Module 3

Lattices and Boolean Algebra

PARTIAL ORDERINGS
A relation R on a set S is called a partial ordering or partial order relation if it is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive. A set S together with a partial ordering R is called a partially
ordered set, or poset, and is denoted by (S, R). Members of S are called elements of the poset.
EXAMPLE
1.Show that the “greater than or equal” relation (≥) is a partial ordering on the set of integers Z.
Solution:
Let Z be the set of all integers and the relation R = ′ ≥ ′
(i). Since a ≥ a for every integer a, the relation ′ ≥ ′ is reflexive.
(ii). Let a and b be any two integers. Let a R b and b R a ⇒ a ≥ b and b ≥ a ⇒ a = b
∴ The relation ′ ≥ ′ is antisymmetric.
(iii). Let a, b and c be any three integers.
Let aRb and bRc ⇒ a ≥ b and b ≥ c ⇒ a ≥ c ∴ The relation ′ ≥ ′ is transitive. Since the relation ′ ≥
′ is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, ′ ≥ ′ is partial ordering on the set of integers.
Therefore, (Z, ≥) is a poset.
Similarly, we can prove that (Z,≤) also a poset.
Note: In general, any poset P with any partial ordering will be denote by (P,≤), where ′ ≤ ′
denotes any partial ordering.
2.Show that the inclusion relation ⊆ is a partial ordering on the power set of a set S i.e P(S).
Solution:
Since (i). A ⊆ A for every A ∈ 𝑃(𝑆), therefore ⊆ is reflexive.
(ii). A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇒ A = B, therefore ⊆ is antisymmetric.
(iii). A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C ⇒ A ⊆ C, therefore ⊆ is transitive.
Thus, the relation ⊆ is a partial ordering on the power set of S.
i.e (P(A), ⊆) is a poset.
3.The divisibility relation | is a partial ordering on the set of positive integers.
Solution:

Let   be the set of positive integers which doesn’t include 0.

Since (i). a/a for all a ∈   , | is reflexive.
(ii). a|b and b|a ⇒ a = b, | is antisymmetric.
(iii). a|b and b|c ⇒ a|c, | is transitive.

It follows that | is a partial ordering on   and (   , |) is a poset.

NOTE:
On the set of all integers Z, the above relation ‘|’ is not a partial ordering as it is not even
reflexive, since 0 ∈ 𝑍 but 0 is not divided by 0.
DEFINITION:
Let (P, ≤) be a partially ordered set. If for every x, y ∈ P we have either x ≤ y or y ≤ x (x and y
are comparable), then ≤ is called a simple ordering or linear ordering on P, and (P, ≤) is called a
totally ordered or simply ordered set or a chain.
NOTE:
It is not necessary to have x ≤ y or y ≤ x for every x and y in a poset P. In fact, x may not be
related to y, in which case we say that x and y are incomparable.
EXAMPLE

In the poset (   , |), are the integers 3 and 9 comparable? Are 5 and 7 comparable?
Solution: The integers 3 and 9 are comparable, because 3 | 9. The integers 5 and 7 are
incomparable, because 5 | 7 and 7 | 5.

LEXICOGRAPHIC ORDERING

The lexicographic ordering ≤ on A1  A2 is defined by specifying that one pair is less than a
second pair if the first entry of the first pair is less than (in A1 ) the first entry of the second pair,
or if the first entries are equal, but the second entry of this pair is less than (in A2 ) the second
entry of the second pair. In other words, ( a1 , a2 ) is less than ( b1 ,b2 ), that is, ( a1 , a2 ) ≺ ( b1 ,b2 ),
either if a1 1 b1 or if both a1  b1 and a2  2 b2 . We obtain a partial ordering by adding equality
to the ordering ≺ on A1  A2 .

