GREEN VALLEY COLLEGE FOUNDATION INCORPORATED

School of Education
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

Note: This learning module was developed and is intended to be used in the
course Educ. 142 – The Teacher and the School Curriculum. Use the
material properly and respect the owner of this document.

Module 4:
Curriculum Implementation Models

Introduction

Learning Module 4 explores and discusses the various elements in the development of
curriculum vis-à-vis the curriculum development stages, the different key players in the
curriculum development, as well as the goals and objectives of the curriculum.

As educational leaders and managers, understanding the process of curriculum

development and the roles played by the different stakeholders in the crafting of the curriculum
are important. These elements are essential in the different stages of the development process.
Equally important as well is the determination of the philosophy, the aims, goals and objectives
of the curriculum. These concepts shape the curriculum to be crafted. However, all of these
concepts and process boil down to the implementation of the crafted curriculum.

Module Contents

In this module, the contents include discussions on the topics about the different
curriculum implementation models and the principles in selecting and implementing strategies of
instructions.

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

a.) acquire understanding in differentiating the different curriculum implementation

models;
b.) discuss various principles and strategies in selecting and implementing instructions
used in the classrooms; and,
c.) share experiences in selecting and implementing instructional implementation
strategies.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION MODELS

Carlo C. Melendres, PhD

Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 In Learning Module 2, we discuss about the change process, as well as the barriers to
change. We note that in the change process, there are factors that we need to consider like the
current needs of the learners and the school community, the persons involved in the change
process, and the role of the teachers involved in the process.

By curriculum implementation, it means executing the crafted curriculum from the

national level to the schools, and eventually to the respective classrooms. As a process, it
describes the dynamics on how various curriculum workers strive to do their functions in order to
attain the educational goals and objectives, programs and policies set by the country, the
region, division, district, and down to the school level. It is basically guided, just like the
curriculum design, by an educational philosophy (Pawilen, 2015).

The implementation process attempts to reduce the difference between existing practices
and the practice suggested by the curriculum innovators or change agents. In implies that the
proposed change will happen in stages and it takes time to win people over to a change
(Leithwood, 1982).

As such, for effective implementation to happen, there must be effective communication

established. Without the cooperation of those who will implement the curriculum inside the
classroom, then the curriculum could not be successfully implemented. This is to avoid the “do
something, do anything syndrome.” If it is aimed at improving learners’ achievement, then
everyone must be involved in the change process
(http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/42535/1/Unit-4.pdf).

Ornstein and Hunkins (1998 in Reyes, et.al., 2015) describe the curriculum
implementation process as an interaction between the curriculum developers and those who are
charged to deliver it. Generally, in the implementation, the following could be observed:

a. Implementation requires educators to shift from the current program which they are
familiar with to the new or modified program.
b. Implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people.
c. Implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and growth
involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.
d. Implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to
understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviors; often involving using
new resources.
e. Implementation involves change which require effort and will produce a certain
amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into
manageable events and to set achievable goals.
f. Implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open
communication between administrators, teachers, educators, and where risk-taking is
encouraged.

In this module, we will discuss some of the different curriculum implementation models
used in implementing a curriculum.

Carlo C. Melendres, PhD

Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
1. Overcoming Resistance to Change (ORC). According to Yusof, Sidin, and Sihes
(n.d.), this model assumes that the success of the organization’s planned change is
dependent on the leader’s ability to overcome the resistance of the staff to change. In
this model, the Administrators, Directors and Supervisors are the key players in
implementing the change. In order to effect the change, leaders must address the
staff’s fears and doubts, take into consideration the values and perspectives of the
staff, and provide the administrators and teachers equal power particularly during
discussions and decision-makings.

It also rests on the assumption that the success of the implementation of the
curriculum depends on the impact that the developer can make on the consumers of
the curriculum – teachers, learners, and the society. If it is to succeed, then the
curriculum must address the misgivings of the people, their misapprehensions, or
other such related factors. Let it be known to them and let them understand that the
curriculum incorporates their values, assumptions and beliefs
(http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/42535/1/Unit-4.pdf).

2. Leadership-Obstacle Course Model (LOC) treats staff resistance to change as

problematic and proposes that data must be collected to determine the extent and
nature of the resistance. This can be done following the five conditions:

a. Members of the organization must have clear understanding of the proposed

innovation or change.
b. Individuals within the organization must be given relevant skills so that they
possess the capabilities requisite for carrying out the innovation.
c. The necessary materials and equipment for the innovation must be furnished.
d. The organizational structure must be modified so that it is compatible with the
innovation being suggested.
e. The participants in the innovation must be motivated to spend the required time
and effort to make the innovation a success.

