PRINCIPLES METHODS AND STRATEGIES OF No one directly teaches anyone anything of

TEACHING IN HEALTH EDUCATION significance…

LEARNING & METHOD “People LEARN what they WANT to LEARN, they SEE
what they WANT to SEE, and HEAR what they WANT to
“If you are not willing to learn, no one can help you. If HEAR.
you are willing to learn no one can stop you.” -th? NK
2.LEARNING IS THE DISCOVERY OF THE
Principles of Learning (from Horne and Pine 1990) PERSONAL MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF IDEAS.
 The principles of learning provide additional The Learning Process
insight into what makes people learn most
effectively. The principles have been discovered, PERCEIVING
tested, and used in practical situations.
 By knowing some principles on how learning >Input (often called
takes places, we will be guided on how to teach. clues)
1.LEARNING IS AN EXPERIENCE THAT OCCURS >Learner perceives or
INSIDE THE LEARNER AND IS ACTIVATED BY THE
develops and idea of
LEARNER.
what has to be done
 Listening
 Understanding FEEDBACK
 Talking DECIDING
 Writing >External or
Internal >Processing in
 Reading
the brain
Summary and elements and sub elements that >Coach Important
constitute method (Richards & Rodgers:33) here >How do we put
the info into a
Methods >Asked to practice response
further, cycle
starts again.
Approach Design Procedure
ACTING

>Output
A.A theory A.The general and A.Classroom
of the specific objectives techniques, >Move or Movement
nature of of the method practices, and
language behaviors when Laws of Learning
B.A syllabus model
the method is
B.A theory Laws (principles) of learning are:
C.Types of used.
of the  Readiness
learning and
nature of B.Resources in  Exercise
teaching activities
language term , spaced and  Effect
D. Learner roles equipment used  Primacy
by the teacher.  Intensity
E. Teachers rolles.  Recency
C.Interactional  Freedom
F. The role of
patterns observed
instructional
in lessons.
Materials,
D. Tactics and
strategies used by
teachers and
learners when the
method is being
use.
  “I want to know about this”
 “I now have a better understanding”
3.LEARNING (BEHAVIORAL CHANGE IS A
4. Commitment
CONSEQUENCE OF EXPERIENCE
 “I do not believe this will work”
 People become responsible when they have  “ I want to try this”
really assumed responsibility, 5. Enactment
 they become independent when they have  “I am not good enough to do this”
experienced independent behavior,  “I want to know more”
 they become able when they have experienced 6. Reflection
the success  “What have we learned?”
 they begin to feel important when they are  “How have we learned?
important to somebody
6.LEARNING IS SOMETIMES A PAINFUL PROCESS
 they feel like someone likes them.
Unaware of getting it wrong
PLAN
Realize you have got it wrong
>Identify goals
Getting it right
>Decide how (using previous experience and
knowledge) Getting it right without thinking about it
ACT 7.ONE OF THE RICHEST RESOURCES OF
LEARNING IS THE LEARNER HIMSELF
>Real tasks
8. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING IS EMOTIONAL AS
>Concrete Experience
WELL AS INTELLECTUAL.
OBSERVE
9.THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM-SOLVING AND
>Think about feelings and interactions LEARNING ARE HIGHLY UNIQUE AND INDIVIDUAL.

>Analysis perceptions “Learning without though is a snare, thought without

learning is a danger”
REFLECT
Laws of Learning (Primary laws)
>Identify achievements and outstanding issues, personal
strength and challenges Law of effect

>Evaluate actions  Learning is strengthened when accompanied by

a pleasant or satisfying feeling.
>Synthesize new understandings.  Learning is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling.
 Learning takes place properly when it results in
4. LEARNING IS A COOPERSTIVEAND satisfaction and the learner derivers pleasure
COLLABORATIVE PROCESS. COOPERATIVE out of it.
FOSTERS LEARNING.  School activities should be organized increasing
difficulty order so that the students may progress
 I hear what you are saying
without any failure.
 What is possible
 Sharing these ideas helps Law of exercise
 Wow, I’m really thinking deeply
 This principle states that the S-R connection is
5. LEARNING IS EVOLUTIONATY PROCESS strengthened by use and weakened with disuse.
 Is has two parts:
1. Ignorance
 Law of use
 “I do not know and do not care”  Law of disuse
 “I ought to know about this”  Things most often repeated tasks in a single
2. Awareness session.
 “I do not need to change”  The instructor must repeat important items of
 “I need to know about this” subject matter at reasonable intervals.
3. Understanding
 “This is not my job”
 2. Nativism:
 A child naturally has a language
Law of readiness acquisition device. (Kodrati)
 This principle states that motivations is needed 3. Constructivism:
to develop an association or display changed  A child acquired a language through
behavior. interaction between the child and
environment (jean Piaget)
 Individuals learn best when they are physically,
mentally and emotionally ready to learn, and Definitions of learning
they do not learn well if they see no reasons for
learning. 1. A change in behavior as a result of experience
or practice.
Law of Primacy 2. The acquisition of knowledge
3. Knowledge gained through study
 Things learned first create a strong impression.
4. To gain knowledge of , or skill in, through study,
 What is taught must be right the first time.
teaching, instruction or experience.
 “Unteaching” wrong first impressions is harder 5. The process of gaining knowledge.
than teaching them right the first time. 6. A process by which behaviors changed ,
Law of Recency shaped, or controlled.
7. The individual process of constructing
 Things most recently learned are best understanding based on experience from a wide
remembered. of sources.
 Frequent review and summarization help fix in
the mind the material covered. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Law of Intensity 1. Effect produces Achievement

 Debunks that inherited intelligence
 The more intense the material taught, the more mainly determines academic
likely it will be retained achievement.
 A student will learn more from the real thins than  Amount of effect the student makes has
from a substitute. much more to do with academic
achievement.
Law of Freedom (principle)  Given the right conditions and support,
almost everyone can achieve at high
 Things freely learned are best learned.
levels.
 The greater the freedom enjoyed by the
students in the class, the greater the intellectual
2. Learning is about making Connections
and moral advancement enjoyed by them.
 We learn by adding new knowledge to
“Anyone who dares to teach, must never cease to the knowledge we already have
learn: -th? NK  We must organize our existing
knowledge into some sort of structure
3 GROUPINGS OF THE PRINCIPLES  Either the new knowledge fits the
existing structures, or we alter the
 Principles of learning
structure to accommodate the new.
 Principles 1-5
 This is a “creative” and active process
 Principles of Teaching that requires a great deal of interaction
 Principles 6-10
 Principles of Curriculum 3. We learn with and through others
 Principles 11-13  We teach one another, exchange ideas,
The Nature of language learning: reinforce concepts, solve problems,
debate ideas and challenge assertions
1. Behaviorism: with others.
 Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement  Student learning is enhanced with they
Drilling, exercise, repetition. understand and accept the conventions
 Is a theory of learning focusing on that structure such social interactions
observable behavior and discounting
any metal activity. Learning is defined 4. Learning takes time
simply as the acquisition of new  How much we can learn is a function of
behavior how much time we have to learn it
  A given task will be learned only if the  Students find if easier to learn using a
learner spends the amount of time particular ability or adopting a particular
needed to learn it. style.
 Students need different amounts of time  Abilities and styles are capable od being
in order to learn the same things developed in school.
10. Good teaching involves modeling what
5. Motivation Matters students should learn
 Student are best motivated by:  Much of what the student needs know
 Seeing a connection between and do are best learned by apprenticing
their wants and what they are to an expert- the teacher.
being to learn.  The teacher models the behavior the
 Believing in their being asked to students is being asked to demonstrate
learn  Through continuous monitoring and
 Feeling good about themselves feedback the teacher gradually
as learners increases the difficulty of the learning
 Motivation includes deep understanding
(Mastery) demonstrating what they 11. The Curriculum should focus on powerful
know to others, and meeting a high knowledge
standard of accomplishment.  Knowledge is powerful when it provides
a basis for further learning and when it
6. The Teacher Matters concerns important and validated
 How much a student learns depends knowledge.
much more on which teacher within the  The new basics (higher levels of
school the student gets than what reading, math, problem-solving,
school he or she goes to communications, etc.)
 Improving the quality of teaching is the  Discipline-based subjects
key to school improvement.  Skills, strategies and attitudes
that support independent,
7. Focused teaching promoted accelerated purposeful learning and problem
learning solving.
 The key to accelerated learning lies in 12. All students should Experience a “Thinking
matching instruction to the level of the Curriculum”
learner  Students can be taught to manage their
 The teacher’s role is to “scaffold” the own thinking and learning processes
learning of the new task, revealing to the  Challenging tasks that support deep
learner how to move from what he or thinking will stimulate intelligent
she can currently do independently to a behavior, as will explicit teaching of
higher level of cognitive functioning. cognitive and metacognitive strategies
 The learning of basic skills and higher-
8. Clear Expectations and Continues Feedback order thinking should go hand in hand
Activate learning 13. The best results come from having an
 Students achieve at higher levels when aligned instructional
they have a clear image of what is  The best results are obtained with the
expected of them. assessments, curriculum framework,
 Give example of work that meet instructional materials and teaching are
standard in full alignment with the standards and
 Access to clear criteria for with one another.
judging the quality of their work
 Access to continuous feedback
on their work so they know to
bring it up to standard.

9. Good teaching builds on students strength

and respects individual’s differences
 Each child has a unique mix of strengths
and weaknesses.
 4. The teacher does not care when a student make
an error as long as it does not hinder
(delay/prevent) communication (Natural Method)