EXAMPLE
1.Determine whether (3, 5) ≺ (4, 8), whether (3, 8) ≺ (4, 5), and whether (4, 9) ≺ (4, 11) in the
poset (Z × Z, ), where is the lexicographic ordering constructed from the usual ≤ relation on Z.
Solution:
Because 3 < 4, it follows that (3, 5) ≺ (4, 8) and that (3, 8) ≺ (4, 5). We have (4, 9) ≺ (4, 11),
because the first entries of (4, 9) and (4, 11) are the same but 9 < 11.
Definition:
Let (P, ≤) be a poset and a,b ∈ P. Then ‘b‘is said to cover ‘a, if a ≤ b ( i.e ‘a’ related to ‘b’) and
there exists no element c ∈ P such that a ≤ c ≤ b. i.e b should be the immediate successor of a.
We denote “b covers a” as “ a < b”.
HASSE DIAGRAMS
A partial order ≤ on a set P can be represented by means of a diagram known as Hasse diagram
of (P, ≤).
In such a diagram,
(i). Each element is represented by a small circle or dot.
(ii). The circle for x ∈ P is drawn below the circle for y ∈ P if x < y, and a line is drawn between
x and y if y covers x.
(iii). If x ≤ y but y does not cover x, then x and y are not connected directly by a single line.
NOTE:
For totally ordered set (P, ≤), the Hasse diagram consists of circles one below the other.
EXAMPLE:
1. Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and ≤ be the relation “less than or equal to” then the Hasse diagram is:

It is a totally ordered set.

2. Let X = {2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36}, and the relation ≤ be such that x ≤ y if x divides y. Draw the
Hasse diagram of (X, ≤).
Solution: The Hasse diagram is is shown below:
It is not a total order set.
3.Draw the Hasse diagram for the partial ordering ⊆ on the power set P (S) where S = {a, b, c}.
Solution:
S = {a, b, c}. P (S) = {ϕ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
Hasse diagram for the partial ordered set is shown in fig:

MINIMAL AND MAXIMAL ELEMENTS(MEMBERS):

Let (P, ≤) denote a partially ordered set. An element y ∈ P is called a minimal member of P
relative to ≤ if for no x ∈ P , is x < y. Similarly an element y ∈ P is called a maximal member of
P relative to the partial ordering ≤ if for no x ∈ P, is y < x.
NOTE:
(i). The minimal and maximal members of a partially ordered set need not unique.
(ii). Maximal and minimal elements are easily calculated from the Hasse diagram.
They are the 'top' and 'bottom' elements in the diagram.
EXAMPLE:
1.Find the maximal and minimal elements.
Solution:
In the Hasse diagram, there are two maximal elements and two minimal elements.
The elements 3, 5 are maximal and the elements 1 and 6 are minimal.
2.Find the maximal and minimal elements of

Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and let the partial order on A in the natural way. The element a is maximal.
The elements d and e are minimal.
UPPER AND LOWER BOUNDS:
Let (P, ≤) be a partially ordered set and let A ⊆ P. Any element x ∈ P is called an upper bound
for A if for all a ∈ A, a ≤ x. Similarly, any element x ∈ P is called a lower bound for A if for all a
∈ A, x ≤ a.
EXAMPLE:
1.A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 6} be ordered as pictured in figure.

If B = {4, 5} then the upper bounds of B are 1, 2, 3. The lower bound of B is 6.

LEAST UPPER BOUND AND GREATEST LOWER BOUND:
Let (P, ≤) be a partial ordered set and let A ⊆ P. An element x ∈ P is a least upper bound or
supremum for A if x is an upper bound for A and x ≤ y where y is any upper bound for A.
Similarly, the the greatest lower bound or infimum for A is an element x ∈ P such that x is a
lower bound and y ≤ x for all lower bounds y.
EXAMPLE:
Find the greatest lower bound and the least upper bound of {b, d, g}, if they exist in the poset
shown in fig:

Solution: The upper bounds of {b, d, g} are g and h. Since g < h, g is the least upper bound. The
lower bounds of {b, d, g} are a and b. Since a < b, b is the greatest lower bound.
2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h} denote a partially ordered set whose Hasse diagram is shown in
Fig:

If B = {c, d, e} then f, g, h are upper bounds of B. The element f is least upper bound.
3. Consider the poset A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} whose Hasse diagram is shown in Fig and let B =
{3, 4, 5}

The elements 1, 2, 3 are lower bounds of B. 3 is greatest lower bound.

