LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.1 Lasers
3.1.1 A Brief History of Lasers
Laser is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser
is light of special properties. In 1704, Newton characterized light as a stream of particles. The
Young’s interference experiment in 1803 and the discovery of the polarity of light convinced
scientists of that time that light is wave. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory explained light as rapid
vibrations of EM field due to the oscillation of charged particles. At the turn of the 20th century, the
black body radiation phenomena challenged the wavelike light theory. According to Maxwell’s EM
theory, the energy intensity of EM emissions with frequency f is proportional to the square of this
frequency, integrate the intensity from zero to infinity frequencies over the limited black body
volume will result in infinite energy, which is of course impossible! It was until Plank introduced
the "quantum" concept in 1900 when this was explained. Thus energy is not continuous, it is
discrete and can only be the multiples of a small unit. Einstein proposed the concept of "photon",
we can say light is composed of individual particles called photons which posses a discrete amount
of energy or quanta. Einstein also predicted in 1917 that when there exist the population inversion
between the upper and lower energy levels among the atom systems, it was possible to realize
amplified stimulated radiation, i.e., laser light.
Many people tried to find methods for amplified stimulated emission, but it was not realized
until 1960, about half a century after Einstein’s prediction.
The first laser was invented by Maiman in May, 1960. It was a solid ruby laser. Many kinds
of laser were invented soon after the solid ruby laser—first Uranium Laser by IBM labs(in
Nov.,1960), first Helium-Neon Laser by Bell Laboratories in 1961, first semiconductor laser by
Robert Hall at General Electric Labs in 1962, first working Nd:YAG laser and CO 2 laser by Bell
Laboratories in 1964, argon ion laser in 1964, chemical laser in 1965, metal vapor laser in 1966, …,
it seems lots of things can be made to lase! When we know the principles of laser, this won’t be too
big a surprise. But the wide and continuously expanding applications of lasers are indeed miracles.

3.1.2 Basic Principle

Absorption
Let us consider a system containing two energy levels namely the ground state and the
excited state. Usually, the number of atoms in the ground state is more than the number of atoms in
the excited state. For an atom to move from the ground state to the excited state it should absorb
energy at least equal to the difference between the two energy levels. If E1 is the energy of atoms in
the ground state and E2 the energy of atoms in the excited state then the energy required for excitation
should be greater than or equal to E2 – E1.

E2

E1

Fig. 3.1 Absorption process

 3.2

The process of raising the atoms from the ground state to the excited state is known as
absorption. The number of atoms, per unit volume undergoing absorption will be proportional to N1,
the number of atoms per unit volume in the ground state and Q, the energy density of the incident
radiation.
Hence, the number of atoms undergoing absorption per unit volume per unit time can be
expressed as

N ab = B12 N1Q (1)

B12 is called the proportionality constant, which depends on the energy levels E1 and E2.
Emissions
An atom after absorbing energy goes to the excited state and does not stay there indefinitely.
Hence they make transition to the ground state E1. There are two different types of transitions:
Spontaneous Emission
The spontaneous emission does not require any external energy. The atom goes back to its
ground state after its lifetime in the excited state. The average lifetime of carriers in the excited
state is 10-6 s. Hence after this lifetime, they go back to the ground state by emitting energy.

E2

E1
Fig. 3.2 Spontaneous emission

The number of atoms making spontaneous emission per unit volume per unit time can be
expressed as

N sp = A 21 N 2 (2)

A21 is proportionality constant, which depends on the energy levels.

Stimulated emission
In the case of stimulated emission the atom in the excited state is given an external energy
and is forced to go to the ground state. In other words the atom in the excited state is not allowed to
stay for its lifetime.

E2

E1

Fig. 3.3 Stimulated emission

 3.3

The number of transitions per unit volume per unit time can be expressed as

N st = B 21 N 2 Q (3)

B21 is a constant, which depends on the energy levels. A21, B12 and B21 are called as Einstein’s
coefficients.
Einstein’s theory of spontaneous and stimulated emission
At thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transition should be equal to the number of
downward transitions per unit volume per unit time. Therefore

B12 N1Q = A 21N 2 + B21N 2 Q (4)

(or)

A 21 (5)
Q=
 N1 
 B12 − B 21
 N2 

From Boltzmann’s distribution law, at a given temperature T, the ratio of the population of
two levels is given by

N1
= e ( E2 − E1 ) kT (6)
N2

(or)

N1
= e h kT
(7)
N2

where k is Boltzmann constant. Substituting the value of N1/N2 in equation (5), we get

A
Q= 21
h kT
(8)
B12 e − B21

According to Planck’s black body radiation theory, we have

8hc 1
Q= h kT
(9)
 5
(e − 1)

Here c is the velocity of light.

If B12 = B21= B, equation (8) can be expressed as
A21
Q= h
(10)
B21 (e kT
− 1)

Comparing the equations (9) and (10), we get

A 21 8hc
= 5 (11)
B 21 

Equation (11) gives the ratio between spontaneous and stimulated coefficients. A and B are
called Einstein’s coefficients.
 3.4

Population inversion-Negative temperature condition

• Boltzmann distribution law specifies what fraction of atoms are found in any particular
energy state for any given equilibrium temperature

• If N0 is the number of atoms in the ground state, N1 is the number of atoms in the excited
state of energy E2 measured relative to the ground state, then (ignoring degeneracy)

Ni  − Ei 
= exp  
N0  kT 

where T is the absolute temperature in degree kelvin, and

k = 1.38 ×10-23 K (Boltzmann constant)

• Boltzmann distribution is graphically represented in Fig.3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Boltzmann distribution for several energy levels

• For laser action,N1> N0 (i.e., absorption <stimulated emission)

• The establishment of N1> N0 is known as population inversion.
• The population inversion condition required for light amplification is a non-equilibrium
distribution of atoms among the various energy levels of the atomic system.
• i.e., a negative temperature condition which establishes N1> N0 is known as population
inversion.
Threshold population inversion
We know that for a medium to amplify an incident radiation, one must create a state of
population inversion in the medium. Such a medium will behave as an amplifier for those
frequencies, which will fall within its line width. In order to generate radiation this amplifying
medium is placed in an optical resonator, which consists of a pair of mirrors facing each other.
Radiation, which bounces back and forth between the mirrors, is amplified by the amplifying
medium and also suffers losses due to the scattering by the medium, diffraction due to finite mirror
sizes etc. If the oscillation has to be sustained in the cavity then the losses must be exactly
compensated by the gain. Thus a minimum population inversion density is required to overcome the
losses and this is called the threshold population inversion.
Laser action summary
Step 1 : Choose a proper lasing medium
 3.5

Step 2 : Establish population inversion by suitable pumping

Step 3 : Stimulated emission takes place
Step 4 : Positive feed back (optical resonator)
Step 5 : Amplification of light
3.1.3 Characteristics of laser
(i) Directionality

• The directionality of a laser beam is expressed in terms of the full angle beam divergence
which is twice the angle that the outer edge of the beam makes with the axis of the beam
• The outer edge of the beam is defined as a point at which the strength of the beam has
dropped to 1/e times its value at the centre
• At d1 and d2 distances from the laser window, if the diameter of the spots are measured to
be a1 and a2 respectively, then the angle of divergence (in degrees) can be expressed as
(a 2 − a 1 )
 =
2(d 2 − d 1 )
• For a typical laser, the beam divergence is about 1 milli radian.

(ii) Monochromaticity

• The degree of monochromaticity is expressed in terms of line width (spectral width)

• The line width is the frequency spread  of a spectral line
• The frequency spread  is related to the wavelength spread   as

C
 = -  2  
 
• The three most important mechanisms which give rise to the spectral broadening (frequency
spread) are Doppler broadening, Collision broadening and natural broadening.