The LOC Model is an expansion of the ORC Model. ORC Model is a two-way
model of implementing the curriculum: Initiation and Incorporation, whereas the LOC
extended it as initiation, attempted implementation, and incorporation of the change
or innovation.

3. Organizational Development Model (OD) puts emphasis on teamwork and

organizational culture as means to effect the change (Yusof, Sidin, and Sihes (n.d.).
There are seven characteristics of this model; namely,

a. Emphasis on teamwork for addressing issues

b. Emphasis on group and intergroup processes
c. Use of action research
d. Collaboration within the organization
e. Organization’s culture must be considered
f. Those in charge serve as consultants and facilitators
g. Appreciation of organization’s dynamics in a continuously changing environment

Carlo C. Melendres, PhD

Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
4. Linkage Model recognizes that there are innovators in research and development
centers, universities, etc. This model proposes a match between problems and
innovations through the establishment of linkages.

This model envisages two systems: user system and resource system. These two
must be linked. There has to be a link. A user needs a resource system where it can
retrieve all developed resources or educational packages. This process implies, for it
to be successful, to transfer knowledge to another
(http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/42535/1/Unit-4.pdf).

5. RCA Model or the Rand Change Agent Model suggests that organizational dynamics
seem to be the chief barriers to change. The ORC and LOC Models put forward
certain stages of the change process: initiation, implementation and incorporation. In
this model, the assumption is that success of the implementation is a function of the i.)
the characteristics of the proposed change; ii.) the abilities of the academic and
administrative staff; iii.) the readiness of the local community; and iv.) the
organizational structure. This means that for a change to continue to happen based
on the intended plan, then it should be provided with the necessary personnel and
financial support (http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/42535/1/Unit-4.pdf).

6. Concerns-Based Adoption (CBA). Yusof, Sidin, and Sihes (n.d.), opines that this
change model is based on the belief that change emanates from individuals. This
model only adopts the implementation of the curriculum but not the development and
design. It aims to enable teachers to adopt the curriculum and to view it as a product
of their own making. In this model, the curriculum is not implemented until teachers’
concerns have been adequately addressed. Teachers are expected to be creative
with it and modify where necessary, tailoring the curriculum to their learners’ contexts.
The following are stages of the model:

i) Awareness of innovation
ii) Awareness at informational level
iii) Concern for self
iv) Concern for teaching
v) Concern for learners.

7. Systems Model. In Yusof, Sidin, and Sihes (n.d.), they explain that the systems
model is based on the idea that the school is an organization of loosely coupled units,
departments, classrooms and individuals. These parts have flexible relationships. For
this reason, it is very difficult to implement the proposed change from the central down
to the school level. To promote this model, the following wise words are suggested:

i) Progress from certainty to ambiguity

ii) Allow for come chaos in your order
iii) Look beyond the person to the behavior
iv) Realize that people feel victimized resist change
v) Use your fallibility to build your credibility

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 vi) Be sensitive
vii) Upgrade permanent to temporary
viii) Have humor

Factors that Influence Curriculum Implementation

The implementation of a curriculum could be affected by various factors. These

factors are based on two basic questions: what will the new curriculum significantly
benefit and can it be implemented successfully? To answer these questions, educational
leaders and managers must identify the critical factors affecting its implementation.

Reyes, et.al., (2015) identify the following factors: teachers, learners, school
leaders, parents, resource materials and facilities, interest groups, the school
environment, culture and ideology, and assessment.

Teachers affect curriculum implementation by their knowledge, expertise,

experience and competencies. They are central to any curriculum change efforts. They
are the ones that influence learners’ learning. Indulging them into professional
development programs is a key to help improve teachers perform better. There is a need
to professionally them by improving their knowledge-base, adequacy, interest and
motivation. Some of the programs that can be offered are: program philosophy, content,
pedagogy, and components of programs. Nowadays, in the Department of Education, we
are promoting the School Learning Action Cell (SLAC) as one of the avenues to help
promote professional development among teachers and administrators.

Learners are the center of curriculum innovations and reforms. However, there is a
tendency to ignore them as agents of change. Learners must see the importance and
connection of the program into their individual lives; otherwise, they will not participate in
the change efforts.