LATTICES
A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has both a least upper bound and a
greatest lower bound is called a lattice.
NOTE

Let   denote the set of all positive integers and let R denote the relation ‘division‘ in   , such
that for any two elements a, b ∈   , aRb, if a divides b. Then (   , R) is a lattice in which the
join of a and b (a ∨ b) is the least common multiple of a and b,
i.e. l. u. b of {a, b} = a ∨ b = a ⊕ b = LCM of a and b,
and the meet of a and b, i.e. a ∗ b is the greatest common divisor (GCD) of a and b
i.e., g. l. b of {a, b} = a ∧ b = a ∗ b = GCD of a and b.
We can also write a+b = a∨b = a⊕b=LCM of a and b and a.b = a∧b = a∗b=GCD of a and b.
EXAMPLE
1.Determine whether the posets represented by each of the Hasse diagrams in figure are lattices.

Solution: The posets represented by the Hasse diagrams in (a) and (c) are both lattices because in
each poset every pair of elements has both a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound, as the
reader should verify. On the other hand, the poset with the Hasse diagram shown in (b) is not a
lattice, because the elements b and c have no least upper bound. To see this, note that each of the
elements d, e, and f is an upper bound, but none of these three elements precedes the other two
with respect to the ordering of this poset.
2.Determine whether (P(S), ⊆) is a lattice where S is a set.
Solution:
Let S be any set and P(S) be its power set.
The poset (P (S), ⊆) is a lattice in which the meet and join are the same as the operations ∩ and
∪ on sets respectively.
Since for every A, B ∈ P (S), LUB {A, B} = A∪B ∈ P(S), GLB {A, B} = A∩B ∈ P(S).
Thus, for every pair of elements in P(S) their l. u. b and g. l. b exist in P(S).
Hence (P(S), ⊆) is a lattice.
3.Determine whether the posets ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, |) and ({1, 2, 4, 8, 16}, |) are lattices.
Solution:
(i) Consider the posets ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, |)
The relation is D={(1, 2)(1, 3) (1,4) (1,5) (2,4)}

Here LUB{2, 3} = 2 V 3 = does not exist .

The poset ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, |) is not Lattice.
(ii) Consider the posets ({1, 2, 4, 8, 16}, |)
The relation is D={(1, 2)(1, 8) (1,4) (1,16) (2,4)(2, 8) (2, 16) (4, 8) (4, 16)(8,16)}

For every pair of element, both GLB and LUB exists.

The posets ({1, 2, 4, 8, 16}, |) is Lattice.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Is (S,R) a poset if S is the set of all people in the world
and (a, b) ∈ R, where a and b are people, if
a) a is taller than b?
b) a is not taller than b?
c) a = b or a is an ancestor of b?
d) a and b have a common friend?
2. Which of these relations on {0, 1, 2, 3} are partial orderings? Determine the properties of a
partial ordering that the others lack.
a) {(0, 0),(1, 1),(2, 2),(3, 3)}.
b) {(0, 0),(1, 1),(2, 0),(2, 2),(2, 3),(3, 2),(3, 3)}.
c) {(0, 0),(1, 1),(1, 2),(2, 2),(3, 3)} .
d) {(0, 0),(1, 1),(1, 2),(1, 3),(2, 2),(2, 3),(3, 3)}. e) {(0, 0),(0, 1),(0, 2),(1, 0),(1, 1),(1, 2),(2, 0),(2,
2),(3, 3)} .
3. Which of these are posets?
a) (Z, =).

b) Z ,  

c) (Z, ≥)
4. Determine whether the relation with the directed graph shown is a partial order.