(1) Doppler broadening

The atoms which emit radiation are not at rest at the time of emission and depending on
their velocities and the direction of motion, the frequency of the emitted radiation
changes slightly and this broadening is called Doppler broadening.

(2) Collision broadening

If the atoms undergo collision at the time of emitting radiation there will be change in the
phase of the emitted radiation resulting in frequency shift and is known as collision
broadening.
(3) Natural broadening
In solid materials, an atomic electron emitting energy in the form of a photons leads to an
exponential damping of the amplitude of the wave train and the phenomenon is called
natural broadening.
 3.6

(iii) Coherence

• The purity of the spectral line is expressed in terms of coherence

• Coherence is expressed in terms of ordering of light field.

• There are two types of coherence: (1) temporal coherence and (2) spatial coherence
(1) Temporal coherence

• Temporal coherence refers to correlation in phase at a given point in a space over a

length of time.

• i.e, if the phase difference between the two light fields E1 (x,y,z,t1) and E2 (x,y,z,t2), is
constant, the wave is said to have temporal coherence.

• The maximum length of the wave train on which any two points can be correlated is
called coherent length.
coherent length
• Coherent time =
velocity of light

• The high degree of temporal coherence arises from the lasers monochromaticity.
(2) Spatial coherence

• Spatial coherence refers to correlation in phase at different points at the same time.
• i.e, if the phase difference between the two light fields E 1(x1,y1,z1,t) and
E2 (x2,y2, z2,t) is constant, the wave is said to have spatial coherence.

• The high degree of spatial coherence results, since the wave fronts in a laser beam are
in effect similar to those emanating from a single point source.
(iv) Intensity or Brightness
• When two photons each of amplitude ‘a’ are in phase with each other, then by young’s
principle of superposition the resultant amplitude is ‘2a’ and the intensity is proportional to
(2a)2i.e, 4a2.

• In laser, many number of photons (say n) are in phase with each other, the amplitude of the
resultant wave becomes ‘na’ and hence the intensity is proportional to n2a2.

• Thus due to coherent addition of amplitude and negligible divergence, the intensity increases
enormously.

• i.e., 1mw He-Ne laser can be shown to be 100 times brighter than the sun.
 3.7

Table 3.1 Difference between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

Property
(ordinary light) (laser light)
1) Stimuli Not required Required
2) Monochromaticity Less High
3) Directionality Less High
4) Intensity Less High
5) Coherence Less High

Worked Example 3.1: What fraction of sodium atom is in the first excited state in a sodium
vapour lamp at a temperature of 250oC
T =250 + 273 = 523 K
K =1.38 × 10-23 J/K
 =5900 × 10-10m
N2
=e-(E2--E1) / kT = e-h / kT
N1
C
=

N2
= 5.364 × 10-21
N1

Worked Example 3.2: A He-Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8nm and has an output
power of 3 mw. How many photons are emitted in each minute by this
laser when operating?
 =6328 × 10-10m P = 3mw = 3 × 10-3 w
C
= = 4.74 × 1014 Hz

E =h = 3.14 × 10-19 J
photons
= n × 60
min
No.of photons emitted per minute = 5.7324 × 1010 photons / minute.

Worked Example 3.3: For a He-Ne laser at 1 m and 2 m distances from the laser the output
beam spot diameters are 4mm and 6mm respectively, calculate the
divergence
d1 = 1m

d2 = 2m

a1 = 4mm = 4 × 10-3m
 3.8

a2 = 6mm = 6 × 10-3m

(a 2 − a 1 )
 =
2(d 2 − d 1 )

(6 − 4)  10−3
 =
2 (2 − 1)

 = 10-3 radian = 1 milli radian

3.1.4 Essential components of a laser system

Active Pumping Optical

Medium Mechanism resonator

(1) Active medium or Gain medium

It is the system in which population inversion and hence stimulated emission (laser action)
is established.
(2) Pumping mechanism
It is the mechanism by which population inversion is achieved.
i.e., it is the method for raising the atoms from lower energy state to higher energy state to achieve
laser transition.
Different pumping mechanisms
i. Optical pumping

• Exposure to electromagnetic radiation of frequency  = (E2-E1)/h obtained from discharge

flash tube results in pumping
• Suitable for solid state lasers
ii. Electrical discharge

• By inelastic atom-atom collisions, population inversion is established

• Suitable for Gas lasers
iii. Chemical pumping

• By suitable chemical reaction in the active medium, population of excited state is made
higher compared to that of ground state
• Suitable for liquid lasers.
(3) Optical resonator
A pair of mirrors placed on either side of the active medium is known as optical resonator.
One mirror is completely silvered and the other is partially silvered. The laser beam comes out
through the partially silvered mirror.
 3.9

LASER MATERIAL

100% PARTIAL
MIRROR MIRROR

Fig. 3.5 A typical optical resonator

3.1.5 Types of Lasers

There are many ways to define the type of laser.
Based on its pumping scheme a laser can be classified as

• Optically pumped laser

• Electrically pumped laser
On the basis of the operation mode, laser fall into classes of

• Continuous wave Lasers

• Pulsed Lasers
According to their wavelength, a laser can be classified as

• Visible Region

• Infrared Region

• Ultraviolet Region

• Microwave Region

• X-Ray Region
According to the source , lasers can be divided into following categories, Tables 3.2 to 3.8 give a
brief account for each lasers.

• Dye Lasers

• Gas Lasers

• Chemical Lasers

• Metal vapour Lasers

• Solid state Lasers

• Semi conductor Lasers

• other types
3.10

Table 3.2 Dye lasers

Laser gain
Pump
medium and Operation wavelength(s) Applications
source
type

Dye lasers 390-435 nm (stilbene), 460-515 Other laser, Research, spectroscopy, birthmark
nm (coumarin 102), 570-640 flashlamp removal, isotope separation. The
nm (rhodamine 6G), many tuning range of the laser depends on
others which dye is used.

Table 3.3 Gas lasers

Laser gain
medium Operation wavelength(s) Pump source Applications and notes
and type

Helium-neon 632.8 nm (543.5 nm, 593.9 Electrical discharge Interferometry, holography,

laser nm, 611.8 nm, 1.1523 μm, spectroscopy, barcode scanning,
1.52 μm, 3.3913 μm) alignment, optical demonstrations.

Argon laser 454.6 nm, 488.0 nm, 514.5 Electrical discharge Retinalphototherapy (for diabetes),
nm (351 nm,457.9 nm, lithography, confocal microscopy,
465.8 nm, 476.5 nm, 472.7 pumping other lasers.
nm, 528.7 nm)

Krypton 416 nm, 530.9 nm, 568.2 Electrical discharge Scientific research, mixed with argon to
laser nm, 647.1 nm, 676.4 nm, create "white-light" lasers, light shows.
752.5 nm, 799.3 nm

Xenon ion Many lines throughout Electrical discharge Scientific research.

laser visible spectrum extending
into the UV and IR.

Nitrogen 337.1 nm Electrical discharge Pumping of dye lasers, measuring air

laser pollution, scientific research. Nitrogen
lasers can operate superradiantly
(without a resonator cavity).

Carbon 10.6 μm, (9.4 μm) Transverse (high Material processing (cutting, welding,
dioxide laser power) or longitudinal etc.), surgery.
(low power) electrical
discharge

Carbon 2.6 to 4 μm, 4.8 to 8.3 μm Electrical discharge Material processing (engraving,
monoxide welding, etc.), photoacoustic
laser spectroscopy.

