, except for the tangent and the
cotangent, which have π as smallest period. This means that, for every integer k, one has

Pythagorean identity

The Pythagorean identity, is the expression of the Pythagorean theorem in terms of trigonometric functions. It is
Sum and difference formulas

The sum and difference formulas allow expanding the sine, the cosine, and the tangent of a sum or a difference of two
angles in terms of sines and cosines and tangents of the angles themselves. These can be derived geometrically, using
arguments that date to Ptolemy. One can also produce them algebraically using Euler's formula.

Sum

Difference

When the two angles are equal, the sum formulas reduce to simpler equations known as the double-angle formulae.

These identities can be used to derive the product-to-sum identities.

By setting all trigonometric functions of can be expressed as rational fractions of :

Together with

this is the tangent half-angle substitution, which reduces the computation of integrals and antiderivatives of trigonometric
functions to that of rational fractions.

Derivatives and antiderivatives

The derivatives of trigonometric functions result from those of sine and cosine by applying quotient rule. The values given
for the antiderivatives in the following table can be verified by differentiating them. The number C is a constant of
integration.
Alternatively, the derivatives of the 'co-functions' can be obtained using trigonometric identities and the chain rule:

Inverse functions
The trigonometric functions are periodic, and hence not injective, so strictly speaking, they do not have an inverse
function. However, on each interval on which a trigonometric function is monotonic, one can define an inverse function,
and this defines inverse trigonometric functions as multivalued functions. To define a true inverse function, one must
restrict the domain to an interval where the function is monotonic, and is thus bijective from this interval to its image by
the function. The common choice for this interval, called the set of principal values, is given in the following table. As
usual, the inverse trigonometric functions are denoted with the prefix "arc" before the name or its abbreviation of the
function.

The notations sin −1, cos−1, etc. are often used for arcsin and arccos, etc. When this notation is used, inverse functions
could be confused with multiplicative inverses. The notation with the "arc" prefix avoids such a confusion, though
"arcsec" for arcsecant can be confused with "arcsecond".

Just like the sine and cosine, the inverse trigonometric functions can also be expressed in terms of infinite series. They can
also be expressed in terms of complex logarithms.

Applications

Angles and sides of a triangle

In this sections A, B, C denote the three (interior) angles of a triangle, and a , b , c denote the lengths of the respective
opposite edges. They are related by various formulas, which are named by the trigonometric functions they involve.

Law of sines
The law of sines states that for an arbitrary triangle with sides a , b , and c and angles opposite those sides A, B and C:

where Δ is the area of the triangle, or, equivalently,

where R is the triangle's circumradius.

It can be proven by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the above definition of sine. The law of sines is
useful for computing the lengths of the unknown sides in a triangle if two angles and one side are known. This is a
common situation occurring in triangulation, a technique to determine unknown distances by measuring two angles and
an accessible enclosed distance.

Law of cosines

The law of cosines (also known as the cosine formula or cosine rule) is an extension of the Pythagorean theorem:

or equivalently,

In this formula the angle at C is opposite to the side c. This theorem can be proven by dividing the triangle into two right
ones and using the Pythagorean theorem.

The law of cosines can be used to determine a side of a triangle if two sides and the angle between them are known. It can
also be used to find the cosines of an angle (and consequently the angles themselves) if the lengths of all the sides are
known.

Law of tangents

The following all form the law of tangents[19]

The explanation of the formulae in words would be cumbersome, but the patterns of sums and differences, for the lengths
and corresponding opposite angles, are apparent in the theorem.

Law of cotangents

If

(the radius of the inscribed circle for the triangle)

and

(the semi-perimeter for the triangle),

then the following all form the law of cotangents[19]

It follows that

In words the theorem is: the cotangent of a half-angle equals the ratio of the semi-perimeter minus the opposite side to the
said angle, to the inradius for the triangle.

Periodic functions

The trigonometric functions are also important in physics. The sine and the cosine
functions, for example, are used to describe simple harmonic motion, which
models many natural phenomena, such as the movement of a mass attached to a
spring and, for small angles, the pendular motion of a mass hanging by a string.
The sine and cosine functions are one-dimensional projections of uniform circular
motion.

Trigonometric functions also prove to be useful in the study of general periodic

functions. The characteristic wave patterns of periodic functions are useful for
modeling recurring phenomena such as sound or light waves.[20]
A Lissajous curve, a figure formed
with a trigonometry-based function.
Under rather general conditions, a periodic function f(x) can be expressed as a
sum of sine waves or cosine waves in a Fourier series.[21] Denoting the sine or
cosine basis functions by φ k, the expansion of the periodic
function f(t) takes the form:

For example, the square wave can be written as the Fourier

series

An animation of the additive synthesis of a square wave

with an increasing number of harmonics

In the animation of a square wave at top right it can be seen

that just a few terms already produce a fairly good approximation. The superposition of several terms in the expansion of a
sawtooth wave are shown underneath.

History
While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the
trigonometric functions as they are in use today were developed in the
medieval period. The chord function was discovered by Hipparchus of
Nicaea (180–125 BCE) and Ptolemy of Roman Egypt (90–165 CE).
The functions of sine and versine (1 – cosine) can be traced back to the
jyā and koti-jyā functions used in Gupta period Indian astronomy
(Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta), via translation from Sanskrit to Arabic
and then from Arabic to Latin.[22] (See Aryabhata's sine table.)