Principals or School Heads are important players in the whole curriculum

implementation process in the schools. School Heads must:

 understand the need for change as well as the steps that have to be
undertaken for change to happen.
 have in-depth knowledge about the planned change and of the implementation
process. They should be familiar about the goals and components of the
curriculum and be able to see a shift in teachers’ role in the classroom and the
way in which teachers interact with learners.
 be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved in the process.
A two-way communication flow must be established to make them always on
top of the issues to be addressed. Communication lines must be open so that
information could be easily accessed.
 be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum and how the
new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful to their children.

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
  keep in mind that even the best laid plans can meet unexpected challenges. A
flexible implementation plan may be necessary which is adapted and revisited
along the way.
 be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of leadership
strategies to meet the needs of the teachers such as: building on the strengths
of their staff, being willing to take risks; being positive about the planned
change and to use this optimism to motivate others.

Parents also play an important role in the implementation of the curriculum. The
new program must be embraced by the parents. This can be done by organizing parents’
workshops for them to understand the new curriculum and how they can be of help in
implementing it to their children’s education. Their point of views about the school’s
curriculum must be heard, and they need to know what is going on inside the classrooms
of their children.

Resource Materials and Equipment/Facilities. Teaching and learning cannot

meaningfully happen without adequate resource materials. The availability of facilities
and other resource materials greatly influence the implementation of a curriculum. As
such, the higher-level authorities of an institution or government and all other authorities
must supply and allocate funds for procurement of these resources, the building of
classrooms and purchase of facilities. These are essential for curriculum implementation
to successfully happen.

Interest Groups could influence the implementation of the curriculum in three

ways: provision of financial assistance to schools for the procurement of required
materials/resources, demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum, and
influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interest of the group.

The school environment can also affect the implementation of a curriculum. A

school in the hinterland could not implement the curriculum to the full extent compared to
schools in the highly urbanized or urbanized places where resources are available and
ample. For instance, all of the tracks and strands of the K to 12 BEP could be offered in
some schools due to limited resources like facilities, equipment and personnel to handle
the subjects, and given the number of learners and the context of the community.

Cultural and Ideological differences within a society or country can also influence
curriculum implementation by resisting a domineering culture or government ideology. In
this scenario, the centrally planned curriculum’s implementation could be affected.

Assessment, like examinations, influences curriculum implementation

tremendously. As results affect the perceptions on the school performance, some schools
and teachers focus more on those competencies and standards that are tested resulting
in the non-teaching of other competencies and standards. This affects the achievement of
the broad goals and objectives of the curriculum. For instance, NAT Results, TIMSS, and
PISA showed dismal results that schools are being advised to develop mechanisms to
address the gaps in performance among the learners. As a result, there are efforts to

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 conduct review of classes, identify the Least Mastered Competencies (LMCs) for
remedial programs, formulation of TIMSS-based or PISA-based review materials, etc.

Implementing the Curriculum in the Classroom Level

Any curriculum reform will always go down to its final destiny – the classroom. The
decision-making process shifts now from the curriculum developers to the responsibility of the
teachers. Teachers must now decide what instructional strategies to be used and how
instructions will be implemented (Reyes, et.al., 2015).

Petrina (in press), opines that in implementing the curriculum in the classroom, one has
to think about a system. Instructional systems involve decisions related to what will be taught,
how it will be organized for learning and how learning will be assessed.

Determination of
Instructional
Specification of Strategy
Content
Organisation of
Groups

Assessment of
Allocation of Evaluation of
Entering
Time Performance
Behaviours

Allocation of
Learning Space
Specification of
Objectives
Selection of Analysis of
Resources Feedback

Figure 1. Instructional system as proposed by Petrina.

The diagram introduces us to the instructional system and its complexities, as well as to
show us the interrelations among the components of an instructional system. Further, one may
isolate a system and yet we cannot eliminate the interrelations among this system and others.

Wiles & Bondi (2011) talk about two levels of classroom planning in implementing the
curriculum: preparation and delivery.

Teachers need to prepare: instructional time, activities and grouping patterns among the
learners, classroom management, resources and media to be used in the delivery of content.

Teachers deliver the content. This is more detailed and requires the selection of activities
based on philosophy and learning theory. In the delivery of the content, teachers need to
establish a secure, sound and safe learning environment, provide a personal and caring

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
program of studies, plan a developmentally appropriate delivery of the content, use the best of
tools, research and methods, and implement a program which is focused on high academic
standards.