Method

 The plan of language teaching which consistent The Term of Technique (H.D. Brown 2007:180)
with the theories, (Edward Anthony-1963)
 Method may mean different things to different 1. Task. Task usually refers to a specialized
people (Mackey, 1975 :155) For some, it means form of technique or series of techniques
a set of teaching procedures; for others, the closely allied with communicative curricula,
avoidance of teaching procedures. For some, it and as such must minimally have
is the primary of a language skill; for other, it is communicative goals. It is focuses on the
the type and amount of vocabulary and authentic use of language for meaningful
structure. communicative purpose beyond the
 The term “method” in the Direct Method my refer language classroom.
to a single aspect of language teaching: 2. Activity. Activity may refer to virtually
presentation of material. anything learners do in the classroom.
 Method in the Reading Method refers to the  We usually refer to a reasonably
emphasis of a single language skill: reading, unified set of student behaviour,
while limited in time,precede by some
 In the Grammar Translation Method, method direction from the teacher, with a
refers to the emphasis of the teaching material. particular objective.
 According to Mackey (1975:157), all teaching,  Activates include roles plays, drills,
whether good or bad must include some sort of games, peer-editing, small-group
selection, some sort of gradation, some sort of information-gap exsercise and much
presentation, and some sort of repetition. more.
 Because an activity implies some
 Therefore, all methods should include the four
sort of active performance on the
steps of teaching a language.
part of learners, it is generally not
 Any method should include the for steps:
used to refer to certain teachers
 Selection
behaviours like saying “good
 Gradation
morning” maintaining eyer contact
 Presentation
with students, explaining a grammar
 Repetition
point, or writing a list of words on
 According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), a
the chalkboard. Such teacher
method is theoretically related to an approach
behaviour, however can indeed be
organized by the design and practically realized
referred to as technique.
in procedure.
3. Procedure. Richards and Rodgers (2001)
Technique used the term procedure to encompass “the
actual moment- to-moment techniques,
 Carry out a method. It is implementational, practices and behaviour that operate in
meaning that a technique is something that teaching a language according to a
actually takes place in language teaching or particular method”
learning in the classroom 4. Practice, behaviour, nexercise,
strategy.In the language-teaching literature,
The following are some examples of techniques error
these terms, and perhaps some others, all
correction.
appear ro refer, in varying degrees of
1. The teacher does not praise or criticize so that intensity to what is defined as technique,
language learners learn to rely on themselves 5. Technique..
(Silent way)  Even before Anthony (1963)
2. The teacher often praises when a student has discussed and defined the term, the
made a good things in learning (Audio Lingual language teaching literature
Method) generally accepted technique as a
3. When a student has produced a wong superordinate term to refer to
expression, the teacher just repeats the right various activities that either teachers
one (Total physical Response)
 or learners perform in the target forms or functions (Student may be
classroom. asked to “understand”)
 In other words, technique include all 7. Dialoque/Narrative recitation: Reciting a
tasks and activities. previously known or prepared text, either in
 They almost planned and deliberate, umison or individually.
done on purpose rather than by 8. Reading aloud: Reading directly from a
accident. given text.
 They are the product of a choice 9. Checking: Teacher either circulating or
made by the teacher. And they can, guiding the correction of students work,
for your purposes as a language providing feedback as an activity rather than
teacher, comfortably refer to the within another activity.
pedagogical units or components of 10. Question-answer display: Activity involving
a classroom session. prompting of students responses by means
 You can think of a lesson as display questions (i.e. teacher or questioner
consisting of a number of already knows the response or has a very
techniques, some teacher-centered, limited set of expectations for the
some leaner- centered, some appropriate response.) Distinguished from
production-centered, some referential questions by the like hood of the
comprehension-centered, some questioner’s knowledge of the response and
clustering together to form a task. the speaker’s awareness of the fact.
11. Drill: Typical language activity involving
fixed patterns of teacher prompting and
Taxonomy of language-teaching Techniques student responding, usually with repetition
(adapted from Crookes & Chaudron, 1991 pp.52-54) substitution and other mechanical
Controlled Techniques alterations. Typically with little meaning
attached.
1. Warm-up: Mimes, dance, songs, joke, play. 12. Translation: Student or teacher provision of
This activity gets the students stimulated, L1 or L2 translation of given text.
relaxed, motivated, attentive or otherwise 13. Dictation: Student writing down orally
engage and ready for the lesson. It does not presented text.
necessarily involves use of the target 14. Copying: Student writing down text
language. presented visually.
2. Setting: Focusing on lesson topic. Teacher 15. Identification: Student picking out and
directs attention to the topic by verbal or producing/labeling or otherwise identifying a
nonverbal evocation of the context relevant specific target form, function, definition or
to the lesson by questioning or miming or other lesson-related item.
picture presentation, possibly by recording 16. Recognition: Student identifying forms, as
of situations and people. in identification (i.e checking off items,
3. Organizational: Structuring of lesson or drawing symbols, rearranging pictures) but
class activities includes disciplinary action, without a verbal responses.
organization of class furniture and seating, 17. Review: Teacher-led review of previous
general procedure for class interaction and week/month/or other period as a formal
performance, structure and purpose of summary and type of test of student recall
lesson , ete. performance.
4. Content Explanation: Grammatical, 18. Testing: Formal testing procedures to
phonological, lexical (Vocabulary), evaluate student progress.
Sociolinguistic, pragmatic or any other 19. Meaningful drill: Drill activity involving
aspect of language. responses with meaningful choices, as in
5. Role-play Demonstration: Selected reference to different information.
student or teacher illustrate the procedures Distinguished from information exchange by
to be applied in the lesson segment to the regulated sequence and general form of
follow. Includes brief illustration of language responses.
or other content to be incorporated.
6. Dialoque/ Narrative presentation: Semicontrolled Techniques
Reading or listening passage presented for 20. Brainstorming: A form of preparation for
passive reception. No implication of student the lesson, like setting which involves free,
production or other indentification of specific undirected contributions by the students ans
 teacher on a given topic, to explicit analysis 31. Report: Report of student- prepared
or interpretations by the teacher. exposition on books, experiences, project
21. Storytelling (especially when student- worl, without immediate stimulus and
generated): Not necessarily lesson-based a elaborated on according to student interest,
lengthy presentation of story by teacher or akin to Composition in writing mode.
student (may overlap with warm-up or 32. Problem solving: Activity involving
narrative recitation)may be used to maintain specified problem and limitations of means
attention, motivate or as lengthy practice. to resolve it; requires cooperation on part of
22. Question-answer, referential: Activity participants in small or large group.
involving prompting of responses by means 33. Drama: Planned dramatic rendition of play,
of referential questions (i.e the questioner skit, sory , etc.
does not know beforehand the responses 34. Simulation: Activity involving complex
information) Distinguished from Question- interaction between groups and individuals
answer, display based on simulation of real-life actions and
23. Cued narrative/Dialogue: Student experiences.
production of narrative or dialoque following 35. Interview: A student is directed to get
cues from miming, cue cards, pictures or information form another student or
other stimuli related to narrative/ dialogue students.
(eg metalanguage requesting functional 36. Discussion: Debate or other form of
acts.) grouped discussion of specified topic, with
24. Information transfer: Application from or without specified sides/ positions
mode(e.g visual) to another (e.g writing) prearranged.
which involves some transformation of the 37. Composition: As in Report (verbal). Written
information (e.g student fills out diagram development of ideas story or other
while listening to description) Distinguished exposition.
form identification in that the student is 38. A propos: Conversation or other socially,
expected to transform and reinterpret the oriented interation/speech by teacher,
language or information. student or even visitors, on general real=life
25. Information exchange: Task involving two- topics. Typically, authentic and genuine.
way communication in information-gap
exercise, when one or both parties (or a METHOD
larger group) must share information to  It is considered  When a method
achieve some goal. Distinguished from the practical has fixed
Question-answer, referential in that sharing realization of an procedures,
of information is critical for the task. approach. informed bya
26. Wrap-up: Brief teacher- or student-  It is understood as clearly
produced summary of pint and/ or items that a group of articulated
have been practiced or learned. procedures a approach, it is
27. Narration/ Exposition: Distinguished from system that easy to describe.
Cued narrative because of lack of immediate clearly explains However is a
stimulus. how to teach a method takes
28. Preparation: Student study, silent reading, language procedures and
(syllabus techniques from
pair planning and rehearsing, preparing for
organization- a wide variety of
later activity. Usually a student directed or-
contents and skills sources, that is
oriented project. that they are
to be taught- roles
Free Techniques of teachers and used in other
learners, kinds of methods or are
29. Role play: Relatively free acting out materials to use) mentioned by
specified roles and functions.Distinguished  It is understood as other belies it
from Cued dialogues by the fact that cueing a group of will be very hard
is provided only minimally at the beginning procedures a to continue
system that describing it as a
and not during the activity .
clearly explains method how
30. Games: Various kinds of language game
how to reach a should it be
activity not like other previously defined categorized then
language(contents
activities (e.g board and dice games making
and skils to be
words) taught)
 The method is
 based on a sequence of understood as a
specific approach. techniques. set of actions,
The approach is  A procedure can operations and
axiomatic be described in strategies which
whereas the terms such as have to be
method is First you do this, executed
procedural. then you do that.. accordingly to a
it’s a lot smaller perception on
than a method, how to obtain a
but it’s a expected result,
sequence of in our case on
techniques how to increase
competition in a
foreign language.

APPROACH

 It is conjunction of  It is the level in TEACHING AND LEARNING EVOLUTION

idea related to the which a whole Evolution of learning
nature and theory and its
Use Technology for Teaching and Learning
teaching of a belief are
given language reflected
regarding a Blackboard + chalk
 It refers to theories
language and its Whiteboard + marker
about the nature
learning. It is a PowerPoint Presentation
of language and
much wider CAI Web-based learning Teaching tool
language leanings
concept than a Videoconference
 It describes how
method and E-Classroom
people acquire
technique. Wireless Technology
their knowledge of
Innovative Technology
the language and  It is the source
makes statements of the principles
Psychomotor skill
about the and practices of
condition which language
 Less motor skills are developed.
will promote  It describes how
successful a language is  More psychological skills are developed.
language learning. used and how Ptovodes a real environment with multimedia
its constituent Video etc.
 It offers a model of
language parts interlock.  Reduces physical effort. For example-carrying
competence. books.
 Traditional teaching technology includes both
projected and non projected AV aids.
TECHNIQUE Non-projected visual aids:
 Chalk board
 Its each specific  These techniques  Flannel
strategy that we must be coherent  Flash cards
use in the with the method.  Posters
classroom. And therefore they  Charts
 It is a tool that is must be in  Models
used to obtain harmony with the Projected Visual Aids:
an immediate approach.  Overhead projectore
result.  Some techniques
 Slide projector
 Its what really be found in
 Television
happens in the different methods
classroom, in whereas other
Chalk boards (Importance of the blackboard
the actual ones are specific
teaching. to a given method. Classroom
Effective management
PROCEDURE Teaching Cope with
 It is an ordered  It can be It is a students of
natural slide different learning
abilities
  Encourage passive learning.

Flannels
The flannel-board is cover with flannel or khadi cloth.
Enhances The picture or materials with same material are used to
student Multipurpos stick. It helps to build presentation in a sequence, piece
comprehension e teaching by piece.

skills aid
Flip Chart
These are large chart with a pad of paper on as stand.
Control pace The notes, diagrams and flow charts can be prepared
of learning well in advance.

Advantages:
 Reveals at the appropriate point of presentation
 Pages can be preserved for display after class
White boards and future references
Flash Cards Disadvantages:
Flash cards are small cards of generally 25x30 cm size  It is not effective for large audience
which are shown few few moments before the class to  Cannot hold large amount of data
send across the message or impart an idea.  Writing may consume time.
Advantages: Slide Projector / Overhead Projector
 Used to introduce & present topics.  A slide projector is an opto-mechanical device
 Used to apply information already gained by for showing pathographic slides.
students to new situation.  Slide projectors were also widely used in
 Can be used to review a topic. educational and other institutional settings,
 Slides were projected with the help projector in a
Charts closed dark room on a screen
Charts are graphic teaching aids depicting information in
form of diagrams posters, pictures, maps and graphs, Television (T.V)
 T.V is well suited educational purposes & has
Purposes:
become a popular teaching learning tools in
 It is used for showing relationships by means of homes, schools business and health care
facts and figures. settings,
 It is for representing material symbolically.  It influence cognitive, affective and psychomotor
 It is meant to show continuity in process. behavior.
 It is meant to present abstract ideas in vicual  T.V allows education programs to be sent to
form. patient rooms, In health care settings it is also
Types of charts: used to educate patient regarding health related
 Tree charts topics.
 Stream charts  Television also helps in children’s intellectual
 Table charts development
 Flow charts
 Tabulation charts Videoconferencing
 Videoconferencing or video teleconferencing is
Tape Recorders the synchronous two way connection of two or
 Tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to more location through audio and video
record. Reproduce, erase and re-record sound equipment’s.
on a ,magnetic tape.  Videoconferencing uses audio and video
 Tape is one modern teachiong aid which has telecommunications.
into much more general use over the past few  A rural medical center in Ohio, United states,
years. used videoconferencing to successfully cut the
Advantages: number of transfers of sick infants to a hospital
 Recording can be erased tape can be reused. 110km away.
 Easy to operate
 For teaching music, phonics, oral reading, Advantages:
poetry, etc  Patients may contact health care personal in
Disadvantages: emergency or routine situations.
 No personal contact with speaker  All health care professionals can discuss cases
 Listening for a long time across large distances
  Rural areas can use this technology for seeking  The distance learner has difficulties having
health information, thus saving lives and making access to learning resources.
more efficient of health care money.
 Remove community, long-term care facility or Approaches of Distance Education:
from a patient’s home any person can  Synchronous Approach: Live lectures are
communicate with health professional delivered with help of technologies.
 Enhance curriculum with virtual field trips.  E.g IGNOU lecturers delivered through TV
 Bring experts to the classroom-virtually channels like Gyan Dharshan and INC is
 Connect classrooms in different counties and conducting contract classes for PhD nursing via
expand students worldview videoconferencing at six centers in India.
 Record and archive sessions for future  Asynchronous Approach: Recorded videos,
playback. Print materials etc. are used.
 E,g. Most of the universities follow this system
by sending text materials, recorded multimedia
materials to distant learner by post or email.

