TOPIC:

LEARNING AND COGNITION Learning Memory Thinking & Intelligence

KEY CONCEPT POINTS FOR UNDERSTANDING: 1. 2. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. Three major types of learning are: A. Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning states that learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a response. B. Operant Conditioning: In operant conditioning theory, operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behaviors occurrence. C. Observational Learning: Social Cognitive theory states that observational learning occurs when a person observes and imitates someone elses behavior. In order for observational learning to occur, the elements of attention, retention, reproduction, and reinforcement must be present. 3. "Metacognition" is often simply defined as "thinking about thinking" and can be used to help students learn how to learn. According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation (i.e., strategies). Knowledge is considered to be metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that a goal is met. Cognitive strategies are used to help achieve a particular goal while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached. (Livingston, 1997). A. Metacognition refers to higher order thinking, which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature. Metacognition plays a role in successful learning, and has been associated with intelligence; people with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful thinkers (Livingston, 1997). B. Metacognitive knowledge involves executive monitoring processes directed at the acquisition of information about thinking processes. They involve decisions that help: to identify the task on which one is currently working, to check on current progress of that work, to evaluate that progress, and to predict what the outcome of that progress will be. C. Metacognitive strategies involve executive regulation processes directed at the regulation of the course of thinking. They involve decisions that help: to allocate resources to the current task, to determine the order of steps to be taken to complete the task, and to set the intensity or the speed at which one should work the task. 4. Memory is defined as the retention of information over time and involves the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

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5. Encoding is the way in which information is processed for storage in memory. Attention is needed to begin the process of memory encoding. Different types of rehearsal have differential increases in length of time that information can be retained in memory. Effective encoding methods are deep processing, elaboration, imagery, and organization. Chunking is an organizational strategy that involves grouping information into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units. 6. Storage refers to how information is retained over time and how it is represented in memory. The Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory states that memory is a system of three memory stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. To move information to long-term memory, information must first pass through sensory memory and short-term (working) memory respectively. Information being retrieved must move from long-term memory into working memory to be manipulated. Each memory store has duration for holding information, and capacity. 7. Memories can be stored as declarative (explicit) memories or nondeclarative (implicit) memories. Two subtypes of explicit memory are episodic and semantic. The three subsystems of implicit memory are procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning. Four main theories of how long-term memory is organized are: A. Hierarchies: Items are organized hierarchically, from general to specific classes. B. Semantic Networks: Information in memory is arranged in hierarchies with typical information located close to central nodes and untypical information located further away. C. Schemas: Information is filtered through personal schemas (concepts or frameworks through which information is interpreted and organized). A script is a schema for an event that provides information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences. D. Connectionist networks: Multiple connections throughout the brain work together to produce a single memory. 9. Memory retrieval is taking information out of storage. Retrieval cues are important, and can be seen in different retrieval tasks such as recognition and recall. The tip-of-thetongue phenomena and serial position effect are examples of difficulties with retrieval. 10. Autobiographical memories are less about facts and more about meaning. Flashbulb memories are all about emotional meaning. Memories with emotional content are generally more vivid and more accurate than memories of everyday events. However, traumatic memories may become repressed memories that may resurface at a later time. 11. Recovery of repressed childhood memory, particularly about abuse experiences, has become controversial because of the potential for the creation of false memory. Another challenge to the accuracy of memory involves eyewitness testimony research on the distortion, bias, and inaccuracy in memory. Existing memories can be altered by exposure to new information. 12. Forgetting involves encoding failure and retrieval failure. Causes of forgetting are: interference, decay, motivated forgetting, or the brains condition. Interference theory states that information is forgotten because other information gets in the way of what has to be recalled. Two kinds of interference are proactive and retroactive. Decay theory suggests that the passage of time increases forgetting.

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Mnemonics are specific visual and verbal memory aids. Examples of mnemonic strategies are: method of loci, keyword method, acronyms. Problem solving is defined as the active process of trying to transform the initial state of a problem into the desired one by overcoming obstacles obstructing the path to a solution. All problems contain three important characteristics: givens, a goal, and obstacles. Four steps in the process of problem solving are: (1) find and frame the problem, (2) develop good problem-solving strategies, (3) evaluate solutions, and (4) rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time. Some obstacles to solving problems are fixation, and inadequate motivation or unregulated emotion. Experts solve problems differently than novices do because they are better than novices in the following ways: knowledge base, domain memory, strategies, and deliberate practice. Intelligence consists of the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from everyday experiences. It is measured by intelligence tests, which should meet the criteria of validity, reliability, and standardization. Alternative conceptions of intelligence include Spearmans two-factor theory, Thurstones multiple-factor theory, Gardners multiple-intelligences theory, Sternbergs triarchic theory, and Salovy and Mayers emotional intelligence. Both heredity and the environment have influence on intelligence. Genetic markers for intelligence on specific chromosomes have been found. On the other hand, research has shown that environmental influences such as parenting, intervention programs for children at risk for having low IQs, and sociohistorical changes have effects on intelligence. Creativity is the ability to produce something that is both original and worthwhile. Creative people tend to be divergent thinkers who can see more than one possible answer to a question. Most creative people are quite intelligent, but intelligent people may not necessarily be creative.