5. Draw the Hasse diagram for divisibility on the set

a) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
b) {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}

ANSWER
1.a)not reflexive, nor symmetric, antisymmetric, transitive.
b)reflexive, symmetric, transitive and not antisymmetric.
c) reflexive, symmetric, transitive and not antisymmetric
d) reflexive, symmetric, not transitive and not antisymmetric
2. a) This is a partial ordering.
b) This is not a partial ordering. This relation is not antisymmetric because we have (2, 3) and (3, 2) in
the relation.

c) This is a partial ordering.

d) This is a partial ordering.

e) This is not a partial ordering. This relation is not antisymmetric because we have (0, 2) and (2, 0) in
the relation. This is relation is also not transitive because we are missing (2, 1) for (2, 0) and (0, 1).

3. a) This is a poset.

b) This is a not poset.

c) This is a poset.
4. partial order.

5. a) 5.b)

SOME PROPERTIES OF LATTICE

Let (L, ≤) be a lattice and ∗ and ⊕ denote the two binary operation meet and join on (L, ≤). Then
for any a, b, c ∈ L, we have
(L1): a∗a = a, (L1)′ : a⊕a = a (Idempotent laws)
(L2): a∗b = b∗a, (L2)′ : a ⊕b = b ⊕ a (Commutative laws)
(L3) : (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), (L3)′ : (a⊕b)⊕c = a⊕(b ⊕c) (Associative laws)
(L4) : a∗(a ⊕ b) = a, (L4)′ : a⊕(a∗b) = a (Absorption laws).
The above properties (L1) to (L4) can be proved easily by using definitions of meet and join. We
can apply the principle of duality and obtain (L1)′ to (L4)′ .
LATTICE AS AN ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM
We now define lattice as an algebraic system, so that we can apply many concepts associated
with algebraic systems to lattices.
DEFINITION:
A lattice is an algebraic system (L, ∗, ⊕) with two binary operation ‘∗‘ and ‘⊕‘ on L which are
both commutative and associative and satisfy absorption laws.
BOUNDED LATTICE:
A bounded lattice is an algebraic structure (L, , , 0, 1) such a that (L, , ) is a lattice, and the
constants 0,1∈ L satisfy the following:
1. for all x∈ L, x1=x and x1=1
2. for all x∈ L, x0=0 and x0=x.
The element 1 is called the upper bound, or top of L and the element 0 is called the lower bound
or bottom of L.
DISTRIBUTIVE LATTICE:
A lattice (L, ∨, ∧) is distributive if the following additional identity holds for all x, y, and z in L:
x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z)
Viewing lattices as partially ordered sets, this says that the meet operation preserves nonempty
finite joins. It is a basic fact of lattice theory that the above condition is equivalent to its dual
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z) for all x, y, and z in L.
EXAMPLE:
1.Show that the following simple but significant lattices are not distributive.

Solution a) To see that the diamond lattice is not distributive, use the middle elements of the
lattice: a ∧ (b ∨ c) = a ∧ 1 = a, but (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c) = 0 ∨ 0 = 0, and a ≠0.
Similarly, the other distributive law fails for these three elements.
b) The pentagon lattice is also not distributive.
2.Show that lattice is not a distributive lattice.