Computers/laptop/macbook Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

 That we use to view store, send and receive  CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to
information, not only help with presenting facilitate and improve instruction.
lessons but also with management and
organization. Computer will be used for Computer assisted learning
preparing lesson plans, completing grade  According to Leib 1982 CAL “includes all
book, checking email, preparing letters etc. applications of the computer aid to the instructor
The computer also serves as the connector in instructional management without actually
to all of other technology. doing the teaching,
 The internet in simple terms is a network of the
Use of computers in Nursing Education interlinked computer networking worldwide,
 Many online books are available through which is accessible to the general public
which we can update knowledge.  The internet is recognized as an important tool
 Educational CD can be played in computer in education .
to show students  It is widely used to facilitate studying and help
 Helps in computer aided instruction. communication between teachers and students.
 Computers in nursing research help with air  It also increasingly becoming the basis od
do educational tools such as SPSS- education in forms such as distance learning,
Statistical package of social sciences.
 PPT can be made for teaching Email
 Helps in CAL Teachers and students worldwide
 Distance learning is possible through PC. Are beginning to use this ability to talk to each other. E-
mailing back and forth with another classroom also
Distance Education provides excellent opportunities for students to practice
 Is defined as planned learning that occurs in writing skills for a real-life purpose.
different place from teaching, requiring real time
(synchronous )or delayed (asynchronous) Advantages
interactives technology and a needing a course  Easy to send in long distances
design supportive of students -|(Escoflery &  Health education can be post discharge
Alperin 2003)  It is asynchronous.
Disadvantages
Merits of Distance Education  Requires good internet connection
 Providing efficient training for target groups  Electronic mail lacks contexts. It is with out cues
 Expanding the capacity for education in new like facial expressions, voice tone, etc
subject and Ares.  Email messages can create violation of privacy
 Developing multiple competencies recurrent and for both nurse and clients.
continuing education.
 Improving the quality of existing educational World wide web (WWW)
services  It is an open source information space where
documentations and other web resources are
Demerits of distance education identified by URLs, interlinked by hypertext links
 The learner is usually isolated from the tutor and and can be assisted via internet.
other students.
E-Learning (Electronic Learning)  LCD projector is a type video projector for
 E-learning is use of technology based tools & displaying video images or computer data on a
processes to provide for customized learning screen or other flat surface. LCD means “liquid
anytime or any where. crystal” display.
 Multimedia projectors, which are the compact
Advantages devices that project images in high resolution
 Less cost are commonplace in many of todays
 Fast speed classrooms.
 Makes class interesting
 Easy to search topics. Mobiles, Tablets and iPad
Disadvantages  It is almost impossible to image being without a
cell or using iPad as a digital tool
 Learning online is a solo act. Learner feel alone.  Many healthcare associations have begun to
 Eyestrain, bad posture and other physical provide telephone services with messages about
problems may affect learner. disease treatment and prevention
 For example-the American Cancer Society has
established to a toll free number for public to
obtain short taped messages about various
types of cancer.
Smart Class  Various businessmen in developed countries
 Smart class is defined as a class in which who have a stressful life and can’t have time to
various technologies are used to enhance meet counselors get counselling therapy classes
students learning. on mobile phones during their busy schedules
 In a smart class there will be computers, instead of missing counseling therapy classes.
projectors, internent connectivity and other  Many hospitals and healthcare agencies have
multimedia devices such as home theater etc. established hotline consumer information
 Students can internet. centers manned by knowledgeable healthcare
personal so that information can be personalized
Smart boards or Interactive white boards and appropriate information can be given as the
 An interactive whiteboard is a large display that spot. Example-The poison control Hotline
connects to a computer and a projector. The
projector projects the computer’s desktop onto Educational tool/Teaching Tools
the board’s surface.  Educational tools include various social
 Interactive white boards have various facilities to networking sites and apps which can increase
draw, show video, images, illustrations, maps, and upgrade or knowledge. These includes.
graphs, games manipulate in own way.  Facebook provides health related tips such as
CIMS Cancer page, Health.com everyday health
Advantages of smart boards etc.
 Provides Flexibility: Interactive whiteboards  YouTube provides educational videos.
allow photos illustrations, maps, graphs, games
and video to be displayed. Advantages
 Enchanted teaching/learning experience  It is relatively inexpensive
 Interact and share  It can be operated by someone with minimal
 Low-Maintenance: SMART boards are neat medical knowledge because taped messages
easy to use contain substance of content.
 Access to online information and tools  Video calls can be mate to educate or transfer
 Going Green: Eco friendly message.
 Technology integration  LinkedIn and slide share provides ppt regarding
 Communication: Interactive whites boards educational topics.
allow for connectivity in different locations.  eBooks provides various health and other
education related matter.
PowerPoint  Others include dictionaries, Wikipedia, care
Power point is commonly used now for educational plans shealth, pdf etc
presentation has s selection of transitions as a feature all
of which are borrowed form film and television editing Theory Application
techniques, character animation within the frame, and  The TPACK framework is effective technology
overall dramatic structure are things that are taken from integration for teaching specific content or
film and television in particular for use in educational subject matter requires understanding and
computers application. negotiating the relationships between these
three components: Technology, pedagogy and
LCD Projectors content.
 (or should guide) most people and
Technology knowledge (TK) businesses.
 Technology knowledge refers to an
understanding of the way that technologies are  A politician who tries to do the right
used in a specific content domain. thing rather than win votes is acting on
Content knowledge (CK) principle.
 Content knowledge may be defined as “a
thorough in college-level subject matter or”  Principle is accepted as fundamental
command of the subject” (American council on truth, it may considered a
Education ,1999) comprehensive law, a doctrine, a policy
Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) or a deep - seated belief which governs
 Pedagogical knowledge includes generic the conduct of various types of human.
knowledge about how students learn, teaching  Example: He believe that honesty and
approaches, methods of assessment and openness are the two most important
knowledge of different theories about learning. principles that his parents taught him to
all types of relationships.

PRINCIPLES, METHODS & STRATEGIES OF

TEACHING IN HEALTH EDUCATION Teaching is the work that a teacher does in helping
1. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the students to learn.
foundation for a system of belief or behavior or for a
chain of reasoning. Guiding principle ensure that the long term culture
 a basic truth or source of origin of something or survives and helps the organization to drive
someone “the basic principles of Christianity” performance, customer, stakeholder and employee
 a rule or belief governing one's personal satisfaction.
behavior. “Struggling to be true to their own  the organization survives because its vision
principles” and values are clear and support how the
 - morally correct behavior and attitudes “ a man business sustains itself.
of principle” Values are about what you consider important to the life
you want to live .
 morality - is principles concerning the distinction Example of values such as:
between right and wrong or good and bad 1. Courage - doing what you believe needs to be
behavior. done,not in the absence of fear but inspite of it.
2. Kindness - treating others the way you want to
 example of principle: a list of values set by a be treated.
group of people 3. Patience is when someone taking your time or
attention away from something you want to
 is a proposition or value that is a guide for finish (putting yourself in the others' shoes,
behavior or evaluation. responding with kindness & respect).
 in law it is a rule that has to be or usually is to 4. Integrity is acting & speaking in accordance
be followed, or can be desirably followed, or is with your beliefs but not saying something & do
an inevitable consequence of something, such the opposite (hypocrisy).
as the laws observed in nature or the way that a 5. Gratitude/appreciation is you prioritize both
system is constructed feeling gratitude & expressing it, in your
thoughts, in the words you speak or write and, in
2. A general scientific theorem or law that has numerous your attitude, and actions. you appreciate it
special applications across a wide field. when others thank you for the job well done, for
 a natural law forming the basis for the a thoughtful gift, or for rendering the help they
construction or working of a machine. “ needed.
these machines all operate on the same 6. Forgiveness is letting go of anger & resentment
general principle” toward those who hurt /offended you.
7. Love is sees the good in everyone & wants good
 In general the term principle is often things for them.
used to mean any of general truth or 8. Growth is look for opportuniries to grow as a
guiding norm by which a process is person & helps others grow too.
carried on. 9. Listening is when someone wants to tell you
something & you give your full attention.
 Basic truth that helps you with your 10. Respect is to treat all humans with equal respect
life “Be fair” is a principle that guides regardless of their age, income or background.
 11. Self - Giving is sacrifice, giving your time, strength of personality of the learner, It includes
attention, energy, treasure & abilities to help or therefore, the objectives of education and the learning
enrich another. materials and various methods being utilized.
12. Vision is “vision for the future”, not something
that you own, it comes through you and Improving group living
inspires you & others It means that, a teacher should understand what group
Teaching Principles dynamics is all about and what techniques, must be
used intelligently for group leadership.
 They are guides to make teaching and learining
effective, wholesome and meaningful. Improving the classroom environment
 Webster, says a principle is a comprehensive Teacher should see to it that the physical environment of
law or doctrine which an accepted or professed his classroom will provide a maximum degree of best
rule of action or conduct is derived. condition conduction to learning.
 Latin word princeps-which means the beginning
or the end of all facts, circumstances or state of
affairs,

It has Five Areas to consider:

Importance of Principles of Teaching
1. Respect for individual
 Principles are the chief guides to make teaching
2. Democracy, as a way of life
and learning effective and productive.
3. Providing suitable condition for the development
 Principles are the fundamentals through which
and maintenance of a sound personality
we proceed from one situation to another.
4. Improving group living in the classroom
 Principles are important for the governing of
5. Improving the classroom environment
actions and operation of techniques in any field
Respect for the individual of education.

It explains the respect for self-confidence and Teacher

intellectual, and emotional integrity of the individual.
 is a person who teaches, especially in a school.
Expressions such as:  facilitates education for an individual.
 helps students to acquire knowledge
a) Learning by doing  helps people to learn
b) Understanding before memorizing Have become
a principle as well as theory of today. Educator

Democracy as a way of life.  is a person who provides instruction or

education; a teacher.
One of the major goals of education in the Philippines is
to foster, promote and develop democracy as a way of Teaching
life.
 is the process of attending to people's needs,
It implies: experiences and feelings and intervening so that
they learn particular things and go beyond the
a) Respect for potentialities of individual given.
b) Obligation of each individual to contribute to the  is sharing of knowledge and experiences.
welfare of the group of which he is a member,
c) Participation in experience which will foster Teachers are important in society:
social, economic intellectual and physical growth
 because they prepare and influence tomorrow's
d) Right of every individual to make a choice
leaders.
commensurate with his intellectual capacity and
 learn important lessons about sharing, respect,
maturity.
valuing differences and making ethical decisions
Providing suitable conditions
The Hallmarks of Effective Teaching will focus on three
It means that school life is of great importance in essentials for teaching:
determining the present and the future mental health and
  Be demanding: Align teaching with high  Sympathy kindness helpfulness patience and
expectations for learning. diligence
 Be supportive: Provide a nurturing learning  Fairness, impartiality, tolerance patience
environment.  Sociability, friendliness, cooperative
 Be intentional: Know why you are doing what  Positive outlook, encouraging attitude
you are doing.
Seven Principles of Good Practice
Components of highly effective teachers:
Undergraduate Education/Adult Education Settings
 how to challenge students with instruction that
develops critical thinking skills 1. Encourage student - faculty contact
 set high expectations for all students
2. Encourage cooperation among students
 create positive classroom environments by
developing a positive rapport with students 3. Encourage active learning
which motivate learning and are intentional
about their teaching 4. Give prompt feedback
 using a broad range of instructional strategies to 5. Emphasize time on task
help students accomplish their learning goals.
6. Communicate high expectations

7. Respects diverse talents and ways of

learning
The teacher

As the Mater Teacher attributes:

 Patients Six Major Categories of Effective Teaching

 Effective
 Efficient 1.Professional Competence
 Confident  shows genuine interest in patients and display
 Firm confidence in his/her professional abilities.
 True  being creative and stimulating can excite student
 Dedicated interest.
 the teacher who aims at excellence develops a
To assume:
thorough knowledge of subject matter and
a. Responsibility to society polishes skills throughout his/her career.
b. Cultivation of mind, the heart and the soul of the  a teacher who portrays excellent skills and
youth judgement becomes a positive role model for
c. To love the beauty, goodness and truth learners.

“If you plan is for one year… plant rice if your plan is for 2. Interpersonal Relationships with Students
ten year…plant tree but if your plan is for eternity… the
educate children,  demonstrated by taking a personal interest in
learners, being sensitive to their feelings and
Personal Qualities problems.
 conveying respects for them, alleviating their
 Pleasing personal appearance
anxieties, being fair & permitting students to
 Sense of humor, cheerfulness enthusiasm express differing points of view.
 Good physical health and personal hygiene  honest communication contributing to healthy
 Emotional stability, sound mental health and self relationships.
control  openness between educator and students
 Superior intelligence creates a relaxed atmosphere, to see teacher as
 Flexibility, creativity resourcefulness a role model.
 Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty , sincerity
 Promptness, efficiency 3. Personal Characteristics
 Refinement in words tact and courtesy civility  personal magnetism, enthusiasm, cheerfulness,
 Pleasant modulated voice self-control, patience, a sense of humor, a good
speaking voice, self-confidence, willness to
 admit errors and caring attitude are all desirable
personal characteristics of teachers.
 students value these personal qualities because
they make learning more interesting, fun or
pleasant.