Selecting Instructional Strategies and Implementing Instructions

Instruction in the classroom is a subset of curriculum. Organizing and preparing

teaching is important in delivering the intent of the curriculum plan which rationalizes
instruction (Wiles & Bondi, 2011). Classroom planning, then, is important in achieving the
goals and targets set in the curriculum. Teachers must be able to translate the curriculum
plan into the actual teaching-learning. Teachers must use instructional strategies in
implementing instructions inside the classroom.

Selecting strategies to be used shall be within the confines of the instructional

goals and objectives. A goal is a statement about what the learners should be able to
perform while an objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each
learner in the class. Generally, these strategies include multiple procedures or techniques
(Oliva & Gordon, II).

Alberta Learning (2002) also defines instructional strategies as techniques that

teachers use to help learners become independent, strategic learners. Instructional
strategies can motivate students and help them focus attention, organize information for
understanding and remembering; and monitor and assess learning. They can be used
across levels and subject areas, and can accommodate a range of student differences.

Jackson (n.d.) suggests that one important prerequisite for effective teaching must
be mastery of the subject. Strategies are necessary to help the learners achieve the goals
and objectives of the curriculum. Every class is different dynamic and needs; thus, an
effective teacher must make the necessary adjustments. As such, learning plans must be
flexible enough to accommodate changes in strategies. The following are suggested:

1. Begin with objectives. One cannot correctly identify an appropriate strategy to

be used when the objective or objectives is not clear. Remember, an objective
is the outcome you want your learners to achieve.

2. Align the teaching strategies to the objectives. Once the objectives are
established, the teaching strategies could now be identified. Both must be
aligned for effective teaching-learning to happen.

3. Align assessment strategy to the objectives. Aligning the assessment strategy

with the teaching-learning objectives will spell-out the difference between
achievement or non-achievement of the goals of the curriculum.

4. Make modifications to the teaching strategies and assessments upon knowing

the strengths of the learners. Effective teaching-learning relies on the
responsiveness of the content to the needs and interests of the learners; to

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 their strengths and capacities. Hence, it is important to modify the teaching-
learning and assessment strategies to match with the levels of the learners.

On the other hand, Petrina (n.d.) identifies four different models of instructional
strategies that could be used in the teaching-learning process:

1. Didactic – Direct Teaching; Verbal and typically in the form of a lecture or

presentation.
2. Modeling – Direct Teaching; Visual and typically in the form of demonstration
and practice
3. Managerial – Indirect or Interactive Teaching; Facilitation, individualization and
group management
4. Dialogic – Indirect or Interactive Teaching; Socratic Technique dialogue,
questions and thought provocations

Direct Instruction models, the teacher imparts knowledge and demonstrates a skill
while in the Indirect Instruction models, the teacher sets-up strategies, but does not teach
directly. It is the learners who will make meaning for themselves on the content taught to
them.

Interactive Instruction models, the learners interact with each other and with the
information and materials. The role of the teacher is to organize and facilitate the
teaching-learning process.

Experiential Learning models allow learners to experience and feel provided in the
content. They are actively involved in the whole process of the teaching-learning.

Independent Study models allow the learners to interact with the content more or
less exclusive of externa control of the teacher. There are three methods for this model:
transmissive teaching, which means that the teachers are directly involved by delivering
the status quo content via some method of like lecture or demonstration; transactive
teaching which allows the teacher and the learners to arrive at a status quo content to be
learned through transactions and dialogue; and transformative teaching which a
combination of transmissive and transactive models which the teacher and learners reject
the status quo content and focus on a transformation of themselves or their world.

Guidelines in Selecting Strategies. Oliva & Gordon II (2013) provide the

following guidelines in selecting the strategies to be used:

o the learners. The strategies must meet their needs and interests and must
be in keeping with their learning styles.
o the teacher. The strategy must work for the individual teacher.
o the subject matter. Artificial respiration, for example, is taught more
effectively by demonstration and practice than by lecturing.
o the time available. For example, scientific experiment requiring and
extended period of time (several days) is not possible if sufficient time is not
available.

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Educ. 257-Curriculum Planning
 o the resources available. Reference materials, for example, must be
available if students are required to carry out research projects that
necessitate their use.
o the facilities. Dividing a class into small groups for discussion purposes, for
example, may be impractical if the room is small, if acoustic is poor, and if
furniture is not movable.
o the objectives. The strategy must be chosen to fulfill the instructional
objectives.

Organizing for Instruction. Oliva & Gordon II (2013) list down the components in
planning for instruction: goals, objectives, strategies, learning resources, evaluation
techniques.