Excimer 193 nm (ArF), 248 nm Excimer recombination Ultravioletlithography for

laser (KrF), 308 nm (XeCl), 353 via electrical discharge semiconductor manufacturing, laser
nm (XeF) surgery
 3.11

Table 3.4 Chemical lasers

Laser gain Operation

Pump source Applications
medium and type wavelength(s)
Hydrogen fluoride 2.7 to 2.9 μm for Chemical reaction in Used in research for laser
laser Hydrogen fluoride a burning jet of weaponry by the U.S. DOD,
(<80% Atmospheric ethylene and nitrogen operated in continuous wave
transmittance) trifluoride (NF3) mode, can have power in the
megawatt range.
Deuterium fluoride ~3800 nm (3.6 to chemical reaction MIRACL, Pulsed Energy
laser 4.2 μm) (~90% Atm. Projectile&Tactical High
transmittance) Energy Laser
COIL 1.315 μm (<70% Chemical reaction in Laser weaponry, scientific and
(Chemicaloxygen- Atmospheric a jet of singlet delta materials research, laser used in
iodine laser) transmittance) oxygen and iodine the U.S. military's Airborne
laser, operated in continuous
wave mode, can have power in
the megawatt range.

Table 3.5 Metal-vapor lasers

Laser gain Operation Pump source Applications

medium and wavelength(s)
type
Helium- 441.563 nm, 325 Electrical discharge Printing and typesetting
cadmium nm in metal vapor applications, fluorescence excitation
(HeCd) metal- mixed with helium examination (ie. in U.S. paper
vapor laser buffer gas. currency printing), scientific
research.
Helium-mercury 567 nm, 615 nm Rare, scientific research, amateur
(HeHg) metal- laser construction.
vapor laser
Helium- up to 24 Rare, scientific research, amateur
selenium (HeSe) wavelengths laser construction.
metal-vapor between red and
laser UV
Copper vapor 510.6 nm, 578.2 nm Electrical discharge Dermatological uses, high speed
laser photography, pump for dye lasers.
Gold vapor laser 627 nm Rare, dermatological and
photodynamic therapy uses.
3.12

Table 3.6 Solid-state lasers

Laser gain medium and type Operation Pump source Applications

wavelength(s)
Ruby laser 694.3 nm Flashlamp Holography, tattoo removal. The
first type of visible light laser
invented; May 1960.
Nd:YAG laser 1.064 μm, Flashlamp, laser Material processing, rangefinding,
(1.32 μm) diode laser target designation, surgery,
research, pumping other lasers
(combined with frequency doubling
to produce a green 532 nm beam).
One of the most common high
power lasers. Usually pulsed (down
to fractions of a nanosecond)
Er:YAG laser 2.94 μm Flashlamp, laser Periodontal scaling, Dentistry
diode
Neodymium doped Yttrium 1.064 μm laser diode Mostly used for continuous pumping
orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4) laser of mode-lockedTi:sapphire or dye
lasers, in combination with
frequency doubling. Also used
pulsed for marking and
micromachining.
Neodymium doped yttrium ~1.060 μm (~530 laser diode Nd:YCOB is a so called "self-
calcium nm at second frequency doubling" or SFD laser
oxoborateNd:YCa4O(BO3)3 or harmonic) material which is both capable of
simply Nd:YCOB lasing and which has nonlinear
characteristics suitable for second
harmonic generation. Such materials
have the potential to simplify the
design of high brightness green
lasers.
Neodymium glass (Nd:Glass) ~1.062 μm Flashlamp, laser Used in extremely high power
laser (Silicate glasses), diode (terawatt scale), high energy
~1.054 μm (megajoules) multiple beam systems
(Phosphate for inertial confinement fusion.
glasses) Nd:Glass lasers are usually
frequency tripled to the third
harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion
devices.
Titaniumsapphire (Ti:sapphire) 650-1100 nm Other laser Spectroscopy, LIDAR, research.
laser This material is often used in highly-
tunable mode-lockedinfrared lasers
to produce ultrashort pulses and in
amplifier lasers to produce ultrashort
and ultra-intense pulses.
Holmium YAG (Ho:YAG) 2.1 μm Laser diode Tissue ablation, kidney stone
laser removal, dentistry.
Cerium doped ~280 to 316 nm Frequency Remote atmospheric sensing,
lithiumstrontium(or calcium) quadrupled LIDAR, optics research.
aluminumfluoride (Ce:LiSAF, Nd:YAG laser
Ce:LiCAF) pumped, excimer
laser pumped,
copper vapor
laser pumped.
Chromium doped chrysoberyl Typically tuned Flashlamp, laser Dermatological uses, LIDAR, laser
(alexandrite) laser in the range of diode, mercury machining.
700 to 820 nm arc (for CW
mode operation)
 3.13

Table 3.7 Semiconductor lasers

Laser gain medium Operation Pump Applications

and type wavelength(s) source
Semiconductorlaser 0.4-20 μm, Electrical Telecommunications, holography,
diode (general depending on current printing, weapons, machining, welding,
information) active region pump sources for other lasers.
material.
GaN 0.4 μm Optical discs.
AlGaAs 0.63-0.9 μm Optical discs, laser pointers, data
communications. 780 nm Compact Disc
player laser is the most common laser
type in the world. Solid-state laser
pumping, machining, medical.
InGaAsP 1.0-2.1 μm Telecommunications, solid-state laser
pumping, machining, medical..
Vertical cavity surface 850 - 1500 nm, Telecommunications
emitting laser depending on
(VCSEL) material
Hybrid silicon laser Mid-infrared Research

Table 3.8 Other types of lasers

Laser gain
Operation
medium and Pump source Applications
wavelength(s)
type

Free electron A broad relativisticelectron beam atmospheric research, material

laser wavelength range science, medical applications.
(about 100 nm -
several mm); one
free electron laser
may be tunable
over a wavelength
range

"Nickel-like" X-rays at 7.3 nm Lasing in ultra-hot samarium First demonstration of efficient

Samarium laser wavelength plasma formed by double pulse "saturated" operation of a sub–10
terawatt scale irradiation fluences nm X-ray laser, possible
created by Rutherford Appleton applications in high resolution
Laboratory'sNd:glassVulcan laser. microscopy and holography,
operation is close to the "water
window" at 2.2 to 4.4 nm where
observation of DNA structure
and the action of viruses and
drugs on cells can be examined.

Raman laser, 1-2 μm for fiber Other laser, mostly Yb-glassfiber Complete 1-2 μm wavelength
uses inelastic version lasers coverage; distributedoptical
stimulated signal amplification for
Raman scattering telecommunications; optical
in a nonlinear solitons generation and
media, mostly amplification
fiber, for
amplification
 3.14

