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 WOMENS' LIBERATION IN LABOUR HISTORY
A Case Study, from Nottingham '
------i____..____.___________
by Jo O ’Brien

In this pamphlet we are discussing the economic,

social and political roles of women and children in
working class life in Nottingham and elsewhere in
the nineteenth century.

There has been some recognition of the way in

which women and children were integral to the
proletariat, and that they suffered working con-
ditions as appalling as those of men. But there has
not been an attempt to follow this through to their
participation in the area of class conflict. Histor-
ians, of course, are influenced by present day
i assumptions about women and children. They do
not expect to find female participation and leader-
ship in Labour History, so they do not find it. I am
not claiming that women and children played
exactly the same role as men in working class
activity. That would be too simplistic. What I am
suggesting is that the contradictions inside nine-
teenth century working class life were enormous.
On the one level there was the predominant social
philosophy of male dominance. On the other level,
there was an economic situation in which all the
members of the family were essential bread-
winners, and all members of the family were
directly involved in class exploitation and conflict
in their daily work. In present day thinking about
Labour History, these contradictions are ignored.
Even taking into account the strength of male
leadership in the nineteenth century, isn’t it rather
Published by The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, fantastical to imagine that when the whole of a
Bertrand Russell House, Gamble Street, Forest Road West class experienced the same embittering working
Nottingham NG7 4ET for The Spokesman. conditions, only one third of that class (the male
third) translated its frustrations into political
Printed by The Russell Press Ltd., Nottingham. (TU) 1/72 activity and desire for change?

3
 We know of the major role of women in the Women 1844, described the processes. “The work
Bread Riots that were scattered through the late is carried on very frequently twenty out of twenty
eighteenth and early nineteenth century of four hours . . . Two sets of men or lads are used in
Nottingham history. It is acceptable for women to such cases, each party taking five to six hours at
act over food prices because this accords with the once, called a shift, and thus everyone has ten to
idea that they are, and always have been, domestic twelve hours work per diem . . . Winding is done by
centred. We do not hear of the female trade young women, requires great care, and from the
unionists in that town, the women who_ formed the delicacy of the material used, and the continued
large Nottingham Female Political Union 1n 1838 fixing of the eyes on the metal to which it must be
to support Chartism and the numerous female adjusted, the sight is strained, weakened and
political associations that were scattered all over permanently injured.” But employed also in the
the country at the tlme. Such act1v1ty does not lace business were large numbers of women who
agree with common assumptions about the a- worked in the warehouses, at lace dressing,
political nature of women. The men, of course, mending and folding, and who at home worked at
were the accepted political leaders. How. else could drawing, scalloping and embroidering the lace. The
it be in our society. But there was a vital female conditions of the children in the lace factories were
participation in working class struggles that has savage; those of the women out-workers deplor-
been ignoged because of the failure to recognlse the able. They had to eat, they had to do it. Mrs.
contradictions that were basic to the lives of these Tonna adds, “Running, hemming, pearling as well
people. as mending are done by the needle and may be said
to employ nearly the whole female population of
To begin with, the labour force of both the the places where the business is carried on.” The
major industries of Nottingham, hosiery and lace, lace industry was centred in the actual town and
was not an adult male one. Every member of the drew many women from the surrounding areas, so
working class family, regardless of age, would be that in 1841 there were 4,018 more women than
employed in either one or the other. The man was men in Nottingham.
not the family breadwinner. Each member would
contribute financially, and each contribution was The second Report from the Children Employ-
essential to keep the family from starvation. The ment Commission 1843 gives the following des-
roles of wife, husband and children tnslde the cription of the daily life of a Mrs. Houghton,