Solution
A lattice is distributive if all of its elements follow distributive property so let we verify the
distributive property between the elements n, l and m.
GLB(n, LUB(l, m)) = GLB(n, p) [∴ LUB(l, m) = p]
= n (LHS)
also LUB(GLB(n, l), GLB(n, m)) = LUB(o, n); [∴ GLB(n, l) = o and GLB(n, m) = n]
= n (RHS)
so LHS = RHS.
But GLB(m, LUB(l, n)) = GLB(m, p) [∴ LUB(l, n) = p]
= m (LHS)
also LUB(GLB(m, l), GLB(m, n)) = LUB(o, n); [∴ GLB(m, l) = o and GLB(m, n) = n]
= n (RHS)
Thus, LHS ≠ RHS hence distributive property doesn‘t holds by the lattice so lattice is not
distributive.
3.Consider the poset (X, ≤ ) where X = {1, 2, 3, 5, 30} and the partial ordered relation ≤ is
defined as i.e. if x and y ∈X then x ≤ y means “x divides y”. Then show that poset I  ,   is a
lattice.
Solution
Since GLB(x, y) = x ∧ y = lcm(x, y) and
LUB(x, y) = x ∨ y = gcd(x, y)
Now we can construct the operation table I and table II for GLB and LUB respectively and the
Hasse diagram is shown in Fig.
Test for distributive lattice,
i.e., GLB(x, LUB(y, z)) = LUB(GLB(x, y), GLB(x, z))
Assume x = 2, y = 3 and z = 5, then
RHS: GLB(2, LUB(3, 5)) = GLB(2, 30) = 2
LHS: LUB(GLB(2, 3), GLB(2, 5)) = LUB(1, 1) = 1
Since RHS ≠ LHS, hence lattice is not a distributive lattice.
COMPLEMENTED LATTICE
A complemented lattice is a bounded lattice (with least element 0 and greatest element 1), in
which every element ‘a’ has a complement, i.e. for every element ‘a’ there exists an element ‘b’
satisfying a ∨ b = 1 and a ∧ b = 0.
Note: Complements need not be unique.
EXAMPLE: Lattices shown in Fig (a), (b) and (c) are complemented lattices.

Solution
For the lattice (a) GLB (a, b) = 0 and LUB (a, b) = 1. So, the complement a is b and vise versa.
Hence, a complement lattice.
For the lattice (b) GLB (a, b) = 0 and GLB(c, b) = 0 and LUB(a, b) = 1 and LUB(c, b) = 1; so
both a and c are complement of b.
Hence, a complement lattice.
In the lattice (c) GLB(a, c) = 0 and LUB(a, c) = 1; GLB(a, b) = 0 and LUB(a, b) = 1. So,
complement of a are b and c.
Similarly complement of c are a and b also a and c are complement of b.
Hence lattice is a complement lattice.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. The poset ({3, 5, 9, 15, 24, 45}, |).
a) Find the maximal elements.
b) Find the minimal elements.
c) Is there a greatest element?
d) Is there a least element?
e) Find all upper bounds of {3; 5}.
f) Find the least upper bound of {3; 5}, if it exists.
g) Find all lower bounds of {15; 45}.
h) Find the greatest lower bound of {15; 45}, if it exists.
2. Determine whether the posets with these Hasse diagrams
are lattices.

ANSWER
1. a)24, 45
b) 3 , 5
c) We do not have a greatest element.
d) We do not have a least element.
e) 15 and 45.
f) 15
g) 3, 5 and 15
h) 15
2. a) Yes. Every two elements will have a least upper bound and greatest lower bound.
b) No. If we take the elements b and c, then we will have f; g; and h as the upper bound, but none
of them will be the least upper bound.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
A complemented distributive lattice is called Boolean Algebra.
Example:
1. Prove that (P(S), ⊆) is a Boolean algebra.
Solution.
Let S={1, 2}
Then{𝑃(𝑆) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}
Hasse diagram:

Lattice:

GLB ∅ {1} {2} {1,2} LUB ∅ {1} {2} {1,2}

∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ {1} {2} {1,2}

{1} ∅ {1} ∅ {1} {1} {1} {1} {1,2} {1,2}

{2} ∅ ∅ {2} {2} {2} {2} {1,2} {2} {1,2}

{1,2} ∅ {1} {2} {1,2} {1,2} {1,2} {1,2} {1,2} {1,2}

Distributive lattice:

i) {1} ∧ ({2} ∨ {1,2}) = ({1} ∧ {2}) ∨ ({1} ∧ {1,2})