3.1.5.1 CO2 Laser

Introduction
CO2 lasers belong to the class of molecular gas lasers. As in the case of atoms, electrons in
molecules can be excited to higher energy levels, and the distribution of electrons in the levels define
the electronic state of the molecule. Besides, these electronic levels, the molecules have other energy
levels. The constituent atoms of the molecule can vibrate in relation to each other and the molecule
as a whole can rotate. Both these motions are quantized giving rise to various vibrational and
rotational levels. C.K.N Patel designed CO2 laser in the year 1964.
Active medium
It consists of a mixture of CO2, N2 and helium or water vapour. The active centres are CO2
molecules lasing on the transition between the rotational levels of vibrational bands of the electronic
ground state.
Optical resonators
A pair of concave mirrors placed on either side of the discharge tube, one completely
polished and the other partially polished.
Pumping
Population inversion is created by electric discharge of the mixture.
When a discharge is passed in a tube containing CO2, electron impacts excite the molecules
to higher electronic and vibrational-rotational levels. This level is also populated by radiationless
transition from upper excited levels.
The resonant transfer of energy from other molecules, such as, N2, added to the gas,
increases the pumping efficiency. Nitrogen here plays the role that He plays in He-Ne laser.
A carbon dioxide (CO2) laser can produce a continuous laser beam with a power output of
several kilowatts while, at the same time, can maintain high degree of spectral purity and spatial
coherence.
In comparison with atoms and ions, the energy level structure of molecules is more
complicated and originates from three sources: electronic motions, vibrational motions and
rotational motions.
Fundamental Modes of vibration of CO2
There are three fundamental modes of vibration for CO2 viz., symmetric stretching mode
(frequency 1), bending mode (2) and asymmetric stretching mode (3).
In the symmetric stretching mode, the oxygen atoms oscillate along the axis of the molecule
simultaneously departing or approaching the carbon atom, which is stationary.
In the bending mode, the molecule ceases to be exactly linear as the atoms move
perpendicular to the molecular axis. In asymmetric stretching, all the three atoms oscillate: but while
both oxygen atoms move in one direction, carbon atoms move in the opposite direction.
The internal vibrations of carbon dioxide molecule can be represented approximately by
linear combination of these three normal modes.
The state of a vibrating molecule is specified by a set of three vibrational quantum numbers
corresponding to the degree of excitation of each mode.
 3.15

H2O N2CO2

To vacuum pump

Mirror NaCl
window

Fig. 3.6(a) CO2 Laser

Oxygen Carbon Oxygen

Carbon

Oxygen Oxygen

Oxygen Carbon Oxygen

Fig. 3.6(b) Independent modes of vibration of CO2 molecule

Fig.3.6(c) shows energy level diagram of vibrational – rotational energy levels with which
the main physical processes taking place in this laser are explained. As the electric discharge is
passed through the tube, which contains a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases, the
electrons striking nitrogen molecules impart sufficient energy to raise them to their first excited
vibrational-rotational energy level.
This energy level corresponds to one of the vibrational - rotational level of CO2 molecules,
designated as level 4 in the Fig.3.6(c). Hence by collision with N2 molecules, the CO2 molecules are
raised to level 4.
The lifetime of CO2 molecules in level 4 is quiet significant to serve practically as a
metastable state. Hence, population inversion of CO2 molecules is established between levels 4 and
3, and between levels 4 and 2. The transition of CO2 molecules between levels 4 and 3 produce lasers
 3.16

of wavelength 10.6 microns and that between levels 4 and 2 produce lasers of wavelength 9.6
microns.
4
Vibrational
  m
energy transfer
  m

Excitation
2

Excitation
Energy

CO2 Ground State N2 Ground State

Fig. 3.6(c) Energy level diagram

The He molecules increase the population of level 4, and also help in emptying the lower
laser levels.
The molecules that arrive at the levels 3 and 2 decay to the ground state through radiative
and collision induced transitions to the lower level 1, which in turn decays to the ground state.
The power output of a CO2 laser increases linearly with length. Low power (upto 50W)
continuous wave CO2 lasers are available in sealed tube configurations. Some are available in sizes
like torches for medical use, with 10-30 W power. All high power systems use fast gas-floe designs.
Typical power per unit length is 200-600 W/m. Some of these lasers are large room sized
metal working lasers with output power 10-20 kW. Recently CO2 lasers with continuous wave power
output exceeding 100 kW have been reported. The wavelength of radiation from these lasers is
10.6m.
3.1.5.2Nd: YAG Laser (Doped insulator laser)
Lasing medium

• The host medium for this laser is Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (YAG = Y 3 Al5 O12) with
1.5% trivalent neodymium ions (Nd3+) present as impurities.

• The (Nd3+) ions occupy the lattice sites of yttrium ions as substitutional impurities and
provide the energy levels for both pumping and lasing transitions.

• When an (Nd3+) ion is placed in a host crystal lattice it is subjected to the electrostatic field
of the surrounding ions, the so called crystal field.

• The crystal field modifies the transition probabilities between the various energy levels of
the Nd3+ ion so that some transitions, which are forbidden in the free ion, become allowed.
 3.17

Structure
Laser rod M2

Output

Ellipsoidal
reflector
Flashtube Trigger
Capacitor bank pulse

Power supply Ballast resistor

Fig. 3.7(a) Typical construction of a Nd: YAG laser showing the ellipsoidal reflector

• The length of the Nd: YAG laser rod various from 5cm to 10cm depending on the power of
the laser and its diameter is generally 6 to 9mm.

• The laser rod and a linear flash lamp are housed in a elliptical reflector cavity

• Since the rod and the lamp are located at the foci of the ellipse, the light emitted by the lamp
is effectively coupled to the rod.

• The ends of the rod are polished and made optically flat and parallel.

• The optical cavity is formed either by silvering the two ends of the rod or by using two
external reflecting mirrors.

• One mirror is made hundred percent reflecting while the other mirror is left slightly
transmitting to draw the output.

• The system is cooled by either air or water circulation.

Energy level diagram

• This laser system has two absorption bands (0.73 m and 0.8 m)
• Optical pumping mechanism is employed.
• Laser transition takes place between two laser levels at 1.06mm.
Output characteristics

• The laser output is in the form of pulses with higher repetition rate
• Xenon flash lamps are used for pulsed output
• Nd: YAG laser can be operated in CW mode also using tungsten-halide incandescent lamp
for optical pumping.
• Continuous output powers of over 1KW are obtained.
 3.18

Upper energy levels

(populated by
pumping)

Fast nonradiative decay

Upper laser level

(metastable)

Pump bands 0.73 m 1.06 m

Laser transition

Lower laser level

Ground state

Fig. 3.7(b) Simplified energy level diagram for the neodymium ion in YAG
showing the principal laser transitions

Note: Nd: Glass laser

• Glass acts as an excellent host material for neodymium

• As in YAG, within the glass also local electric fields modify the Nd3+ ion energy levels

• Since the line width is much broader in glass than in YAG for Nd3+ ions, the threshold pump
power required for laser action is higher
• Nd: Glass lasers are operated in the pulsed mode at wavelength 1.06 m

Nd:YAG/ Nd: Glass laser applications

1. These lasers are used in many scientific applications which involve generation of other
wavelengths of light.
2. The important industrial uses of YAG and glass lasers have been in materials processing
such as welding, cutting, drilling.
3. Since 1.06 m wavelength radiation passes through optical fibre without absorption, fibre
optic endoscopes with YAG lasers are used to treat gastrointestinal bleeding.
4. YAG beams penetrate the lens of the eye to perform intracular procedures.
5. YAG lasers are used in military as range finders and target designators.

3.1.5.3Semiconductor(Ga-As) lasers
Introduction
The semiconductor laser is today one of the most important types of lasers with its very
important application in fiber optic communication. These lasers use semiconductors as the lasing
medium and are characterized by specific advantages such as the capability of direct modulation in
the gigahertz region, small size and low cost.
 3.19

Basic Mechanism
The basic mechanism responsible for light emission from a semiconductor is the
recombination of electrons and holes at a p-n junction when a current is passed through a diode. Just
like in other laser systems, there can be three interaction processes: 1) an electron in the valence
band can absorb the incident radiation and be excited to the conduction band leading to the
generation of electron-hole pair, 2) an electron can make a spontaneous transition in which it
combines with a hole and in the process it emits radiation, 3) a stimulated emission may occur in
which the incident radiation stimulates an electron in the conduction band to make a transition to the
valence band and in the process emit radiation.
If now by some mechanism a large density of electrons is created in the bottom of the
conduction band and simultaneously in the same region of space a large density of holes is created
at the top of the valence band then, then an optical beam with a frequency slightly greater than
(2Eg/h), where Eg is the bandgap energy, will cause a larger number of stimulated emissions as
compared to absorptions and thus can be amplified. In order to convert the amplifying medium into
a laser, one must provide optical feedback, which is usually done by cleaving or polishing the ends
of the p-n junction diode at right angles to the junction.
Thus when a current is passed through a p-n junction under forward bias, the injected
electrons and holes will increase the density of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
valence band and at some value of current, the stimulated emission rate will exceed the absorption
rate and amplification will occur. As the current is further increased, at some threshold value of
current, the amplification will overcome the losses in the cavity and the laser will begin to emit
coherent radiation.
Simple structure (Homojunction)
Fig.3.8 gives a simplified diagram of the basic semiconductor laser structure. The photons
generated by the injection current travel to the edge mirrors and are reflected back into the active
area. Photoelectron collisions take place and produce more photons, which continue to bounce back
and forth between the two edge mirrors. This process eventually increases the number of generated
photons until lasing takes place. The lasing will take place at particular wavelengths that are related
to the length of the cavity.