Reyes, et.al., (2015) reiterate that in planning for instruction, Lesson Plans are
used to guide the teachers in the delivery of the content. Lesson Plan is used to “outline
in advance of teaching so that there will be no waste of time and resources.”

Oliva & Gordon II (2013) also point out that Lesson Plans chart the daily
instructions happening inside the classroom. They are considered of higher in quality,
better organized, and more complete. They can be achieved often compared to Unit
Plans.

Presentation of Instruction. Oliva & Gordon II (2013) point out that after
organizing instructions, teachers will proceed to deliver the instructional plan. Teachers
can now apply the planned strategies in the conduct of actual teaching and learning. In
doing so, teachers can utilize various delivery models.

Individualized versus Group Instruction. Individualized instruction must be

geared toward the needs of the individual learners. This strategy is seen on computer-
assisted instruction, programmed instructions, self-pacing, independent study, tutorials,
and guided independent study. Group instruction is a time-honored approach and is
considered more efficient and practical for the mass educational system than to
individualize instruction.

Underlying principle of adapting individualized instructions could be seen in the

philosophy and practices of: differentiated education (instruction/classroom),
constructivism, and scaffolding.

In differentiated teaching, the teacher creates a differentiated classroom

environment that provides multiple pathways for students to comprehend the material,
promote thinking and learning, and to produce student work that demonstrates
knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.

In Constructivism, on the other hand, the teacher who engages in constructive

techniques of instructions starts with the knowledge learners bring with them to the
classroom and leads the learners to constructing new knowledge. Using thought-

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 provoking questions and activities, constructivist teachers provide many opportunities for
students to process their learnings.

Scaffolding is using coaching techniques, pacing and sequencing the learnings,

and supplying help when necessary. Teachers assist learners incrementally toward
achieving objectives.

Technology in Instruction is the use of modern technologies in the conduct of

instructions inside the classroom. It is imperative for learners to be able to function in a
variety of media literacies. Through the use of modern technology, online learning can
reach non-traditional learners by providing opportunities to engage both the learner and
the teacher. Some examples of these online platforms are: traditional online programs
and blended learning programs.

Cooperative Learning. This is also referred to as collaborative learning. It

emphasizes the positive aspect of heterogeneously grouped learners working together to
help each other. Individuals, using cooperative learning, are responsible to their group for
the group’s progress. In implementing this approach, teachers are reminded to take into
consideration whether the facilities are conducive to cooperative activity; whether
learners possess the ability to work together, sharing responsibility for the group’s
endeavors; or whether some training in group processes is required.

Worksheet #4

Please answer Worksheet No. 4. After accomplishing the worksheet, submit your answer
via email to [email protected].

Reminder: Please read in advance Learning Module 5.

References

Alberta Learning (2002). Instructional strategies. Health and Life Skills Guide to Implementation
(K-9). Alberta, Canada. Retrieved on June 10, 2020 from
https://education.alberta.ca/media/482311/is.pdf

Bilbao, P.P., Lucido, P.I., Iringan, T.C., and Javier, R.B. (2008). Curriculum development.
Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City, Metro Manila.

Curriculum implementation and evaluation. Retrieved on June 10, 2020 from

http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/42535/1/Unit-4.pdf

Jackson, D. K. (n.d.). Steps towards selecting instructional strategies that promote academic
achievement. Retrieved on June 10, 2020 from

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 https://academic.csuohio.edu/jackson_d/Dossier/Scholarship/Publications/
Engaged_Learning/EnagedLearningJournalArticleDraft.pdf

Leithwood, K. (1982). Studies is curriculum decisionmaking. Toronto: Ontario Press.

Oliva, P.F. and Gordon II, W.R. (2013). Developing the curriculum 8 th Edition. Pearson
Education, Inc., New Jersey.

Pawilen, G.T. (2015). Curriculum development: A guide for teachers and students 1 st Edition.
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Petrina, S. (in press). Instructional methods and learning styles. Curriculum and instruction for
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Reyes, E., Dizon, E. and Villena, D.K. (2015). Curriculum development. Adriana Printing Co.,
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The Southern African Development Community. (2000). Curriculum theory, design and
assessment Module 13. The Commonwealth of Learning. Retrieved on June 10, 2020 from
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Wiles, J.W. and Bondi, J.C. (2011). Curriculum development: A guide to practice 8 th Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey.

Yusof, S. M., Sidin, Z. and Sihes, A. J. (n.d.) MPF 1433 Curriculum planning and management:
curriculum implementation. Opencourseware. Univeristi Technologi Malaya. Retrieved on
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NTATION.pdf

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