family must have been more complex than they are a Nottingham lace worker. “Mrs. Houghton is a
today, and there must have been a much stronger lace drawer. She has four children, Harriet eight,
mutual understanding of the nature of the1r dally Anne six, Mary four and Eliza two. She begins
lives. If the dominance of the man was socially generally at six a.m. in the summer, seven in the
recognised, it certainly was not an economic fact. winter; in the former she goes on till dark,in the
latter till ten p.m. The two biggest children work
In the lace industry most of the machines were with the witness these hours, Mary beginning at the
worked in factories rather than houses. Baslcally, same time in the morning, but she leaves off about
the men would work the machines, the women eight p.m. . . . There is a mass of evidence all tend-
wound the thread, and the children threaded the ing to prove that thirteen or fourteen hours is the
machines. Mrs. Tonna, in her book, The Wrongs 0f s
ordinary work of these very young children . . .
4 5
Many mothers have told me that their hearts ache frequently worked a machine and Hayward men-
to send their children to work at such an early age, tions “Many women and young persons work
but they are compelled to do it to get bread for Messrs Brettles frames in the cotton works . . .
their families.” When the Nottingham lace trade There are many women working frames in Lamb-
suffered a collapse in 1837, a relief fund had to ley . . . In Southwell and neighbourhood many
support 22,000 people out of the 50,000 inhabi- women work on the frames. They are generally of
tants, so dependent were Nottingham workers on the families of frame work knitters . . . In Alfreton
lace. Even though the men worked the machines, nearly half the knitters frames are composed of
they would actually be a very small proportion of women and young persons.” F elkin, in his “His-
the labour force, for the census of 1844 revealed tory of the Machine Wrought Hosiery and Lace
that in all the branches of the lace industry in Manufacturers” describes visiting a female frame
Great Britain there were 15,876 women over work knitter in Leicester in 1844. He “found a
twenty, 6,040 girls under twenty, to compare with female at work between nine and ten at night; her
only 5,373 men and 1,082 boys. husband and two journey men at work above her
In the main industry, hosiery, both men and head up the step ladder over the kitchen place she
women worked machines, and women and children was occupying. Her age she gave to be fifty three.
were occupied in the essential tasks such as She had the appearance of being seventy; there
seaming ahd footing. The Report of the Frame were bones, sinews and skin, but no appearance of
Work Knitters Commission explains how essential flesh. She had been the mother of fifteen children,
the work of the wife and child was to the men who ten of whom, male and female, her husband and
made drawers and shirts at home. They did the herself had bred up to be stockingers. From sickness
winding and stitching. If they had not done this he in a morning she could not work before her
would have had to have paid someone else to do it breakfast of tea, but laboured at night till ten
before the finished article could be returned to the o’clock and her clear earnings were about two and
master hosier. In the case of shirts and drawers, six pence weekly.”
then, the finished product was that of the whole So, the economic organisation of the family was
family. If the women did not work in this way, and as follows: the husband was not the breadwinner,
did not operate a machine, then they took in he was only one of the breadwinners. In the case of
hosiery work such as seaming. Master hosier john the lace workers, the man may have worked the
Hayward described the employment of women in machine, but his wife and children worked hours
hosiery in the Nottingham area to the Commission just as long as his, in conditions as arduous and for
in the following words “Many females are em- wages which were absolutely necessary to keep the
ployed in the half hose branch seaming who are all family from starving. In the case of the drawer and
of them wives of the workmen . . . The hours of shirt makers, the family was the actual productive
work are from between six and seven in the unit, each member having a necessary function in
morning till ten or eleven. The masters are very relation to the finished article. Among the other
particular and the work is sent back if not well framework knitters, the woman was as likely to
donef’ work a machine as the man; the children worked
The women and young people, of course, the same hours as their parents, and again it was
the collective financial contribution that kept the