Fig. 3.8 Basic semiconductor laser structure a)Side view b)Projection

 3.20

Heterostructures
The heterostructure laser is a laser diode with more than single P and N layers.
GaAs/AlGaAs is a heterojunction laser. Fig.3.9(a) shows the layered structure and Fig.3.9(b) shows
the refractive index distribution. The notations P+ and N+ and P- and N- indicate heavy doping and
light doping respectively. The P-N structure consists of the two double layers, P+ - P- and N+ - N- .
A thin layer of GaAs is placed at the junction, the active region. The substance is selected
because the electron-hole recombinations are highly radiative. This increases the radiation
efficiency. The P and N regions are lightly doped regions that have an index of refraction n2 less
than n1 of the active region. These three layers, n2-n1-n2, form a light waveguide much like the optical
fiber, so that the light generated is confined to the active region.

Fig. 3.9 Laser heterostructure (a) Schematic projection (b) Refractive index profile
 3.21

3.2 Fiber optics

Until about two decades, most electronic communication was carried by copper cables,
whether twisted pairs, coaxial cables or copper waveguides. Communication was accomplished by
sending electrical signals through the copper cables or waveguides. In recent years, a new medium
has been introduced: Optical fibers. In optical fiber communication, light signals replace electrical
signals. This branch of science is called fiber optics.
3.2.1 Basic principles in optical fiber
Physics of Light
The propagation of light can be analyzed in detail using electromagnetic wave theory.
Simplified analysis uses the ray-tracing method. This method examines the propagation direction,
ignoring the electric and magnetic fields involved. Light falls in the general category of
electromagnetic waves, much like radio waves. Light however has a much higher frequency than
radio waves. Visible light, for example, covers the range between 0.431015 and 0.751015 Hz. Fiber
optic communication uses light in the frequency range from 0.21013 to 0.371013 Hz called the
infrared range. In contrast, radio frequencies, including radar, television and radio, cover the range
from 0.5106 Hz to 51010 Hz.
The behaviour of light is sometimes easier to explain by using ray tracings than by using the
more detailed description that uses electromagnetic theory. Effects such as reflection and refraction
are much easier to explain using rays. Similarly, the propagation of light in a fiber can be described
in terms of rays. The ray theory applies only when considering waves with a wavelength much
smaller than the structure used to guide the wave. The fiber diameter, for example, is many times
larger than the optical wavelengths.
Reflection
When a light ray is incident on a reflecting surface, the ray bounces back like a handball
when it hits a wall. Typically, a reflecting surface is one that is highly polished, opaque and coated
with special reflective materials.
Source N
A B
Reflected
Ray

 
Incident
ray Reflecting
Surface

Fig. 3.19 Incident and reflected rays

The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. In
Fig.3.19, the incident ray is the line AO, the reflected ray is OB and ON is the normal to the reflecting
surface. The incident and reflected angles, 1 and 2, respectively, are those between the rays and
the line perpendicular to the surface:

 1 =  2.
A direct result of this law is the fact that if 1 is 90, 2 is 90 and the reflected ray is in line
with the incident ray.
 3.22

Refraction and Snell’s Law

When a ray travels across a boundary between two materials with different refractive indices
n1and n2, both refraction and reflection takes place. Fig.3.20 illustrates the case where
n1 > n2; that is where the light travels from high to low refractive index materials.
The refracted ray (the ray that continues in the same basic direction as the incident ray) is
“broken”: that is, the angle 2 is not equal to 1. The relation between 1 and 2 is given by Snell’s
law of refraction.
sin  1 n2
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin  2 (or) = (1)
sin  2 n1
In accordance with this law, a ray travelling from a high to a low index material will move
away from the perpendicular. The angle of incidence is smaller than the angle of the refracted ray.
The reverse holds for rays travelling from low to high index material. The relation between the
incident and refracted angles can be stated in terms of the propagation velocities in the media:
sin  1 v1 c c
= where v1 = and v 2 = (2)
sin  2 v 2 n1 n2

Here, the two materials involved are transparent and allow light propagation.
Source A Reflected B
N ray

Incident
ray 
Refracting
n1material ( v1) Surface

n2material ( v2)

Refracted
Ray



Fig. 3.20 Incident and refracted rays

Total Internal reflection

When 2, the angle of refraction becomes 90, the refracted beam is not traveling through
the n2 material (Fig.3.21). Applying Snell’s law of refraction to this case, we get

n2
sin  1 = (3)
n1
Source A
N

Incident  = c
ray Reflected
Ray
n1
B
n2  =  

Fig.3.21 Refraction at the critical angle

 3.23

The angle of incidence 1 for which 2= 90 is called the critical angle c:

n2  n2 
(or)  c = sin  
−1
sin  c = (4)
n1  1
n
n2
Since n2 is less than n1, the fraction is less than 1 and cis less than 90. If the ray is
n1
incident on the boundary between n1 and n2 materials at the critical angle, the refracted ray will travel
along the boundary, never entering the n2 material. There are no refracted rays for the case where
1  c. This condition is known as total internal reflection, which can occur only when light travels
from higher refractive index material to lower refractive index material. Hence, the light can be
restricted to the material with the higher index of refraction if the incident angle is kept above the
critical angle. A sandwich of high index material placed between two slabs of low index material
will allow a beam of light to propagate in the high index material with relatively little loss. This
concept is used in constructing fibers for fiber optic communication.

Worked Example3.4: Two layers of glass are placed on top of each other. The light is travelling
from n = 1.45 to n = 1.40. Find the range of angles x for which total
internal reflection takes place.
n1= 1.45 and n2 = 1.40.
 n2 
We know that  c = sin  
−1

 1
n
Substituting the values of n1and n2
 1. 4 
 c = sin −1   = 74.9
 1.45 

Thus, for the critical case x = 90 – 74.9 = 15.1, and for all angles x
less than 15.1, total internal reflection takes place.

3.2.2 Physical structure of optical fiber

An optical fiber is a transparent rod, usually made of glass or clear plastic through which
light can propagate. The light signals travel through the rod from the transmitter to the receiver and
can be easily detected at the receiving end of the rod, provided the losses in the fiber are not
excessive. The structure of the modern fiber consists of an optical rod core coated with a cladding.
The core and the cladding have different refractive indices and hence different optical properties.
The refractive index of the core is always greater than that of the cladding (i.e.)
n1>n2. The light travels within the core by the principle of total internal reflection.