4. Teaching Practices

 it is the mechanics, methods and skills in

classroom & clinical teaching.
 students and colleagues value a teacher who
has a thorough knowledge of the subject matter
and can present material in an interesting clear
and organized manner.
 teaching subject matter in a stimulating way,
inspiring learner interest hinge on several
factors, including teacher's style, personality,
personal interest in the subject & use variety of
teaching strategies.

5. Evaluation Practices

 it is valued by students include clearly

communicating expectations, providing timely
feedback on student progress, correcting
students tactfully, being fair in the evaluation
process and giving tests that are pertinent to the
subject matter.
 at the beginning of teaching/learning relationship SAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR PRESCHOOLER
expectations should be clearly expressed. “TOOTHBRUSHING”
 evaluating is based on criteria pertinent to the
learning objectives. SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

6. Availability to Students. Opening Prayer

Greetings
 expect the instructor to be available to when Checking of Attendance
needed. Presentation of the topic and objectives
 being there in stressful clinical situations
 physically helping students to give/rendering Title: Toothbrushing
care.
 giving appropriate amount of supervision. I. Objectives:
At the end of the class, about 30 minutes, the students
 freely answering questions & acting as a
are expected to:
resource person during clinical learning 1. Understand the meaning of toothbrushing.
experiences 2. Identify the materials needed on toothbrushing
3. Determine the importance of toothbrushing.
Teacher Style
4. Demonstrate on how to do the proper toothbrushing.
 Interpersonal, professional & personal aspects
of good teaching are all important but more is II. Materials:
- toohbrush - pentel pen
involved in being a good teacher than just the
- toothpaste - color pencil
skills and techniques.
- glass – coupon band
 It involves another phenomenon referred to as - towel/clean cloth - white board pen
as teacher style. - pictures/visual aides - laptop
 style in teaching is an outgrowth of the teacher's - chalk - blackboard or white board
personality & character.
 some develop a humorous style, use cartoons, III. Lesson Proper (Discussion and Participation)
jokes & funny stories not to entertain students
but to stimulate interest and enthusiasm for the A. Teacher will present pptx or will recite/discuss using
subject. visual aids or whiteboard etc. or read story book.
B. Teacher will asks questions to students (Question &  Documents have been found that prove they
Answer) moved away from supernatural and superstitious
views of health and toward natural causes of
1. What is toothbrushing? diseases.
2. What are the items needed in toothbrushing?  The Greeks had the goal of:
3. How to do toothbrushing?  Empowering individuals and communities
4. What is the importance of toothbrushing? through health education and skill development.
5. What will happen if you don’t brush your teeth?  Identifying supportive environments and policies
to encourage taking medicine and maintaining
C. Teacher will initiate or facilitate Action Songs or healthy habits.
Physical Exercises with students
D. Teacher will demonstrate to the students the proper Health Education
way of toothbrushing the teeth.
Any combination of learning experiences designed to
Breaktime/Morning Snack facilitate voluntary adaptations of behavior conducive to
health.
Evaluation
Instruct the students to:

- Do the (actual) proper toothbrushing.

- Draw the items needed in tootbrushing

Assignment

1. What is bathing and the proper way to do it?

2. Give the materials needed when taking a bath.
3. What is the importance of daily bathing

Closing prayer

HEALTH EDUCATION

HEALTH
Principle of Health Education
A word that was derived from the old English word for
heal which is “HAEL”. It means whole because health Health education is an essential component of any
concerns the whole person and his/her integrity, program to improve the health of a community and has
soundness or wellbeing. the major role in promoting.

Health is holistic (total health) and it includes the

different dimensions of health taking into account the 1. Good health practices (sanitation, clean drinking
separate influences and interaction of these dimensions. water, good hygiene, breast feeding, infant
weaning and oral rehydration.
Health education is defined as the set of philosophies 2. The use of preventive services like
and methodologies that educate the general public, immunization, screening, antenatal and child
healthcare practitioners, and communities about health clinics
anything related to health. It draws from disciplines that 3. The correct use of medications and the pursuit
include biology, environmental science, ecology, of rehabilitation regiments
psychology, physical science, and medical science. 4. The recognition of early symptoms of disease
and promoting early referral
Is a process concerned with designing, implementing 5. Community support for primary health care and
and evaluating educational programs that enable government control measures
families, groups, organizations and communities to play
active roles in achieving, protecting and sustaining Health Education
health.  It is used to promote good health as well as
prevent disease, disability, and early death.
History of Health Education  Encourages voluntary behavioral changes and
positive influences.
 Origins of health education came from the  It can happen at the individual, group,
ancient Greeks in the 6th - 4th centuries B.C.E. institutional, community, or systemic level.
 It attempts to address attitudes, behaviors, and
skills that can improve wellness.
In developing countries, health education planning Who should do Health Education?
should consider the following decisions: All health workers are responsible for promoting health
1. What is the desired change and instituting preventive aspects of care
2. Where should education take place
3. Who should carry it out How should Education be Conducted?
4. How should it be done
1. Demonstration - most useful method where the
Health education planning process of doing a procedure is shown and the skills or
What to change techniques are practiced through return demonstration.
In considering what to change, the following steps
are suggested: An example is different positions of holding the baby
1. Identify what the key problems are while the mother is breastfeeding
2. What advice should be given
2. Word of mouth - is the most influential way of
Proposals for change of health practices and beliefs transmitting information especially of oral traditions
are guided by principles. proposal that seek change which are usually conveyed by means of puppet shows ,
should: dramatization or sociodrama, role playing, storytelling
music and songs. this can be planned and performed by
1. Be simple to put into practice with the existing the local folks
knowledge and skills in the community.
2. Fit in with existing lifestyle and culture and not 3. Use of audiovisual aids - leaflets, charts, posters,
conflicts with beliefs. flashcards, flip charts and flannel graphs. The use of
3. Not require resources or money, materials and time Komiks can also be a very effective medium of
that are not available locally. instruction which can be easily understood especially by
4. Meet a felt need of the community and the masses and are very attractive and entertaining
5. Be seen by the people to convey real benefits in the because of their colorful illustrations and its simple
short term, not in the distant future. language.

Health Education Programs 4. Film-showing and the use of modular instruction

is also a effective medium of instruction where the the
 Should be flexible and should fit in with the learner uses his/her senses of senses of sight, hearing,
people’s beliefs, culture, needs and touching smelling and even tasting.
circumstances.
 Actual identification of their own needs, active
participation in identifying possible solutions and
pro-active formulation of action plans and
implementation of the plan of action will ensure Characteristics of Effective Health Education
success and continuance of the health
programs. 1. It is directed at people who have influence in the
 Once the benefits are seen and felt, this will community who are also the opinion makers.
pave the way for trust and goodwill that will
make future undertakings achievable and 2. The lessons are repeated and reinforced over time
workable. using different methods .

Where to conduct Health Education? 3. The lessons are adaptable and use existing channels
of communication like songs, drama, and story telling.
 The conduct of health education can be done in
the privacy of a patient’s room which may 4. It is entertaining and attracts the community’s
involve the patient and / or his family or in attention.
outpatient departments of hospitals and clinics,
health centers and other health care settings. 5. Uses clear, simple language with local expresions.
 It can also be done in the community barangay
hall involving different organized groups or 6. It emphasizes short term benefits of action.
members of a health education class or during
the conduct of home/follow up visits. 7. It provides opportunities for dialogue, discussion, and
 Places where people came together like in learner participation and feedback.
market places, church, community centers or the
town plaza can be a good venue for discussing 8. It uses demonstrations to show the benefits of
health the related matters whether the health adopting the practices.
educator is using formal and informal strategies
of teaching Steps in Developing a Health Education/Promotion
Program Matching Learning Styles to Instruction

1. Assessing the needs of the target population Research results are inclusive about the effectiveness
of
2. Developing appropriate goals and objectives matching teaching style to learning styles.

3. Creating an intervention that considers the  Some studies have shown increased levels of
peculiarities of the setting student achievement when learner's style was
matched with a similar teaching style; some
4. Implementing the intervention have not.
 Some have shown more student satisfaction
5. Evaluating the results when the teacher matches student's learning
style, but some have not.
 Many experts support the position that although
students have preferred learning style, they
can be helped to worked on developing other
styles.

General Principles of Learning

PRINCIPLES
OF LEARNING
Motivation - An individuals learns more readily
when motivated.
Reinforcement - Learning is strengthened either by
rewards or punishment.
Exercise - Learning distributed practice is
advantageous to mass practice in
fixing skills.
Participation - Learners engage actively in
activities they select and plan.
Meaningfulness - Activities and materials are
meaningful when they are related to
the needs and goals of the learners.
Feedback - Information about performance,
mistakes and success motivates
learners in pursuing the activities.
Individual - Every individual is unique.
Differences
LEARNING BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
Challenges - Learning is facilitated whelearner
Learning is challenged by activities
characterized by high skills they are
 is a change in an individual behavior caused by
capable of.
experience
Variety - Learner’s attention is mainatained
by varying styles of stimuli.
Learning as a Process
 the acquisition, retention and application of
knowledge, skills, attitudes, ways of thinking or Socialization - Learners learn a great deal from
some other types of response. each other.

Learning as a Product
 refers to the outcome of learning Behavioral Learning Theories
experience:knowledge, understanding, abilities,
skills, habita, attitudes and appreciation 1. Pavlov: Clinical Conditioning
2. Thorndike: Connectionism Theory
Learning 3. Skinner: Operant Conditioning
 takes places in many ways: intentional and
Behavioral Learning Theories
unintentional
 involves the acquisition of abilities that are not
1. Pavlov: Clinical Conditioning
innate
 Learning occurs by pairing a neutral stimulus
 depends on experience
with a stimulus that automatically elicits a
 all sorts of learning are going on all the times response until the originally neutral stimulus
 come to elicit the same response given to the learning centered task -centered
unconditioned stimulus. orientation orientation
 Learning is a result of two stimuli being Motivation Externally Primarily
presented at the same time motivated internally
motivated,
2. Thorndike: Connectionism Theory with some
 Learning is the formation of connections of external
bonds between stimuli and responses motivation
 The Law of Effect states that an act followed by
a satisfying effect is more likely to be repeated in
similar situation. An act followed by an Types of Learning
unfavorable effect is less likely to be repeated
Gagne's Conditions of Learning (1970). A heirarchy of
Eight Types of Learning
3. Skinner: Operant Conditioning
 Learning occurs when individual makes desired 1. Signal Learnin
responses he is rewarded for doing so avoids
undesired responses because he is not  Conditioned response,simplest level of learning,
rewarded or punished for making them. the person develops a general diffuse reactionto
 Learning is controlled by consequences or a stimulus
conditions that follow a behavior and affect the  Ex; nursing aide student may feel fear everytime
frequency of future behavior. the term skill test is mentioned because he or
she has felt fear whenever taking an actual test.
Chapter III. Adult Learning
because of the association, the term skill test is
1. A Model of Adult Learning enough to evoke fear. The words have become
 Malcolm Knowles (1984). His model of adult the signal that elicits the response.
learning can be summarized by:
2. Stimulus-Response Learning
 First that adults are motivated to learn
information for which they understand the  Involves developing a voluntary response to
purpose and see practical applications. a specific stimulus or combination of stimuli
 second, they want to take some control of their  EX; Nursing/Midwifery students learning to
learning process and be self directed.
monitor intravenous infusion is not dripping,
 third, they want their life experience to be
initially the instructor may tell the learner, if you
considered in the learning situation and also
see that an intravenous infusion is not
want to learn from others experiences.
dripping, first openthe clamp further”