All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic

mathematics by the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving
triangles.[23] With the exception of the sine (which was adopted from
Indian mathematics), the other five modern trigonometric functions
were discovered by Persian and Arab mathematicians, including the
cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant.[23] Al-Khwārizmī (c.
780–850) produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents. Circa 830,
Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi discovered the cotangent, and produced
tables of tangents and cotangents.[24][25] Muhammad ibn Jābir al-
Harrānī al-Battānī (853–929) discovered the reciprocal functions of
secant and cosecant, and produced the first table of cosecants for each
degree from 1° to 90°.[25] The trigonometric functions were later Sinusoidal basis functions (bottom) can form a
studied by mathematicians including Omar Khayyám, Bhāskara II, sawtooth wave (top) when added. All the basis
functions have nodes at the nodes of the
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Jamshīd al-Kāshī (14th century), Ulugh Beg (14th
sawtooth, and all but the fundamental (k = 1)
century), Regiomontanus (1464), Rheticus, and Rheticus' student
have additional nodes. The oscillation seen
Valentinus Otho.
about the sawtooth when k is large is called the
Gibbs phenomenon
Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1400) made early strides in the analysis
of trigonometric functions in terms of infinite series.[26] (See Madhava
series and Madhava's sine table.)

The terms tangent and secant were first introduced by the Danish mathematician Thomas Fincke in his book Geometria
rotundi (1583).[27]

The 17th century French mathematician Albert Girard made the first published use of the abbreviations sin, cos, and tan in
his book Trigonométrie.[28]

In a paper published in 1682, Leibniz proved that sin x is not an algebraic function of x.[29] Though introduced as ratios
of sides of a right triangle, and thus appearing to be rational functions, Leibnitz result established that they are actually
transcendental functions of their argument. The task of assimilating circular functions into algebraic expressions was
accomplished by Euler in his Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite (1748). His method was to show that the sine and
cosine functions are alternating series formed from the even and odd terms respectively of the exponential series. He
presented "Euler's formula", as well as near-modern abbreviations (sin., cos., tang., cot., sec., and cosec.).[22]

A few functions were common historically, but are now seldom used, such as the chord, the versine (which appeared in
the earliest tables[22]), the coversine, the haversine,[30] the exsecant and the excosecant. The list of trigonometric identities
shows more relations between these functions.

crd(θ) = 2 sin( θ2 )
versin(θ) = 1 − cos(θ) = 2 sin2( θ2 )
coversin(θ) = 1 − sin(θ) = versin( π2 − θ)
haversin(θ) = 12 versin(θ) = sin2( θ2 )
exsec(θ) = sec(θ) − 1
excsc(θ) = exsec( π2 − θ) = csc(θ) − 1
Etymology
The word sine derives[31] from Latin sinus, meaning "bend; bay", and more specifically "the hanging fold of the upper
part of a toga", "the bosom of a garment", which was chosen as the translation of what was interpreted as the Arabic word
jaib, meaning "pocket" or "fold" in the twelfth-century translations of works by Al-Battani and al-Khwārizmī into
Medieval Latin.[32] The choice was based on a misreading of the Arabic written form j-y-b (‫)ﺟﻴﺐ‬, which itself originated
as a transliteration from Sanskrit jīvā, which along with its synonym jyā (the standard Sanskrit term for the sine) translates
to "bowstring", being in turn adopted from Ancient Greek χορδή "string".[33]

The word tangent comes from Latin tangens meaning "touching", since the line touches the circle of unit radius, whereas
secant stems from Latin secans—"cutting"—since the line cuts the circle.[34]

The prefix "co-" (in "cosine", "cotangent", "cosecant") is found in Edmund Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620), which
defines the cosinus as an abbreviation for the sinus complementi (sine of the complementary angle) and proceeds to define
the cotangens similarly.[35][36]

See also
All Students Take Calculus – a mnemonic for recalling the signs of trigonometric functions in a particular
quadrant of a Cartesian plane
Bhaskara I's sine approximation formula
Differentiation of trigonometric functions
Generalized trigonometry
Generating trigonometric tables
Hyperbolic function
List of integrals of trigonometric functions
List of periodic functions
List of trigonometric identities
Polar sine – a generalization to vertex angles
Proofs of trigonometric identities
Versine – for several less used trigonometric functions

Notes
1. Klein, Christian Felix (1924) [1902]. Elementarmathematik vom höheren Standpunkt aus: Arithmetik,
Algebra, Analysis (in German). 1 (3rd ed.). Berlin: J. Springer.
2. Klein, Christian Felix (2004) [1932]. Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint: Arithmetic,
Algebra, Analysis (https://books.google.com/books?id=8KuoxgykfbkC). Translated by Hedrick, E. R.;
Noble, C. A. (Translation of 3rd German ed.). Dover Publications, Inc. / The Macmillan Company.
ISBN 978-0-48643480-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180215144848/https://books.google.c
om/books?id=8KuoxgykfbkC) from the original on 2018-02-15. Retrieved 2017-08-13.
3. Protter & Morrey (1970, pp. APP-2, APP-3)
4. "Sine, Cosine, Tangent" (https://www.mathsisfun.com/sine-cosine-tangent.html). www.mathsisfun.com.
Retrieved 2020-08-29.
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kfupm.edu.sa/PHYS/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic_astronomy.htm). Scientific American. Vol. 254. p. 74.
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Gerard of Cremona's translation of the Algebra of al-Khwārizmī
Robert of Chester's 1145 translation of the tables of al-Khwārizmī
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34. Oxford English Dictionary
35. Gunter, Edmund (1620). Canon triangulorum.
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External links
"Trigonometric functions" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Trigonometric_functions),
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
Visionlearning Module on Wave Mathematics (http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?
mid=131&l=&c3=)
GonioLab (https://web.archive.org/web/20071006172054/http://glab.trixon.se/) Visualization of the unit
circle, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
q-Sine (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/q-Sine.html) Article about the q-analog of sin at MathWorld
q-Cosine (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/q-Cosine.html) Article about the q-analog of cos at MathWorld

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