Fig.3.22 shows an unclad fiber and a clad rod through which the light travels. With the
unclad rod, only a small potion of the light energy is kept inside; most of the light leaks to the
surroundings. The clad fiber is a much more efficient light carrier. The losses of the light as it travels
through the fiber are much smaller for the clad fiber than for the unclad one.
 3.24

Losses

Losses
(a)

Core

Cladding
(b)

Fig. 3.22 Light guides (a) Simple glass rod (b) Glass rod and cladding
with different refraction qualities
The thickness of the core of a typical glass fiber is nearly 50 μm and that of cladding is 100
– 200 μm. The overall thickness of an optical fiber is nearly 125 – 200 μm. Thus an optical fiber is
small in size and light weight unlike a metallic cable.
3.2.3 Propagation characteristics of optical fiber
Meridinal rays and Skew rays

Core
Cladding
(a) (b)
Fig.3.23Meridinal and Skew rays
The light rays, during the journey inside the optical fiber through the core, cross the core
axis. Such light rays are known as meridinal rays. The passage of such rays in a step index fiber is
shown in Fig.3.23 (a). Similarly, the rays which never cross the axis of the core are known as the
skew rays. Skew rays describe angular ‘helices’ as they progress along the fiber. They follow helical
path around the axis of fiber. A typical passage of skew rays in a graded index fiber is shown in
Fig.3.23(b). The skew rays will not utilize the full area of the core and they travel farther than
meridinal rays and undergo higher attenuation.
Acceptance Angle
It should be noted that the fiber core will propagate the incident light rays only when it is
incident at an angle greater than the critical angle c. The geometry of the launching of the light rays
into an optical fiber is shown in Fig.3.24.

Consider a meridinal ray A is to be incident at an angle a in the core – cladding interface

of the fiber. The ray enters the fiber core at an angle a to the fiber axis. The ray gets refracted at
the air – core interface at angle c and enters into the core – cladding interface for transmission.
Therefore, any ray which is incident at an angle greater than a will be transmitted into the core –
cladding interface at an angle less than c and hence will not undergo total internal reflection. A
similar situation is represented by the ray B as shown in Fig. The ray B entered at an angle greater
than a and eventually lost propagation by radiation. Thus, it is clear that the incident rays which are
incident on fiber core within conical half angle c will be refracted into fiber core and hence
propagate into the core by total internal reflection. This angle a is called as acceptance angle. Hence,
 3.25

acceptance angle is defined as the maximum value of the angle of incidence at the entrance end of
the fiber, at which the angle of incidence at the core – cladding surface is equal to the critical angle
of the core medium. The imaginary light cone with twice the acceptance angle as the vertex angle,
is known as the acceptance cone.
Lost by
Acceptance radiation
angle
Acceptance Cone
A
a
c Core

B Cladding

Fig. 3.24Acceptance angle

Numerical Aperture (NA)
Numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and is a
measure of the amount of light rays can be accepted by the fiber.

Cladding (n2)
Air
n0 = 1

 C


A 

Core(n1)

B Cladding (n2)

Fig. 3.25Numerical aperture

Let us consider that a ray of light is launched into the fiber at an angle 1 which is less than
the acceptance angle a for the fiber as shown in Fig.3.25.This ray enters from a medium namely air
of refractive index n0to the fiber with a core of refractive index n1which is slightly greater than that
of the cladding n2 . Assume that the light is undergoing total internal reflection within the core.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at A,
sin 1 n1
= = n1 (1)
sin  2 n0

(or) sin  1 = n1 sin  2 (2)

In the triangle ABC,

 
= −  2 (or) 2 = − (3)
2 2
Using equation (3) in equation (2),
 3.26

 
sin 1 = n1 sin  −   = n1 cos  (4)
 2 

( )
1
But, cos  = 1 − sin 2  2 (5)

Using equation (5) in equation (4),

( )
1
sin 1 = n1 1 − sin 2  2 (6)

When the total internal reflection takes place, θ = θc and θ1 = θa . Therefore, equation (6) becomes,

( )
1
sin  a = n1 1 − sin 2  c 2 (7)

Also, at B, applying the Snell’s law of refraction, we get

sin  c n2 n
= (or) sin  c = 2 (8)
sin 90 n1 n1

Using equation (8) in equation(7),

1
 n 2
2

( )
1
sin  a = n1 1 −  2   = n12 − n 22 2
  n1  

This is called the numerical aperture (N.A). The numerical aperture is also defined as the
sine of the half of the acceptance angle.

N . A = sin  a = n1 sin  c (9)

In terms of refractive indices n1 and n2, where n1 is the core index and n2 the cladding index

N . A = (n1 − n2 )1
2 2 2
(10)

The half acceptance angle a is given by

 a = sin −1 ( N . A)

= sin −1 (n1 − n2 )1
2 2 2
(11)

The N.A can be expressed in terms of the relative refractive index difference  as

n1 − n2
2 2
( N . A) 2
= 2
= 2
(12)
2n1 2n1

From equations (11) and (12), we get

N.A = n1  (2)1 2 (13)

Worked Example 3.5: A fiber has the following characteristics: n1 = 1.35 (core index) and
 =2%. Find the N.A and the acceptance angle.
 3.27

n1 = 1.35 ;  = 2% = 0.02

W.K.T N . A = n1  (2)1 2

= 1.35  (2  0.02)1/2 = 0.27

a = sin – 1 (N.A) = sin – 1 (0.27) = 15.66

Acceptance angle = 2a = 31.33
Worked Example 3.6: A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding
refractive index of 1.47. Determine (i) the critical angle at the core –
cladding interface, (ii) the N.A for the fiber and (iii) the acceptance angle
for the fiber.
n1 = 1.50 ; n2 = 1.47
 n2 
The critical angle  c = sin 
−1
 = sin −1  1.47  = 78.5
 n1   1.50 

The numerical aperture= N . A = (n1 − n2 )1

2 2 2

= (1.50 2 − 1.47 2 )1 2
= 0.30
The acceptance angle = 2a = 2 sin – 1 (N.A) = 2 sin – 1 (0.30) = 34.9
Critical angle = 78.5º ; N.A = 0.30 ; Acceptance angle = 34.9
3.2.4 Types of optical fibers
Optical fibers are classified based on
(i) Material
(ii) Number of modes and
(iii) Refractive index profile
Optical fibers based on material
Optical fibers are made up of materials like silica and plastic. The basic optical fiber material
must have the following properties:
(i) Efficient guide for the light waves
(ii) Low scattering losses
(iii) The absorption, attenuation and dispersion of optical energy must be low.
Based on the material used for fabrication, they are classified into two types:
1. Glass fibers and
2. Plastic fibers
Glass fibers
The glass fibers are generally fabricated by fusing mixtures of metal oxides and silica
glasses. Silica has a refractive index of 1.458 at 850 nm. To produce two similar materials having
slightly different indices of refraction for the core and cladding, either fluorine or various oxides
such as B2O3, GeO2 or P2O3 are added to silica.
Examples:
1. SiO2 core; P2O3 – SiO2 cladding
2. GeO2 – SiO2 core; SiO2 cladding
 3.28