3. Chaining
2.Comparison of Pedagogy from Andradogy  acquisition of a series of related responses or
According to Knowles stimulus-response connections
PEDAGOGY ANDRAGOGY  after learning to open the clamp farther if an
Need to know Learn what the Need to know intravenous line is not dripping, the students is
teacher wants why they need taught that if opening the clamp is not
them to learn to learn
successful, checking the line for a return of
something
blood flow is in order.
Self-concept Perception of Feel
being responsible for  The 2nd step becomes another automatic
dependent on their own response in a chain of responses.
the teacher for learning
4.Verbal Associations
learning
Role of The teacher's Adults learn  A type of chaining and easily recognized in the
experience experience, not from each process of learning medical terminology.
the children's is other's
 EX: A nurse's aide already knows that the
what counts experience
Readiness to Must be ready Ready to learn word thermal refers to temperature.
learn when the when they feel  The instructor introduces the word hypothermia
teachers says the need to and its definition.
they must or know  the aide recognizes that the syllable therm,
they will not be connects the two words, and thus finds it
promoted easier to learn the new term because of
Orientation to Subject- Life-centered or previous association.
5 Discrimination Learning  if a learner does not learn and truly comprehend
 forming large numbers of stimulus-response or a lot of rules in a particular area of study, she or
verbal chains. The more chains that are he will have difficulty with the highest level of
learned, the easier it is to forget previous learning called problem solving.
chains.
 To learn and retain large numbers of chains, the 8. Problem Solving
person has to be able to discriminate among
them, process is called discrimination  To solve problems. learner must have a clear
learning. idea of the problem or goal being sought and
 Ex: a nurse/midwife practitioner student tries to must be able to recall and apply previously
learn a long list of drugs and their actions. learned rules that relate to the situation.
Halfway down the list, the learning of new  Ex: If teaching a nurse/midwife refresher course
chains interferes with the memory for old for RNs/RMs and wanted to explore the problem
ones. of nosocomial urinary infections in patients with
 If the student can find a means of indwelling catheters, you might ask them to
discriminating between the drugs, maybe recall any rules they know and apply to this type
finding something unique or noteworthy about of situation.
each, retention will be increased.
 They would probably be able to recall rules like “
6. Concept Learning a break in septic technique can lead to
infection”,
 Learning how to classify stimuli into groups  A break in a closed sterile system can lead to
represented by a common concept ranging entry of pathogens”; and “raising a catheter
from up and down to near and far to justice and above the level of the bladder can cause
democracy. backflow of urine and therefore infection.”
 When they encounter the health care field, they  Another way of viewing problem solving is a
learn new concepts. process of formulating and testing hypotheses.
 Ex: A patient with chronic wound infection  A learner, confronted with a problem, begins to
who has to learn to empty a drain and formulate hypotheses, a process analogous to
change a dressing has to learn about the combining recalled rules to form a higher-order
concepts of infection and inflammation and rule.
the concept of asepsis.  The hypotheses are then mentally tested and
 This person learns to see symptoms like accepted, rejected or modified.
redness, swelling and yellow drainge being
stimuli that are grouped together under the
concept of infection.

7. Rule Learning

 Can be considered a chain of concepts or a

relationship between concepts. Planning & Conducting Classes
 Ex: If you were a home care nurse teaching a 1. Planning Sequence
wife to prevent decubitus ulcers in he stroke  Before you enter a classroom, you must do a
husband, you would have to teach the rule that tremendous amount of planning.
expresses the relationship between pressure  you need to formulate objectives, select and
and ulceration. organize content, choose teaching methods and
design assignments
 Rules are generaly expressed as “If ... then”
 you also have to decide how you are going to
relationships.
evaluate learning.
 Ex: you would teach the wife that “If you leave  even if your class preparation is ongoing, your
your husband in one position too long, the planning of objectives, content, and evaluation
pressure on a body part can cause ulceration. “ methods should be completed before the course
 She might also need to learn the rule that begins.
“ If your husband does not eat a balanced diet,
he will be more prone to ulceration”. 2. Course Syllables
 Rule learning is fairly sophisticated level of  whether you are teaching academic, in service
learning. Some people do fine at the lower levels or patient education setting, a course outline or
up through discrimination and concept learning, syllables should accompany a course.
but they have more difficulty learning and
applying rules.  the information included in the outline may vary
by setting and institution.
 1. To guide your selection and handling of course
 as a general guideline, the course outline should materials.
include the name of the course, the name of the
instructor, a one-paragraph course description,  Decide what you want your students to learn
and a list of course objectives. about such mechanisms before you outline your
content.
Course Syllables, may include  Once you have settled on your objectives, the
 topical outline, content should flow naturally and easily from
 teaching methods them.
 textbook or other readings
 methods of evaluation 2. You need objectives to help you determine whether
people in the class have learned what you have tried to
If appropriate. A course outline helps learners to give teach.
gauge just what is to be learned and what is expected of
them.  Objectives should be specific that they enable
you to know what learners will say, do or think if
Developing a Course Outline or Syllables they have learned this material.
 Because of the focus on the expected behaviors
 A course outline or syllables is considered a at the end of the class or course, educational
contract between teacher and learners. objectives are sometimes called learning
outcomes.
 Whatever you say, you are going to do in the  If tests are given in a course, the objectives
outline, follow through with it. should guide the students in their studying.
 Objectives for a course are naturally mbroader
 if you say you are going to cover four objectives, than class objectives.
do it.  The number of course objectives varies from 5
to 15.
 if you list three methods of evaluating learning,  They should be discussed in the first class
use them. session so learners are immediately clear about
what they will be expected to learn.
 to protect yourself legally, you may also include  Course objectives should be designed to be
at the end of the outline that states changes in achievable by most or all learners in the class;
course material or evaluation maybe necessary they may be viewed as minimal competencies.
at times, but that the mlearners will be notified in  It is the instructor's duty plan learning
writing of any changes. experiences that will enable learners tomeet the
objectives.
If the objectives are unrealistic, either because the
teacher's expectations are too high or because the
needed learning experiences are inaccessible, they are
worthless.
Formulating Objectives
Learning has been categorized in many ways
You will need to write course objectives for the course  Psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed a
outline or syllables and you will need objectives for each classification scheme for types of learning which
class. includes three overlapping domains:
 Bloom Taxonomy (1984) developed a
Example: taxonomy of educational objectives. He
 Objectives and goals in relation to patient care
and probably all have received ream of identified three learning domains:
objectives written by professor’s college courses  Cognitive (knowing)
 not all objectives are readable and useful, some  Psychomotor (doing)
seem much too broad and some too specific.  Affective (feeling, valuing)
 not all objectives are readable and useful, some
seem much too broad and some too specific. Taxonomy of Objectives
 you should try to write objectives that have Cognitive domain
meaning not just for you but also for the  you can measure knowledge, comprehension,
learners. application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation
 they should reflect what the learner is supposed (categories in Bloom's Taxonomy) by using
to do with what is taught. written or oral tests.
 knowledge (remembering information)
The Value of Objectives
  comprehension (explaining the meaning of  An example of affective objective that can be
information) measured in a clinical setting is accepts
 application (using abstractions in concrete responsibility for identifying one's own learning
situations) needs.
 analysis (breaking down a whole into component
parts) Affective Objectives
 synthesis (putting parts together to form a new  Affective objectives are designed to change an
and integrated whole) individual's attitude, choices, and relationships.
Example:
 You might say the learner will “decide how much Example: Given the opportunity to work in a team with
insulin to take (or give) depending on the several people of different races, the student
number of carbohydrates consumed.” will;
 This objective could be measured by presenting Demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-
mthe learner with a written case about diabetic discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist
who is using carbohydrates counting as a utilized/completed by non-team members.
method of determining insulin dose and ask the
learner to calculate the insulin dose based on Course objectives
the situation.
 Broad and not directly measurable
Psychomotor Domain  Implication is that this objective could be
 You can observe what learners are actually measured either by a written or an oral test or in
doing when they perform a skill. clinical practice
 Learners can demonstrate what they have  Objective is incomplete unless it contains the
learned and you can rate their performance. intended learner, behavior to be performed,
Example: conditions under which to be performed and
 An objective in the psychomotor domain may expected degree of attainment of specific
state that the learner will “correctly mix two types standards.
of insulin in one syringe.”
 The teacher can observe the person drawin up Class Objectives
the insulin to see if the performance meets the
stated criteria.  Note the action verbs list and explain in the last
objective
Affective Domain  Indvidual class objectives are usually few, only
 Objectives in this domain are not easy to write three to five per class session.
and measure. Many educators avoid writing  They may be distributed to the learners on a
objectives related to beliefs, attitudes and weekly basis, or at the beginning of session
values, the reasons given are it is very difficult to  Invaluable in helping the teacher to evaluate
write test questions that measure the affective learning and in helping learners to focus their
domain. attention on what the outcome of their studying
 You can not readily observe whether students, should be.
nurses, midwives or patients have accepted the  May use detailed objectives for each class within
beliefs and values inherent in the health care a course.
professions and even if you could, the process is
rather subjective.
 The danger is that we don't write and attempt to
measure such objectives, we may forget about Behavioral Verbs that can be Used in Writing
teaching the beliefs and values that are so Objectives Cognitive Domain
important.
 Educators can infer attitudes or feelings from at  knowledge: Define, delineate, describe, identify,
is observed. Example: if a student is reluctant to list,name, state
share with her classmates something a patient
has told her, the educator could infer that the  Comprehension: Classify, discuss, estimate,
student understands the principle of explain, rephrase, summarize
confidentiality.
 Objectives can be written in the affective domain  Application: Adjust, apply, compute,
for both classroom and clinical settings. demonstrate, generate, prove
 An example of an affective objective that can be
measured by a written assignment is defends in  Analysis: Analyze, compare, contrast, critique,
writing the refusal of a nurse/midwife to divulge defend, differentiate,
confidential information given by a patient.
  Synthesis: Create, develop, propose, suggest,  If you are teaching undergraduate students,
write your approach may be quite different than if
you are teaching a refresher course for
 Evaluation: Assess, choose, conclude defend, RNs/RMs.
evaluate, judge  Textbook has been selected for the course, its
depth of content can give some hints as to what
 Psychomotor Domain: Arrange, assemble you need to include.
calibrate, combine, copy, correct, create,  The best way to determine how long it wil take to
demonstrate, execute, handle, manipulate, teach the content is to plan it out and then
operate, organize, position, produce, remove, rehearse it orally.
revise, show, solve
Organizing Content
 Affective Domain: Accept, agree, comply,  Lectures need to be organized, sharing class
commit, defend, explain, influence, integrate, objectives with the group sets stage for an
recommend, resolve, volunteer organized lecture.
 Indicate in the progress your lecture, the
Writing of Objectives headings and subheadings under which you are
Cognitive Domain discussing the subject of the day.
 More distressing from a lecturer who skips a
 Example: Aseptic Technique topic with no apparent reason.
 it is not only lectures that need to be organized.
 Knowledge: To define what is aseptic technique Discussions, role playing, computer applications,
problem based learning and other strategies
 Comprehension: to explain the importance of require structure and organization if learning is
aseptic technique to proceed smoothly.

 Application: to demonstrate how to do Selecting Teaching Methods

handwashing technique They select strategies with which they are familiar and
comfortable, without much thought as to whether those
 Analysis: to compare medical and surgical strategies are the most appropriate way to teach the
aseptic technique material.

 Synthesis: To develop a care plan on Factors affecting choice of method

prevention of such disease caused by  Selection of method depends on the objectives
contaminated hands, surfaces or equipment. and to type of learning you are trying to achieve.
 If you want to present facts and rules, a lecture
 Evaluation: To evaluate their performance on with handouts or a computer tutorial may be
proper handwashing technique appropriate.