6 - 7
family alive. The labour force in many major 1843 at a meeting of frame work knitters delegates
industries in England at the time was not pre- in Nottingham there was a proposal to begin a
dominatly an adult male one. For instance, in the national union in which women and children were
cotton industry in 1835, there were 50,675 men, to be members. The women of Derby and Notting-
53,410 women, 53,843 youths, and 24,164 child- ham appear to have had a national reputation for
ren. Not only were women and children integral to militancy, for the Grand Lodge of Operative
the proletariat — in times of male unemployment Bonnet Makers passed a resolution in 1834 on
they were the proletariat. female workers which read as follows: “it is highly
desirable that every effort should be made to
We have established that women were integral to induce them to follow the example already so
the proletariat. Now we must consider their role in nobly shown to their sex by the females of Derby,
relation to class conflict. We forget that women Nottingham and other places and that consequent-
had the habit of organising. The Records of the ly we should offer them every encouragement and
Borough of Nottingham contain references such as assistance to form themselves into lodges for the
this -— “1801 Fcb. 22nd. The articles of the protection of their industry.”
Friendly Society of Females held at the house of
John Se Y mour known b Y the si 8n of the Seven But female militancy had long been a national
Stars in Cartergate is enrolled amongst the records situation. White, in the History Gazeteer 1832,
of this Session . . . . Jan 14th 1813, establishing of says that 1819 “was a year of great national
the Female Friendly Society at the Black Horse, distress and disaffection. Reform meetings were
Story St.” We know that they were members of held in all the principal towns and in Lancashire
trades unions, for a report on the proceedings of Female Reform Societies were formed.” The
the public meeting held on Monday 31st March Chartists General Convention had a continuous
1834 in regard to a sentence of transportation correspondence from the Bath Female Political
passed on six members of trades unions at Dor- Union. The Convention sent out questidnnaires to
chester, reads as follows: “Previous to the breaking Chartists all over the country, asking among other
up of the meeting a large body of female unionists, things, about their political societies. These are
who had met in Nottingham that afternoon for the some of the answers: “Bradford, a working mans
purpose of petitioning the Queen to intercede on association with 517 male members and 324
behalf of the unfortunate men at Dorchester came female members: Farfar, one male Political Union,
out to the Forest and were greeted with three one Female Political Union; Brechin, one male
hearty cheers from their brethren in Union, with political union, one female.” In the journal The
whom they afterwards walked in procession to the Union, 1842——1843, which contained a series of
market place where after singing a portion of a articles on women in the working class, we are
hymn the whole assemblage quietly dispersed.” given a proper understanding of the role of work-
There was for a short time a lacemakers union and ing women in class confrontation. On the strikes in
in 1840 four hundred female outworkers struck, Lancashire, Staffs and Yorkshire we read “It is a
but without success. The importance of women singular fact that women were, in many instances,
and children in the frame work knitting industry the directors of the strike -- women held their
must have been understood by the men for in Feb meetings, sent their delegates and drew up their
terms - and women accompained the turn outs in
8 9
immense numbers, in all their marchings and of the role of women and children on working class
counter marchings throughout the manufacturing agitation as if they were separate from this agi-
districts. Of the immense number of operatives tation.
which marched from Lancashire into Yorkshire, at Quite naturally it was the women who were
the beginning of the strike, amounting to from involved in any confrontations related to the price
fifteen to twenty thousand persons, a large pro- of food. The Nottingham Date Book gives the
portion were women, mothers of families, who example of September 11th 1812 “The disturb-
travelled on foot, many of them a distance of fifty ance began by several women in Turncalf Alley
miles, urging the men to perseverance in the wild sticking a half penny loaf on the top of a fishing
work they had undertaken to do. At Halifax these rod after having streaked it with red ochre and tied
women headed the mob, on some occasions seizing around it a shred of black cloth, emblamatic, it was
the soldiers bayonets and turning them aside with said of “bleeding famine decked in sackcloth.” By
the words “We want not bayonets but bread.” the elevation of this and the aid of three hand
They shared in all the dangers of their male bells, two carried by women and one by a boy, a
companions and seemed to be influenced by a far considerable crowd of people, chiefly women, soon
greater ferocity. An eye witness states that they congregated together. The promiscuous assemblage
manifested a “savageness” of language and demean- I
first proceeded to the house at the same time
our on the occasion which till then he scarcely extracting a promise that he would at once reduce
believed to have an existence in this Christian the price if flour 6d per stone. The example was
country. Another ominous feature of the late I contagious. Mobs instantly set to work in every
disturbances was the public meetings of female part of the town. One of the assailing divisions
operatives at which the women proposed resolu- bore a woman in a chair who gave the word of
tions and made speeches, after the manner of their command and was dignified with the title of “Lady
masculine co-labourers. One of these remarkable Ludd”. ” And when, in 1837 the lace; trade was
meetings of factory women was held at Maccles- suffering one of many depressions, we are told
field and was announced “in aid of our husbands, “The workmen’s wives and children congregated in
sons and brothers in their struggle to support their the streets and levied contributions upon the pro-
wages.” The meeting was announced for six vision shops to a considerable extent. The police
o’clocl< on Monday morning, and at the hour had much trouble in restoring peace.” This kind of
appointed an immense number of women had action by women has long been recognised, but it
assembled. They were addressed by several female does tend to emphasise the women as “home
speakers as “sister operatives” and “sister slaves”. centred” or “family centred”. I feel that if we are
The speaking was fierce though not more so than not satisfied with such a stereotype we can find as
might have been expected from famished women; many examples of other kinds of action by them.
but there was also a truth and feeling in it.” It has In June 1779 there was fury in Nottingham over
been suggested that the nature of working class the failure of legislative interference on the con-
agitation at certain periods in the Lancashire cot- I dition of the frame work knitters. “The Market
ton industry was defined by the role of women and Place became the rallying place for the malcontents
children in the labour force and in the family. But and at about ten at night their anger burst forth
there has been a tendency to talk of the influence I
into open violence. The women and boys com-