3. P2O5 – SiO2 core; SiO2 cladding

Plastic fibers
The plastic fibers are typically made of plastics and are of low cost. Although they exhibit
considerably greater signal attenuation than glass fibers, the plastic fibers can be handled without
special care due to its toughness and durability. Due to its high refractive index differences between
the core and cladding materials, plastic fibers yield high numerical aperture and large angle of
acceptance.
Examples:
1. A polymethyl methacrylate core (n1 = 1.59) and a cladding made of its co-polymer
(n2 = 1.40).
2. A polysterene core (n1 = 1.60) and a methylmethacrylate cladding (n1 = 1.49).
Optical fibers based on modes or mode types
Mode is the one which describes the nature of propagation of electromagnetic waves in a
wave guide i.e. it is the allowed direction whose associated angles satisfy the conditions for total
internal reflection and constructive interference.(Also refer Unit 2 : Topic: waveguides)
Based on the number of modes that propagates through the optical fiber, they are classified
as:
1. Single mode fibers
2. Multi mode fibers
Single mode fibers
In a fiber, if only one mode is transmitted through it, then it is said to be a single mode fiber.
A typical single mode fiber may have a core radius of 3 μm and a numerical aperture of 0.1 at a
wavelength of 0.8 μm. The condition for the single mode operation is given by the V number of the

fiber which is defined as V =

(
2πn1 a 2 ) such that V  2.405. Here, n1 = refractive index of the

core; a = radius of the core; λ = wavelength of the light propagating through the fiber; Δ = relative
refractive indices difference.
The single mode fiber has the following characteristics:
• Only one path is available.
• V-number is less than 2.405
• Core diameter is small
• No dispersion
• Higher band width (1000 MHz)
• Used for long haul communication
• Fabrication is difficult and costly

Core
Core
Cladding
Cladding
Fig. 3.26 Single mode fiber Fig. 3.27 Multi mode fiber
 3.29

Multi mode fibers

If more than one mode is transmitted through optical fiber, then it is said to be a multimode
fiber. The larger core radii of multimode fibers make it easier to launch optical power into the fiber
and facilitate the end to end connection of similar powers. Some of the basic properties of multimode
optical fibers are listed below:
• More than one path is available
• V-number is greater than 2.405
• Core diameter is higher
• Higher dispersion
• Lower bandwidth (50MHz)
• Used for short distance communication
• Fabrication is less difficult and not costly
Optical fibers based on refractive index profile
Based on the refractive index profile of the core and cladding, the optical fibers are classified
into two types:
1. Step index fiber
2. Graded index fiber.
Step index fiber
In a step index fiber, the refractive index changes in a step fashion, from the centre of the
fiber, the core, to the outer shell, the cladding. It is high in the core and lower in the cladding. The
light in the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from core-cladding interface. A typical step-
index fiber is shown in Fig.3.28. The step index fibers propagate both single and multimode signals
within the fiber core. The light rays propagating through it are in the form of meridinal rays which
will cross the fiber core axis during every reflection at the core – cladding boundary and are
propagating in a zig – zag manner.
The refractive index (n) profile with reference to the radial distance (r) from the fiber axis
is given as:
when r = 0, n(r) = n1
r < a, n(r) = n1
r ≥ a, n(r) = n2
n (r)
n (r)
n1 n1
n1 n1
n2 n2
n2 n2
r r
r r O
O

50 m
125 m

5-10m
Cladding
Cladding

Core
Core

Fig. 3.28 Step index fiber

 3.30

Step index single mode fibers

The light energy in a single-mode fiber is concentrated in one mode only. This is
accomplished by reducing  and or the core diameter to a point where the V is less than 2.4. In other
words, the fiber is designed to have a V number between 0 and 2.4. This relatively small value means
that the fiber radius and , the relative refractive index difference, must be small.
No intermodal dispersion exists in single mode fibers because only one mode exists. With
careful choice of material, dimensions and , the total dispersion can be made extremely small, less
than 0.1 ps /(km  nm), making this fiber suitable for use with high data rates.
In a single-mode fiber, a part of the light propagates in the cladding. The cladding is thick
and has low loss. Typically, for a core diameter of 10 m, the cladding diameter is about 120 m.
Handling and manufacturing of single mode step index fiber is more difficult.
Step index multimode fibers
A multimode step index fiber is shown in Fig. In such fibers light propagates in many modes.
The total number of modes MN increases with increase in the numerical aperture. For a larger number
of modes, MN can be approximated by
2
V2  dn 2 
MN = = 4. 9  1 
2   

where d = diameter of the core of the fiber and V = V – number or normalized frequency.

The normalized frequency V is a relation among the fiber size, the refractive indices and the
wavelength. V is the normalized frequency or simply the V number and is given by

 2a   2a  1
V =   N.A =    n1  (2) 2
     

where a is the fiber core radius,  is the operating wavelength, n1 the core refractive index and  the
relative refractive index difference.

To reduce the dispersion, the N.A should not be decreased beyond a limit for the following
reasons: First, injecting light into fiber with low N.A becomes difficult. Lower N.A means lower
acceptance angle, which requires the entering light to have a very shallow angle. Second, leakage of
energy is more likely, and hence losses increase.

The core diameter of the typical multimode fiber varies between 50 m and about 200 m,
with cladding thickness typically equal to the core radius.

Graded index fibers

A graded index fiber is shown in Fig.3.29. Here, the refractive index n in the core varies as
we move away from the centre. The refractive index of the core is made to vary in the form of
parabolic manner such that the maximum refractive index is present at the centre of the core.

The refractive index (n) profile with reference to the radial distance (r) from the fiber axis
is given as:

when r = 0, n(r) = n1
 3.31

1
   r  2  2
r < a, n(r) = n1 1 −  2   
   a  

1
r ≥ a, n(r) = n2 = n1 (1 − 2) 2

At the fiber centre we have n1; at the cladding we have n2; and in between we have n(r),
where n is the function of the particular radius as shown in Fig.3.29(a). Fig.3.29(b) simulates the
change in n in a stepwise manner. Each dashed circle represents a different refractive index,
decreasing as we move away from the fiber center. A ray incident on these boundaries between na–
nb, nb – nc etc., is refracted. Eventually at n2 the ray is turned around and totally reflected. This
continuous refraction yields the ray tracings as shown in Fig.3.29(c).The light rays will be
propagated in the form skew rays (or) helical rays which will not cross the fiber axis at any time and
are propagating around the fiber axis in a helical or spiral manner.

The effective acceptance angle of the graded-index fiber is somewhat less than that of an
equivalent step-index fiber. This makes coupling fiber to the light source more difficult.

n (r)
n1

n1
na
n2

nb
nc
n2 n2
r r
O
a
Core axis (n1)
Core

Cladding

na
nb
nc

Core

(b)
Input light
(a)
(c)

Fig. 3.29Graded index fiber (a) index profile (b) stepwise index profile
(c) ray tracing in stepwise index profile

The number of modes in a graded-index fiber is about half that in a similar step-index fiber,
 3.32

V2
MN =
4

The lower the number of modes in the graded-index fiber results in lower dispersion than is
Ln1 2
found in the step-index fiber. For the graded-index fiber the dispersion is approximately t =
8c
(Here L = Length of the fiber; c = velocity of light).

The size of the graded-index fiber is about the same as the step-index fiber. The manufacture
of graded-index fiber is more complex. It is more difficult to control the refractive index well enough
to produce accurately the variations needed for the desired index profile.

Worked Example3.7: Calculate the V – number and number of modes propagating through the
fiber having a = 50 μm,n1 = 1. 53, n2 = 1.50 and λ = 1μm.

n1 = 1.53 ; n2 = 1.50; λ = 1μm.

1
 2a   2a  2 2 2
V - Number =    N.A =    (n1 − n 2 )
     

( )
1
2  3.142  50 2 2 2
= 1.53 − 1.50
1
= 94.72

The number of modes propagating through the fiber

V 2 94.72 2
= MN = = = 4486
2 2

V – number = 94.72 ; No. of modes = 4486

3.2.5 Applications of optical fibers

3.2.5.1 Fiber optic communication system

Introduction

In the early stages of development, fiber communication promised extremely high data rates,
which would allow large masses of data to be transmitted quickly. It also had the potential for
transmission over long distances without the need to amplify and retransmit along the way. Recent
developments have exceeded the hope of those involved in the technology.