 Psychomotor Domain: To assemble Selecting Teaching Methods

equipments needed in performing medical  If you want to mold attitudes, case studies,
handwashing techniques discussion or role playing may work the best.
 If your goal is to motivate the learners, gaming
 Affective Domain: To explain the proper would be a good choice.
handwashing techniques  If you want to encourage creativity and problem
solving skills, your best approach might be
Selecting Content problem-based learning or individual projects.
 General guidelines for course content are  Different teaching strategies yield different
usually prescribed by the curriculum of the outcomes; you have to be clear about your goals
school. for learning if you are to choose an appropriate
 Contain previous course outlines or course method.
objectives to guide instructor in deciding what  Choice of teaching also depends on the abilities
to teach. and interest of the teacher.
 It is generally left to instructors’ discretion to  Use methods that are compatible with his/her
determine what to include on a particular personality and teaching style.
topic and what can safely be skipped over.  Teacher should keep an open mind about new
 The content you select will vary greatly have 30 methodologies and have the courage to try and
minutes or 60 minutes persevere with new techniques.
 The second factor is kind of background of  Compatibility between teacher and teaching
students have. methods is important, but so is compatibility
between learners and teaching methods.
  You have to know the background knowledge  What does a teacher expect the student to learn
level of your students from such assignment: how to write a scholarly
 Choose different strategies, for example for a paper?
group of people in a new parents class who
have less than a high school education  How to organized one's thoughts?
compared to those who have a college
education.  How to think analytically?
 Different motivation levels that might influence
the methods you choose  How to find answers to questions and solutions
 Number of people in the class affect the way you to problems?
teach.
 Teaching individuals can be done best through Using of Textbook
modules, computer programs or handouts with
explanations  Another way, called discovery questions, to help
 With small groups, discussions, role playing or students get the most out of their reading.
cooperative learning can be effective Students are assigned short passages to read
 Large groups lend themselves to lectures, before class.
audiovisuals and maybe case studies
 Helps students understand and evaluate the
Educator's instructional options are limited to; material in the text .
 resources of the institution
 classroom size  If you want to see whether the students can
 furniture, think analytically, assign a short essay in which
 lighting they have to analyze a particular patient problem
 availability of technology or issue related to the
 instructional equipment  course.
 supplies
all determine which strategies may be used.  To test ability to use resources to answer
specific questions, ask the questions, let them to
Effectiveness of Teaching Methods investigate the answers and have them to write
 Depend on the outcome criterion (dependent up the answers.
variable).
 When the outcome is the acquisition of  Students could be asked to devise assessment
knowledge, performance is about the same for forms or patient teaching material, they could do
all methods personal interviews, formulate ideas for research
or keep logsand journals
Choosing a Textbook
 Try to put yourself in the students place and  They could do a concept map of physiologic
decide whether students woulds see the book processes involve in certain medical conditions.
interesting, appealing, well organized and well
written  Countless type of assignments are available that
 Evaluating the content scope and quality; would have achieve objectives not involve a lot
credibility of authorship; format (table of of busy work and repetition.
contents, index, organization, length, graphics);
and issues like costs., permanency, quality of  A teacher may justified in asking students to
print and the like the way in which the book will enlarge working care plans to include a scientific
be used. rationale and documentation.

Using of Textbook
 The teacher's goal should be to ensure
thatstudents indeed do the reading and Conducting a Class
understand the information they have read.
First class
 Use the information from assigned readinga
basis for classroom discussion  Begin by introducing yourself, tell a little about
yourself (professional or personal) whichever
Planning Assignments information is pertinent and feel comfortable
Planning learning assignment is challenging work sharing.
 Establish an atmosphere by welcoming the
class, reading names and getting correct
pronunciation
  Little humor is helpful on the first day if it flows  Observation during his experimentation, he
naturally. noticed his subject (dog) would begin to salivate
 Give the class a general idea of the workload by seeing lab assistant with white lab coats
and your expectations in terms of preparation for entering into the room before being fed.
class and in terms of learning outcomes.
 Talk about why they should learn information Classical conditioning theory played a crucial role in
about the course, how it will help them, apply it explaining the important psychological concepts like
to their lives and what they like about it. learning and equally established the foundation for the
behavioral school of thought. Behaviorism is based on
Subsequent Classes two major assumptions:
 In each following class, it is important to begin
by and controlling the attention of the learners  Learning takes place as a result of
 Assess the learners to determine their interactions with environmental forces.
backgrounds and how much they know about  The environmental forces play a key role in
the content of the course this can be done by shaping the behavior.
giving pretest or questionnaires by asking  Learning takes place because of association
questions. which is established between a previously
neutral stimulus and a natural stimulus.
 Classical Conditioning places a neutral stimulus
THEORY AND LEARNING (Learning Styles,Learners before the naturally occurring reflexes.
and Teaching Styles)
In his experiment,
Behavioral Theories
a. Classical conditioning  Pavlov tried to pair the natural stimulus that is
b. Operant Conditioning food with a bell sound
c. Social Conditioning  The dogs would salivate with the natural
occurrence of food
The Theories of Learning  But after repeated associations, the dogs
 Regarded as kinds of learning salivated just by hearing the sound of the bell
 An organized set of principles that explain alone.
how individuals attain, retain or recall the learnt
knowledge The focus of Classical Conditioning theory is on
 Establish the conceptual framework for automatic and naturally occurring behaviors.
explaining how information absorption,
processing and retention take place during Key Principles of Classical Conditioning Theory
learning Acquisition
 Human learning is influenced by factors like
Emotional, Cognitive, Past Experiences and  This is the starting stage of learning during
Environmental factors. which a response is established firstly and then
 Learning theories prescribe the right format or gradually strengthened.
methodologies of learning for making the  During the acquisition phase, a neutral stimulus
learning effective and more impactful. is paired with an unconditioned stimulus which
 Environmental influences like, reinforcements, can automatically or naturally trigger or generate
associations, observations and punishments a response without any learning.
influence the learning process  Once this association is established between the
 The key learning theories are Classical neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus, the
Conditioning, Operant Conditioning and Social subject will exhibit a behavioural response which
Learning. is now known as conditioned stimulus.
 Once a behavioral response is established, the
same can be gradually strengthened or
reinforced tomake sure that the behaviour is
learnt.

Three Major Theories of Learning. Extinction:

 Extinction is expected to take place when the
Classical Conditioning Theory and Learning intensity of a conditioned response decreases or
 Russian Physiologist named Ivan Pavlov, who disappears completely.
first discovered the crucial principles of  In classical conditioning, this occurs when a
classical learning theory with the help of an conditioned stimulus is no longer associated or
experiment done on dogs to study their paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
digestive processes.
Spontaneous Recovery: Key Components of Operant Conditioning
 When a learnt or a conditioned response
suddenly reappears after a brief resting period Reinforcement:
or suddenly re-emerges after a short period of  Reinforcements strengthen or increase the
extinction, the process is considered as intensity mof behaviour. This can be Positive
spontaneous recovery. and Negative.

Stimulus Generalization: Positive Reinforcement:

 It is the tendency of the conditioned stimulus to  When a favourable event or an outcome is
evoke the similar kind of responses once the associated with behaviour in the form of a
responses have been conditioned, which occurs reward or praise, it is called as positive
as a result of stimulus generalization. reinforcement.

Stimulus Discrimination:  For example, a boss may associate bonus with

 Discrimination is the ability of the subject outstanding achievements at work.
todiscriminate between stimuli with other similar
stimuli. Negative Reinforcement:
 It means, not responding to those stimuli which  This involves removal of an unfavourable or an
is not similar, but responding only to certain unpleasant event after a behavioural outcome.
specific stimuli.
 In this case, the intensity of a response is
The theory of Classical Conditioning has several strengthened by removing the unpleasant
applications experiences.
 It is helpful for various pet trainers for helping
them train their pets. Punishment:
 The objective of punishment is to decrease the
 Classical conditioning techniques can also be intensity of a behavioural outcome, which may
beneficial in helping people deal with their be negative or positive.
phobias or anxiety issues.
Positive Punishment:
 The trainers or teachers can also put to practice  This involves application of punishment by
the Classical Conditioning theory by building a presenting an unfavourable event or outcome in
positive or a highly motivated classroom response to a behaviour.
environment for helping The students to
overcome their phobias and deliver their best  Spanking for an unacceptable behaviour is an
performance. example of positive punishment.

Operant Conditioning Theory and Learning Negative Punishment:

 Behavioural Psychologist B.F. Skinner was the  It is associated with the removal of a favourable
main proponent of Operant conditioning theory. event or an outcome in response to a behaviour
which needs to
 Also known as Skinnerian Conditioning and  be weakened.
Instrumental Conditioning.
 Holding the promotion of an employee for not
 Like Classical Conditioning, being able to perform up to the expectations of
Instrumental/Operant Conditioning lays the management can be an example of a
emphasis on forming associations, but these negative punishment.
associations are established between behaviour
and behavioural consequences. Reinforcement Schedules:
 According to Skinner, the schedule of
 The theory stressed on the role of punishment or reinforcement with focus on timing as well as the
reinforcements for increasing or decreasing the frequency of reinforcement, determined how
probability of the same behaviour to be repeated quickly new behaviour can be learned and old
 in the future. But the condition is that the behaviours can be altered.
consequences must immediately follow a
behavioural pattern. Learning by Observation
 According to Albert Bandura, learning cannot
 The focus of operant conditioning is on voluntary simply be based merely on associations or
behavioural patterns. reinforcements mentioned in his book Social
Learning Theory which was published in 1977.
  Learning based on observation, which he has  Dependence Model
proven through his well known Bobo Doll  People learn in uniquely different ways
experiment. He reckoned that children keenly  Learning styles includes physiologic, affective
observe surroundings and behaviour of people and cognitive styles
as their caregivers, teachers and siblings and  Today the terms cognitive style and learning
imitate those behaviours in their day to day life. style are often used synonymously

 Albert Bandura also tried proving through his Holistic (or global) thinkers
experiment that children can easily imitate the  want to get whole pictures quickly or get the gist
negative behaviours or actions. of things.
 hey want to see broad categories before they
 Another important principle of Bandura’s Social look at details
Learning Theory was that learning something by  they peocess information simultaneously rather
way of observation, it would lead to a change in than step-by-step manner
the behaviour.  they need to see how new information
simultaneously connects parts in a logical
Learning by Observation progression
This behavioural change is entirely influenced by the felt
need or motivation of a person to endorse and adopt a Analytic thinkers
behavioural change.  process the details of picture, outlining the
component parts in a logical progression.
Key Steps involved in Observational Learning
 they perceive information in an objective
Attention:
manner and do not need to connect it to their
personal values or experiences
 Attention is very important for learning to take
place effectively by following observational Verbal approach
techniques.
 people who have habitual verbal approach to
learning represent, in their brains, information
 A novel concept or a unique idea is expected to they read, see, or hear in terms of words or
attract the attention far more strongly than those verbal associations.
which are routine or mundane in nature.
 those with a visual apprach experience
information they read, see, or hear in terms of
Retention:
mental pictures or images.
 It is the ability to store the learnt information and
 No one is a purely holistic learner
recall it later, which is equally affected by a
 Not all analytic and vice versa
number of factors.
 No one is a totally verbal learner and not visual
Reproduction: and vice versa
 It involves practising or emulating the learnt
Learning Style Models
behaviour, which will further lead to the
advancement of the skill.  Field Independence
 Dependence Model
Motivation:  cognitive style is associated with Herman Witkin,
 Motivation to imitate the learnt behaviour of a who conducted a large body of research into
model depends a lot on the reinforcement and these concepts.
punishment.  Witkin identified a continuum of perception that
ranges from field-independent style and field -
For example, dependent style
an office-goer may be motivated to report to office on  Field-independent style in which items are
time by seeing his colleague being rewarded for his perceived relatively independently of their
punctuality and timeliness. surrounding field
 More analytical (seeing the parts more than
the whole