{1} ∧ {1,2} = ∅ ∨ {1}
{1} = {1}
ii) {2} ∧ ({1} ∨ {1,2}) = ({2} ∧ {1}) ∨ ({2} ∧ {1,2})
{2} ∧ {1,2} = ∅ ∨ {2}
{2} = {2}
iii) {1,2} ∧ ({1} ∨ {2}) = ({1,2} ∧ {1}) ∨ ({1,2} ∧ {2})
{1,2} ∧ {1,2} = {1} ∨ {2}
 {1,2} = {1,2}
∴lattice is a distributive lattice.
Complemented Lattice:
{1} ∧ {2} = ∅
{1} ∨ {2} = {1,2}
∴lattice is a complement lattice.
Hence (P(S), ⊆) is a Boolean algebra.
PRACTICE PROBLEM
(𝐷30 , /) is a Boolean algebra, where 𝐷30 is the set of all positive devisors of 30.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AS AN ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE:
A Boolean algebra is a set B with two binary operations ∨ and ∧, elements 0 and 1, and a
unary operation such that these properties hold for all x, y, and z in (B, ∧, ∨, 0, 1)
(1) Identity laws
x∨0=x
x∧1=x
(2) Complement laws

X  X 1

X X 0

(3) Associative laws

(x ∨ y) ∨ z = x ∨ (y ∨ z)
(x ∧ y) ∧ z = x ∧ (y ∧ z)
(4) Commutative laws
x∨y=y∨x
x∧y=y∧x
(5) Distributive law
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z)
x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z)
CANCELLATION LAWS AND UNIQUE COMPLEMENT THEOREM
1.Prove that in a Boolean
Algebra D Morgan’s laws holds.
Statement

   
In Boolean algebra, prove that 1) a  b  a  b ; 2) a  b  a  b

Proof:

 
1) a  b  a  b


ie, a) a  b   a  b  0 
 
b) a  b   a  b  1

a) a  b   a  b   a  b   a  b 

 a  b  a   a  b  b 

 b  a  a   a  b  b 

 b  0  a  0

 00
0

  
b) a  b   a  b  a  b  a   a  b  b 
 b  a  a   a  b  b 

 b  1  a  1

 11
1

 
2) a  b  a  b


ie, a) a  b   a  b  0 

b) a  b   a  b  1 
  
a) a  b   a  b  a  b  a   a  b  b 
 b  a  a   a  b  b 

 b  0  a  0
  00
0

   
b) a  b   a  b  a  b  a  b 

 a  b  a   a  b  b 

 b  a  a   a  b  b 

 b  1  a  1

 11
1
Theorem:
Cancelation laws holds in Boolean Algebra.
i . e for any three elements a, b, c in a Boolean algebra such that
a ˄ b = a ˄ c, a ˅ b = a ˅ c ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Proof:
Let a, b, c be any three elements in a Boolean algebra such that a ˄ b = a ˄ c, a ˅ b = a ˅ c.
We know that,
b= b˄(b˅a) ( ∵ absorption law)
= b˄(a˅b) ( ∵ commutative law)
= b˄(a˅c) ( ∵ a ˅ b = a ˅ c)
= (b˄a)˅(b˄c) ( ∵ distributive law)
= (a˄b)˅(b˄c) ( ∵ commutative law)
= (a˄c)˅(b˄c) (∵a˄b=a˄c)
= (a˅b)˄c ( ∵ distributive law)
= (a˅c)˄c ( ∵ a ˅ b = a ˅ c)
= c˄(c˅a) ( ∵ commutative law)
= c ( ∵ absorption law)
Hence proved.
Theorem:
In a Boolean algebra, the complement of any element is unique.
Proof:
Let b, c be any two complements for an element a in a Boolean algebra.
Now ‘b’ is complement of ‘a’ implies a ˄ b = 0 and a ˅ b = 1.
Also ‘c’ is complement of ‘a’ implies a ˄ c = 0 and a ˅ c = 1.
Then a ˄ b = a ˄ c and a ˅ b = a ˅ c.
Which implies b = c.
Hence complement is unique.