Basic model

The bandwidth of the fiber optic communication system, which determines the maximum
data rate, depends on the major components of the system. Fig.3.30 shows the block diagram of fiber
optic communication system. The information signal to be transmitted may be voice, video or
computer data. The first step is to convert the information into a form compatible with the
communications medium. This is usually done by converting continuous analog signals such as
voice and video (TV) signals into a series of digital pulses. An Analog – to – Digital (A/D) converter
is used for this purpose. Computer data is already in the digital form.
 3.33

These digital pulses are then used to flash a powerful light source (i.e.) off and on very
rapidly. In a simple low – cost system that transmits over short distances, the light source is usually
a light emitting diode (LED). This is a semiconductor device that puts out a
low - intensity red light beam. Other colours are also used. Infrared beams like those used in TV
remote controls are also used in transmission. Another commonly used light source is the solid state
laser. This is also a semiconductor device that generates an extremely intense single frequency light
beam.

Information Light on / off at rapid rate

Pulses
input(voice Coder Light
or video) or source
Converter transmitter

Digital data from computer

Fiber optic cables

Receiver Pulses
Original
Shaper Decoder voice or
video

Photo cell or Digital data

light detector Amplifier to computer

Fig. 3.30 Fiber optic communication system

The light beam pulses are then fed into a fiber – optic cable where they are transmitted over
long distances. At the receiving end, a light sensitive device known as a photocell or light detector
is used to detect the light pulses. This photocell or photo detector converts the light pulses into an
electrical signal. The electrical pulses are amplified and reshaped back into digital form. They are
fed to a decoder, such as a Digital – to – Analog converter (D/A), where the original voice or video
is recovered.
Both the light sources at the sending end and the light detectors on the receiving end
must be capable of operating at the same data rate. The circuitry that drives the light source and
the circuitry that amplifies and processes the detected light must both have suitable high-frequency
response. The fiber itself must not distort the high-speed light pulses used in the data transmission.

In very long transmission systems, repeater units must be used along the way. Since the light
is greatly attenuated when it travels over long distances, at some point it may be too weak to be
received reliably. To overcome this problem, special relay stations are used to pick up light beam,
convert it back into electrical pulses that are amplified and then retransmit the pulses on another
beam. Several stages of repeaters may be needed over very long distances. But despite the
attenuation problem, the loss is less than the loss that occurs with the electric cables.

a)Applications of fibers in Telecommunication

The various applications of fiber optics in the telecommunication area in voice telephones,
video phones, telegraph services, message services and data networks all transmitted over common
carrier links. The conventional problems of wire systems like those of ringing, cross talk,
electromagnetic interference and induced errors, etc., are completely avoided with the use of optical
fiber communication methods.
 3.34

Coaxial undersea cable systems have been used as one of the major transmission systems in
international telecommunication networks over the past 25 years, and its channel capacity has
rapidly increased about ten times per decade with the growth in overseas traffic.

b)Space applications of optical fibers

Optical fibers offers the following significant advantages for space environment, namely
high bandwidth, noise immunity, inherent radiation hardness, reduced weight, low bit error rate,
size, weight and volume reduction.

c)Broad-band applications of optical fibers

Optical fibers offer many new opportunities to system planners interested in broadband
video and other services. In the private customer application, a coalescence of the existing
community antenna television system (CATV) and telecommunications services seems likely, with
the development of wide band switched integrated networks, primarily providing educational and
entertainment TV, but with a capability to provide many other services also. In the business area,
highly versatile systems designed to carry combinations of video wide band data and audio of
varying qualities and with a sufficient range capability to span much of a city from a central
switching point seem likely to encourage the use of teleconferencing and related services.

d)Applications in information technology

A modern large computer system is composed of a large number of interconnections ranging

in length over 16 orders of magnitude from the micrometer dimensions of the on chip very large
scale integration (VLSI) connections to thousands of kilometer for terrestrial links in computer
networks. The transmission line features of fiber optics are potentially attractive for many of these
computer connections.

Important advantages of fiber optic communication

1. Transmission loss is low.

2. Fiber is lighter and less bulky than equivalent copper cable.
3. More information can be carried by each fiber than by equivalent copper cables.
4. There is complete electrical isolation between the sender and the receiver.
5. There is no interference in the transmission of light from electrical disturbances or electrical
noise.
6. The fiber itself can withstand environmental conditions such as salt, pollution and radiation
with no resulting corrosion and minimal nuclear radiation effects, so it is more reliable.
7. The transmission is more secure and private.

3.2.5.2 Applications of optical fiber as sensors

Sensor: Sensor is a transducer which is used to convert one physical variable into another.
Fiber-optic sensors :Fiber-optic sensors (also called optical fiber sensors) are fiber-based devices
for sensing some quantity, typically temperature or mechanical strain, but sometimes also
displacements, vibrations, pressure, acceleration, or concentrations of chemical species. The general
principle of such devices is that light from a laser (often a single-frequency fiber laser) or from a
 3.35

superluminescent source is sent through an optical fiber, experiences subtle changes of its
parameters and then reaches a detector arrangement which measures these changes.
Classification of fiber optic sensors:

Fiber optic sensors can be classified as follows.

A) Based on the modulation and demodulation process a sensor can be called as an

intensity (amplitude), a phase, a frequency, or a polarization sensor. Since detection
of phase or frequency in optics calls for interferometric techniques, the latter are
also termed as interferometric sensors. From a detection point of view the
interferometeric technique implies heterodyne detection/coherent detection. On the
other hand intensity sensors are basically incoherent in nature. Intensity or
incoherent sensors are simple in construction, while coherent detection
(interferometric) sensors are more complex in design but offer better sensitivity and
resolution.

B) Fiber optic sensors can also be classified on the basis of their application: physical
sensors (e.g. measurement of temperature, stress, etc.); chemical sensors (e.g.
measurement of pH content, gas analysis, spectroscopic studies, etc.); bio-medical
sensors (inserted via catheters or endoscopes which measure blood flow, glucose
content and so on). Both the intensity types and the interferometric types of sensors
can be considered in any of the above applications.

C) Extrinsic or intrinsic sensors is another classification scheme. In the former, sensing

takes place in a region outside of the fiber and the fiber essentially serves as a
conduit for the to-and-fro transmission of light to the sensing region efficiently and
in a desired form. On the other hand, in an intrinsic sensor one or more of the
physical properties of the fiber undergo a change in intensity (amplitude), a phase,
a frequency, or a polarization .

Examples:
1.Displacement or pressure sensor:
• The device consists of an optical fiber placed between a pair of ridged plates which
impart a periodic perturbation to the fiber.

• The quantity to be measured acts directly on the fiber to modify the radiation passing
through it.

Fig. 3.31 Displacement or pressure sensor

• Because of displacement, the plates induce micro bend losses.

• The intensity of the light output varies
• By measuring the change in intensity, displacement is measured.
2.Position sensor:
 3.36

Fig. 3.32 Position sensor

• The device consist two fibers, one to transmit light from source to object and other to
collect light from the object.

• The quantity to be measured acts indirectly on the fiber to modify the radiation.

• Change in the position of the object will result in changes in the amount of light
collected by the detector.

• By recording the change in intensity, displacements(d) are estimated.

ADVANTAGES of Fiber-optic sensors:

• They can be safely used in explosive environments, because there is no risk of electrical
sparks, even in the case of defects.
• They are immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI), even to nearby lightning strikes,
and do not themselves electrically disturb other devices.
• Their materials can be chemically passive, i.e., do not contaminate their surroundings and
are not subject to corrosion.
• They have a very wide operating temperature range (much wider than is possible for many
electronic devices).
• They have multiplexing capabilities: multiple sensors in a single fiber line can be
interrogated with a single optical source