Learning Style Models

Learning Styles
 Kolb’s Theory of Experimental Learning
 Gregorc Cognitive Styles Models a. Learning Style Models
 Field Independence
  Field-dependent style in which a person has 1. Concrete experience (CE) abilities:Learning from
difficulty perceiving items aside from their actual experience
surrounding field.
 More global (seeing the whole more than the 2. Reflective observation(RO) abilities: Learning by
parts) observing others
 Embedded Figures Test- In this test, the person
is asked to find the simple figure within the 3. Abstract conceptualization (AC) abilities: Creating
complex figure. threories to explain what is seen
 For Field-independent people , the simple
figureseems to jump out of the complex figure. 4. Active experimentation (AE) abilities: Using theories to
 Field dependent people have difficulty finding solve problems
the embedded simple figure.
 Witkin found that this learning style is fairly Kolb states these four abilities or modes of learning
stable over the years and that women and girls occur on two continuums ;
in Western cultures tend to be more field
dependent than men and boys.  the abstract conceptualization to concrete
 Several tests have been developed to measure experience continuum (or thinking versus
field independence/field dependence. the feeling) and active experimentation to reflective
easiest to use in an educational setting is the observation (external versus internal )
Embedded Figures Test continuum
 Embedded Figures Test - in this test, the person
Kolb's four abilities or modes of learning (concepts -
looks simultaneously at a simple figure and
CE,RO, AC AND AE )
complex figure in which the simple figure
embedded.
 Most people tend toward a pattern of preference
Learning Style Differences Between People on Two of one bipolar opposite over the other, resulting
Ends of the Continuum in their unique learning style.
 Kolb identified four posible learnng styles based
FIELD INDEPENDENT FIELD DEPENDENT on the above concepts
1.Mathematical 1. More difficulty with
Reasoning may mathematical reasoning 1. Converger
be strong 2. Diverger
3. Acommodator
2. Analyzes the elements 2. Analyzes the whole
4. Assimilator
of situation picture; less able to
analyze
Learning styles based on the four concepts
3. Recognizes and recalls 3. Does not perceive
details details
1. Converger
4. More task oriented 4. More people oriented
 A person who learns by abstract
5. Forms attitudes 5. Attitudes guided by
conceptualization (AC) and active
independently authority
experimentation (AE)
figures or peer group
 This person is good at decision making and
peer grup
problem solving and likes dealing with technical
6. More pronounced self- 6. See themselves as
work rather than interpersonal relationships
identity others see
2. Diverger
them
 A person who stresses concrete experience
(CE) and reflective observation (RO)
Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning
Kolb's model depics learning as a four-stage cycle  This person excels in imagination and
awareness of meaning.
 Beginning with an immediate concrete
experience  He or she is feeling oriented and people oriented
and likes working in groups.
 During which the person makes observations
3. Accommodator
and reflections.
 A person who relies heavily on concrete
 Then the person develops an abstract theory
experience (CE) and active experimentation
from which he or she develops ideas on how to
(AE).
proceed
 He or she likes to actively accomplish things,
 Finally, the person actively experiments with
often using
actions to test them out
 trial - and error methods to solve problems.
Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning  This person may be impatient with other people.
 He or she acts on intuition and is a risk taker.
4. Assimilator
  A person who emphasizes abstract Concreteness - means being specific, definite and vivid
conceptualization (AC) and reflective rather than vague and general
observation (RO)
 The strengths of this person are in inductive Gregorc Cognitive Styles Model
reasoning, creating theoretical models and
integrating ideas. Gregorc states that everyone processes information In
 He or she prefers playing with ideas. mall four of dimensions, but they have preference for
one end or the other on the perception and ordering
Field‐independent learners continuums.

 Characterized as operating with an internal The preferences fall into what he called the four
frame of reference mediation channels
 Intrinsically motivated with self‐directed goals
 Structuring their own learning 1. Concrete Sequential (CS)
2. Concrete Random (CR)
 Defining their own study strategies.
3. Abstract Sequential (AS)
 Characterized as relying more on an external
4. Abstract Random (AR)
frame of reference
 Extrinsically motivated Concrete sequential learners
 Respond better to clearly defined performance  Like highly structured, quiet learning
goals menvironments and do not like being interrupted
 Have a need for structuring and guidance from  They often focus details, they like concrete
the instructor a materials especially those that are visual
 A desire to interact with other learners.  They may interpret words literally
 These characteristics will clearly have
implications for the preferred learning situation Concrete random learners
and consequently learning outcomes.  Learners are intuitive
 Use trial and error methods
Gregorc Cognitive Styles Model
 Look for alternatives
 Gregorc hypotesized that mind has mediation
 They tend to order new information mentally into
abilities of perception and ordering; that is the
three-dimensional pattern
perception and ordering of knowledge affects
how the person learns
Abstract sequential learners
Perception ability or the way to grasp incoming stimuli  Learners are holistic thinkers who seek
is on continuum ranging from abstractness to understanding of incoming information
concreteness  They need consistency in the learning
environment and do not like interruptions
Ordering ability or the way you arrange and  They have good verbal skills and are logical and
systematize incoming stimuli is on a continuum from rational
sequence to randomness Abstract random learners
 Learners think holistically and benefit grately
Continuum - a continous sequence or series of from visual stimuli
elements that vary by such tiny differences, they do not  They like busy, unstructured learning
seem to differ from each other. environments and often focused on personal
relationships
Sequence - set of related events, movements or things
that follow each other in a particular order TEACHING STYLE:
 Also called teaching methods, an outgrowth of
Randomness - state of lacking pattern or principle of the teacher's personality and character
organization  "Each teacher has their own teaching style that
includes effectiveness and mastery of subject
Perception -state of being aware of something throug matter."
the senses  The way through which a teacher teaches his
students in a particular style.
Ordering - give an authoritative direction or instruction  Attributes of a teacher that define their style,
to do something methods and behaviour in the classroom.
 The Three Teaching Styles - Delegate, Discuss
Abstractness - thought of apart from specific objects or and Direct
actual instances.
The Directing Style views on this topic. Let’s go around the room
 promotes learning through listening and and hear from everyone.”
following directions.  Get closure by reviewing the key points you
 With this style, the teacher tells the students want to make.
what to do, how to do it, and when it needs to be  Have students create questions.
done.  EX: To read a case study and formulate three
 The teacher imparts information to the students questions to ask their classmates, then discuss
via lectures, assigned readings, audio/visual their answers in class.
presentations, demonstrations, role playing, and  Utilize clickers. Clickers are an easy way to get
other means. Students involved during class.
 Students gain information primarily by listening,  Pose a multiple-choice question and their
taking notes, doing role plays, and practicing responses are tabulated on the screen. You can
what they are told to do. then open it up for discussion as students share
 The only feedback the teacher looks for is “Do why they selected a certain answer
you understand the instructions?”
Suggestions for using the Directing Style: The Delegating Style
 Start with the big picture.  Promotes learning through empowerment.
 Provide the context before launching into  With this style, the teacher assigns tasks that
specifics. students work on independently, either
 Be clear and concise. individually or in groups.
 Students need to know exactly what they must
do to succeed and by what criteria their work will Suggestions for using the Delegating Style:
be evaluated.  Assign research projects.
 Clear goals, specific deadlines, and concise  EX: In management course require students to
directions increase student motivation interview a manager of a local business to
 Eliminate confusion, wordy, sloppily written and getanswers to questions like the following:
poorly organized instructional materials,
confuse, overwhelm, and discourage students. 1.What are the main performance measures Your
 Provide sufficient detail. Communication company uses to evaluate each employee’s
breakdowns occur when important details are performance?
omitted or instructions are ambiguous.
 For example, when I once neglected to specify 2. What are the key lessons you, as a manager, have
the font size students should use, the papers learned about conducting effective performance
they turned in had font sizes ranging from 8 to appraisals?
14!
 There are times when teachers need to be very  Assign team projects. Have each team select a
direct and candid to get through to students. team leader, define roles and responsibilities,
The Discussing Style and hold each other accountable for completing
 Promotes learning through interaction. the project on time.
 In this style, practiced by Socrates, the teacher
encourages critical thinking and lively discussion  EX: In management class, have teams of
by asking students to respond to challenging students analyze the management and
questions. leadership behaviors on movies like Remember
 The teacher is a facilitator guiding the discussion the Titans and Crimson Tide.
to a logical conclusion.
 Students learn to have opinions and to back  Assign a capstone project. Let students show
them up with facts and data. you what they can do when working
Suggestions for using the Discussing Style: independently on a topic that’s important to
them.
 Prepare questions in advance. Great
discussions don’t just happen. Ask one question
at a time.  Use an appropriate mix of each teaching style.
 Be open, curious, and interested in learning
what each student thinks.  EX: Structure each classes to include some
amount of each teaching style. However, during
 Don’t allow one or two students to dominate the
the first part of a semester will use more of the
discussion.
directing style. In the middle part of a semester,
 Solicit everyone’s ideas and opinions.
typically rely more on the discussing style. And
 Gently draw out students who seem insecure in the latter part of a semester to lean more
and reticent to participate. heavily on the delegating style.
 I sometimes start my classes by saying, “I want
to give each of you one minute to discuss your
  Using an appropriate mix of teaching styles “Teaching is an intimate contact between a more
helps students learn, grow, and become more mature personality and less mature one which is
independent. designed to further the education of the learner.:

 Too much reliance on one style causes students

to lose interest and become overly dependent Good teaching is…….
on the teacher.  One that is well planned & where activities are
 There is no one best teaching style. interrelated to each other
 Effective teachers use a variety of styles, and  One that provide learning experiences or
they know how and when to choose the most situation that will ensure understanding,
appropriate one for the specific situation. application and critical thinking
 Based on the theory of learning
In essence, the three teaching styles boil down to this:  One where the learner is stimulated to think and
reason.
Direct — Tell students what to do  Utilizes prior learning and its application to new
Discuss — Ask questions and listen situation
Delegate — Empower students  Governed by democratic principles
 Embeds a sound evaluation process.

TEACHING & LEARNING (Concept/Theory) LEARNING THEORY

There are many different approaches to learning
TEACHing  There are learning theory that teachers base
What should I teach? their teaching.
 Teachers develop a kind of personal philosophy
LEARNing of teaching based on varied theories they have
What should my students be able to do with what they learned that make sense to them based on their
learn? experience.
 Other teachers probably never give a thought to
Teacher theory or philosophy of teaching but perhaps
 Person who teaches, controls learning, developed an approach and style based on
dispenser of knowledge an ultimate authority a theories they learned sometime in the past.
director of learning.  Learning theories takes concepts and
Teaching propositions fit together to explain why people
 Based on progressive and humanist education, learn and predict under what circumstances they
teaching is perceived as stimulating, directing will learn.
guiding the learner and evaluating the learning  propositions is statements of the relationships
outcomes of teaching. between concepts
 Teacher’s role becomes complex but has given  The major learning theories that guide research
the learner the responsibility to learn and practice are behaviorist theories, cognitive
 A process that enables the learner to learn on theories and social learning theories.
his own
 Teacher is the Decision maker in teaching Two principal types of learning process
process.  Behavioral learning theories
 Cognitive learning theories
Concept of Teaching (Expert Views/Definitions):
 According to Ryburn Behavior Learning Theory
“Teaching is a relationship which keeps the child  Emphasizes observable behavior such as new
to develop all his power.” skills, knoeledge or attitudes which can be
 According to B. O Smith demonstrated
“Teaching is a system iof actions intended to  Observable and measurable
produce learning”
 If the individual has changed behavior he has
 According to Thomas F. Green learned
“Teaching is the task of teacher which is
 Assumes that if students are given right
performed fot the development of the child”
stimulus, then the students will give you
 According to Burton response you want.
“Teachinfg id the stimulation guidance direction
 Behaviorism emphasizes the role environment
and encouragement of learning”
factors in influencing behavior.
 According to H.C. Morrison
 theory and be able to differentiate helpful from
harmful germ.

 Other narrow range theories and models of

information processing such as Levels of
Processing Theory, Parallel Distributing
Processing Model & Connectionistic Model.
Behaviorist Theories
 Earliest formal theories of learning grew out of
the behaviorist philosophy in the early twentieth Levels of Processessing Theory
century.  States that information is processed
sequentially, from perception to attention to
John Watson (Psychologist) postulated: labeling and meaning.
 Behavior is a result of series of conditioned  Processing sequence occurs in both memory
reflexes and all emotion. storage and memory retrieval.

 Thought is a result of behavior learned through Parallel Distributing Model

conditioning.  Proposes that information is processed by
Example: fear of a hot stove is learned when child's different parts of the memory system
curiosity leads him to touch a stove (a stimulus followed simultaneously rather than being a sequential
by a response) and he feels pain (another stimulus and process.
response).
Perception is a way of regarding, understanding, or
Because of an innate fear of pain, the child is now interpreting something; a mental impression.
conditioned to avoid touching the stove even when it is
cold. Labeling or using a label is describing someone or
something in a word or short phrase.
Reinforcement and Punishment in Learning
 Developed by B.F Skinner, Operant Meaning is what meant by a word, text, concept, or
Conditioning is a way of learning by means of action.
rewards and punishments.
Sequential processing
 This type of conditioning holds that a certain  Refers to the mental process of integrating and
behavior and a consequence, either a reward or understanding stimuli in a particular, serial
punishment, have connection which brings at order.
learning.  Both the perception of stimuli in sequence and
Example: the subsequent production of information in a
Positive Reward - gift certificates, token appreciation etc. specific arrangement fall under successive
Positive Punishment - disciplinary action processing.