10 11

L
 Union and to aid their husbands, brothers etc. in
menced the work by rushing up the numerous
yards into Parliament St., where they broke every their present arduous struggle to establish the
pane of glass in the house of Mr. James, an Peoples Charter. Mrs. Butler having been called to
extensive hosier. From thence they went to the the chair, the following resolutions were passed.
premises of another Mr. James, in Bearward Lane,
and inflicted a similar act of vengeance.” (The 1. That it is the opinion of this meeting that rep-
Nottingham Date Book This open act of class resentation ought to be coextensive with taxa-
resentment or defiance is echoed in an occurrence tion and that all consumers and producers in this
of October 1823. The Deputy Mayor of Notting- country, are tax payers so they ought all to be
ham read the Riot Act in an incident which represented. '
appears to be centred around the withdrawal of
two frames from a knitter by the owner of the 2. That the Peoples Charter contains principles well
frames. A waggon drawn by women accompanied adapted to the sentiments of the first resolution
the frames into Nottingham and both the frames and that this meeting do now_form itself into a
and the waggon were decorated with paper female political union to aid in establishing the
potatoes, no doubt to symbolise the starvation that Peoples Charter.
the withdrawal of the frames meant for the knitter
and the general condition of the community. The meeting was electrified by the able and ener-
It is in the Chartist period that we can most getic address of Mrs. Oakland.”
easily trace the political activity of working Saint Monday, the practice of not working on
women. The Chartist newspaper the Northern Star Monday, but holding any political meeting on the
contains in 1838 regular reports on female Radical day instead, was still observed in the major indus-
Associations, political unions, a meeting of women tries of Nottingham. That this meeting was held on
in Birmingham convened by Thomas Clutton Salt Monday indicates that those attending would be
to draw women into the Chartist movement working women.
“There could not have been less than twelve
thousand women there.” and a long letter orig- The second meeting of the Female Political
inally published in Glasgow, June 1838 addressed Union is’ reported as follows “the second meeting
to the women of Scotland by “a plain working of this body was held in the Hope and Anchor.
woman, a weaver of Glasgow.” who was “delighted
Resolved:
to see the women of Glasgow and many other
places taking up the cause of Radicalism and the That the distress of the working class as arising
cause of truth.” Chartism provided a centre of from the low price of labour and the high price of
organisation for the women of Nottingham and the food is the result of an unjust system of_legisla-
Nottingham Review, October 20th 1838 reports tion and that the best method to prevent its con-
the founding of the Nottingham Political Union. tinuance is to give every man a voice in making
“A meeting of females pursuant to public notice I the laws by which hc is governed.
was held on Monday evening last for the purpose The meeting, which was crowded almost to
of forming a political union of females to co- suffocation, great numbers being unable to get
operate with the Birmingham Female Political
13
12

Li
admittance, was addressed by some friends from and the religion of the country. Trusting sisters and
the Working Mens Association.” countrywomen that you will respond to us in your
kindest and most patriotic sympathies and services
At a Chartist meeting in Nottingham on Nov- in the cause of our common country in every legal
ember 5th 1838, there was a huge parade of four manner possible.
thousand people, led by the Female Political Union
who had their own banner. The Union itself was We remain your dearest friends and sisters
led by Mary Ann Abbott, who appears throughout The Nottingham Female Political Union
the Chartist period in news reports as the organiser
of the Chartist Chapel Sunday School, and as fund A people without a history is a dispossessed
raiser for the movement. people. Do women know anything about their
On December 8th 1838 the Northern Star
recent history? Are they aware that female hands
printed a long letter to the Women of England ripped coal, dug roads, worked looms? That female
from the Nottingham Female Political Union will and courage helped to push the working class
which bitterly talked of the millions of people towards whatever decencies of life it has now?
“sickened and wearied of an existence embittered Women have no more sense of their own history
to the last moment by cruelty, misrule and oppres- than the American Negro had before the Black
sion.” They warned the working women of liberation movement challenged the lie of Negro
England against the treacherous middle classes who non-history. And here is the really important para-
“must ever be considered in the light of false llel. The Negro sought his own history when he
friends and of no moment whatsoever to the began to seek for his own present and his own
people.” It was for the women, they said, to deal future. Women are questioning the historical lie
with the “shopocracy”, withdrawing trade from about themselves. It means that they want their
those who were not “friendly to the cause of the own present and future too. Q
people.” Finally, they called on all women to be
prepared for the “great and deadly struggle that
must take place ere our tyrant oppressors yield to
reason and justice. ’Tis better to die by the sword
than by famine and we shall glory in seeing every
working man of England selling his coat to buy
sword or a rifle to be prepared for the event. Under
these circumstances we again repeat, urge on your
husbands, fathers, brothers, friends and neighbours
and be prepared and ready for the conflict, urge
upon them the necessity of calm reflection and
duty to be sober, frugal, patriotic and to consider
themselves bound by the sacred ties of Nature to
protect and shield their wives and children from
that system of cruelty and starvation now stalking
through the land alike degrading the legislature

14 15