Cognitive Learning Theory Connectionist Model

 Concerned with human learning in which  says that information is stored in many places
unobservable mental processes are used to throughout the brain, forming a network of
learn and remember new information or connections.
acquired skill.  the more connections that there are to an item in
 Related to concept of meaningful learning memory storage, the easier to retrieve it from
through cognitive model. memory.
 Instead of focus on behavior, the focus is on Stage Theory of information processing also relates
mental processes that are responsible for to relates to memory activity. The core theory of this
behavior and its meaning. information is both processed in three stages:

 A broad theory used to explain the mental 1. Sensory Memory

processes and how they are influenced by both  objects we see may last in sensory memory for
internal and external factors in order to only a half second.
produce learning in an individual.  things we hear remain in sensory memory for
about three seconds.
Example:  if these sensory items are not attended to in that
 In order to learn and remember information time frame they arew usually forgotten.
about aseptic technique, the person would first
have some memory and understanding of germ 2. Short term memory
  to be passed on to this level, sensations must be these mental images or verbal symbols are type
of some interest to a person or activate a known of schemata.
schemata.  rehearsal is seen as a significant way of
 consist of whatever we are thinking about or that committing learned material to memory.
which impinges on us from an external stimulus
any given time. Schema
 we have all had the experiences, introduced to a  is a cognitive framework or concept that helps
person and forgetting his/her name immediately. organize and interpret information.
 It informs a person about what to expect from a
variety of experiences and situations.
 this particular memory may last about 20
seconds unless we mentally or verbally repeat Schemata is just the plural of schema, it's also called
the item schemas
 you may forget it in three seconds if not
important to you. 3. Retention processes
 we may retain the item indefinitely if it continous  according to social learning theory, motivation
to be rehearsed or especially meaningful to us for learning will determine which modeled
behaviors are enacted.
3. Long term memory  a person is motivated the possibility of valued
 have to tie such name to an existing scema in outcomes as opposed to unrewarding or
the brain, maybe using some mnemonic device, punishing outcomes.
or relate to the name of similar name, face, or  perceived reward, is a good motivator and helps
place to create a mental association picture. people attend to modeled behavior and enact it.
 it would also help to practice the name  Example of valued outcome as motivator is
periodically to fix firmly in-term memory. situation in which student always hands
assignments in early because each time he/she
Example receives praise from the teacher for doing so.
 Rumelhart (1980) comprehensive theory of
cognitive learning, whose foundation was the Learning Propositions - Most Psychologists will
concept of schema/schemata (plural). Agree

Schemata - are knowledge structures that are stored in 1. Behaviors which are rewarded (Reinforced) are
memory as the process remembering the route to work more likely to occur. Positive feedback, reward is a
and recognizing people. powerful tool in the hands of a teacher.
 if a learner performs well in the clinical setting
Social Learning Theory (Social Cognitive Theory) and the teacher give praise or a positive written
The person best known for his social learning theory is evaluation, the learner's desirable behavior is
Albert Bandura (1977). There are several key more likely to be repeated.
components of this theory;
2. Sheer repetition without indications of
1. People learn as they are in constant interaction with improvement or any kind of reinforcement is a poor
their environment. way to attempt to learn.
 most learning occurs as a result of observing  Most nurse educators have had experience with
other peoples' behavior and its consequences learners who spend a great deal of time
practicing skills on their own and yet perform
2. Attentional processes determined which modeled them incorrectly when being observed or
behaviors will be learned. evaluated.
 people perceive and attend to only a certain  performing incorrectly of learners occurs
number of modeled behaviors. because have been practicing without any
 characteristics of the individual, the modeled external feedback or reinforcement and develop
activities themselves and social interactions in poor habits.
which the learner engages determine which  to be useful , practice must include feedback.
behaviors are attended to.
3. Threat and punishment have variable and
3. Retention processes refer to to the ability to retain uncertain
modeled behaviors in permanent memory. effects upon learning.
 for retention to occur, people must retain  they make the punished response more likely or
modeled behavior or a verbal symbol that is less likely to recur.
easily recalled (an example is remembering a  they may set up avoidance tendencies which
numbered list of activities involved ia a skill). prevent further learning.
Example; a new nurse/midwife may make a medication
error during orientation and be informed that he/she will Examples:
be let go if he makes more errors. During orientation, it may help to give sample of a typical
day of setting priorities from the standpoint of a staff
 such ultimatums sometimes be necessary, the nurse/midwife, a unit manager, and a patient.
effect on learning is unpredictable and may
increase more errors. Demonstrate how priorities differ in these varied
 it is usually more effective to stress the positive situations and discuss how things can turn out wrong if
aspects of improvement of performance priorities are not set carefully.

4. Reward (Reinforcement) to be most effective in

learning, must follow immediately after the desired 9. When children or adults experience too much
behavior and be clearly connected with behavior in frustration, their behavior ceases to be integrated,
the mind of the learner. purposeful and rational.
 The student who gives a good answer to a
question raised in the classroom should be  Blindly they act out their rage, discouragement
given immediate “Good or Right” rather than be or withdrawal.
told after the class it was a good answer.  They say they are giving up, or become angry or
 a learner in the clinical area should be given start to cry.
positive feedback at the time something is done.  Understanding and compassionate guidance
 immediate knowledge of success encourages can make all the difference in the learning
students to proceed and learn even more outcome.
material.

5. learners progress in any of area of learning in 10. If math or science teachers spend time teaching
order to achieve their purposes, with increase students how to solve problems or analyze
motivation they improve. situations or how to apply learned principles in new
 Adults are motivated to learn to the extent they situations mental powers maybe strengthened.
perceived that learning will help them perform  Course content will not improve mental skills,
tasks or deal with problems they confront in their educators may help students learn more
life situations. effectively by helping them with study and
memory techniques with practice in problem
6. Forgetting proceeds rapidly at first - then more solving and logical thinking.
and more slowly; recall shortly after learning
reduces the amount forgotten. 11. What is learned is most likely available for use if
 even when the material te learned is meaningful, it is learned in a situation which is to be used and
we forget much too quickly. immediately preceding the time when it is needed.
 we can reduce the amount of forgetting by  The proposition the people should learn subject
manipulating information and applying it soon matter in a situation which will be used lends
after the time of initial learning. support to the teaching method simulation.
 Written or laboratory simulation place the
Example: learners should be encouraged to stud each content in clinical context helps learners see
night class material learned that day. how the information actually can be applied.

7. Learning from reading is facilitated more by time 12. Children and adults remember new information
spent recalling what has bees read by rereading. which confirms their previous attitudes better than they
 recalling information forces us to construct a remember new information which runs counter to their
memory and make us use the information in an previous attitudes.
active way.  Nursing/midwifery students or nursing aides
enter as health care worker with values and
8. The best way to help students form a general attitudes that may contradict the values of the
concept is to present the concept in numerous ways profession or as nurse educator.
and varied situations, contrasting experiences with  Those entering the field may not accept the
and without the concept, then to encourage precise values they are being taught and they may
formulations of the general idea and its application resist learning information that doesn't fit with
in situations different from those in which concept their existing schema.
was learned.  Some students or aides may have little interest
in or concern for such things or group of person.
 Take the concept of priority setting.  Lecture material about the needs and problems
of individuals as elderly may have little effect
 unless the learner/student can first be brought  Meaningful activities engage students in active,
to feel empathy for the elderly and interest in constructive, intentional, authentic, and
them as a group. cooperative ways.
 Changing attitudes is not an east task, but it is
possible to do with techniques such as Useful.
providing positive clinical experiences with the  Useful learning activities are ones where the
elderly or assigning groups of learners to work student is able to take what they have learnt
together on interesting assignments to uncover from engaging with the activity and use it in
the problems or interest. another context, or for another purpose.
 For example, students are able to directly apply
the skills or knowledge they acquired to an
assessment task, or to the next activity in your
unit.
13. Adults need to know what they need to learn
something before undertaking to learn it. Teaching and Learning Activities
 Nurses/midwives and patients can easily be led  The work you have done in mapping your
to see how the material they are being asked to curriculum, writing your outcomes and planning
learn will apply to their professional or personal for what you will teach your students, and what
lives. they will need to master in your course, all
 It is a good idea to begin a class by helping comes to life in the classroom – in lectures,
learners to see how information will fit into a real tutorials and students’ own engagement with
- life setting. you, and with each other and with the
Applications of propositions of learning along with knowledge.
viewpoints of the various school educational psychology
 Enable the educator to be effective in achieving  Designing engaging, relevant and stimulating
the goals of instructions. teaching and learning activities that excite and
motivate lecturers, students and tutors is thus a
They can aid in understanding: crucial part of a successful aligned and
 How people learn constructive curriculum.
 Why they sometime act the way they do
 Why certain teaching strategies work in a  A seminal paper by John Biggs argues that good
particular situation while other strategies do not teaching focuses on what students are doing
(Biggs2012).
Every learning activity
Intentional, Meaningful, Useful  The focus should not be on what the lecturer or
 Should be aligned, as well as to the more tutor is msaying or doing, or how much they
specificlearning outcomes of each session or know; it should not even be on what students
module that you teach. are hearing.

Learning activity (Intentional Meaningful Useful)  The focus of good teaching must be on what
 The teacher's fundamental task is to get students are actually doing with the knowledge,
students to engage in learning activities that are skills and competencies they are acquiring,
likely to result in achieving [the intended because learnin doesn’t occur through just
learning] outcomes. listening; action is also required.
 It is helpful to remember that what the student
does is actually more important that what the The following resources are teaching and learning
teacher does. (Schuell, 1986, p.429) activities that can be adapted and used in a range of
classroom situations, with large and small groups of
Intentional students.
 The intent of the activity is then clear to both of
you and your student Concept mapping
 This is not only a useful learning tool for
Meaningful academic lecturers. It can be used with
 It is equally important that each activity is undergraduate and postgraduate students as
meaningful, and ensures student development well, for both individual and collaborative work.
and advancement through the unit.  Helps students to clarify not only the concepts
 Activities should build on previous activities and they are learning but, importantly, the links and
avoid being repetitive, they should enable relationships between concepts.
students to engage with and develop their skills,  As a learning tool it can show them where their
knowledge and understandings in different knowledge is firm and where they need to put in
ways. further work and time.
  As an assessment tool it can give educators a
sense of where students are clear on the course Problem-solving
content and where there are gaps that need to  Problem-solving does not necessarily work for
be addressed through further engagement in every discipline, and it is a tool that is used in
lectures or tutorials. different ways in different disciplines, depending
 Using concept maps in the classroom on the way knowledge is constructed and what
Participatory Learning in Action (PLA) kinds of things would count as ' problems' and
Techniques. 'solutions'.
 There is a wide range of PLA techniques that  This is a useful tool for encouraging critical
can be used in teaching and learning activities. thinking, and inquiry-based learning
 The main strength of PLA techniques is that they  It encourages students to be more proactive
encourage links between students’ own about using the knowledge and skills they have
lifeworlds and the more formal spaces of higher been learning to solve problems that they may
education and disciplinary learning; they encounter in the world of work or in further levels
encourage the sharing of information. of study.
 They have the ability to deepen students’ own Debates
sense- making of their learning processes.  Debates are a very useful teaching tool when
These activities work best when facilitators have there are interesting and divided issues that
some skill in using them, as they need to be need to be thought about critically and from
mediated carefully. different angles, and where students need to do
this thinking and talking actively.
Questioning  Teams of students can be set two sides of an
 Asking questions is one of the most basic, and issue, and given time to discuss these before
potentially effective, ways of engaging students presenting their arguments and engaging in the
in their own learning process. debate.
 Fellow students could be asked to adjudicate,
 Simply asking students if they understand, and with the lecturer as facilitator, stepping in to
then taking their silence to mean either ‘yes’ or manage time, and to guide the discussion
‘no’ and then moving on is probably not a very following the debate.
useful way of finding out how they are making  These can also be fun, and can give more
sense of what they are learning. creative and verbally strong students a different
outlet for making sense of their learning, as well
 One effective method of questioning is the as encouraging less outgoing and well-spoken
‘Socratic Method’ which uses certain kinds of students to develop their capacity to reason
questions for certain kinds of tasks or situations verbally and speak in public.
to scaffold and guide the students in answering.
Role-plays
 They can see more clearly what they do and do  Role-plays can be a creative and expressive tool
not yet understand or know, and so that the for getting students to engage with what they are
educator also learning in a different way.
 Has a better idea of where there may be gaps  These can be used in large and small classes,
that need to be covered with further activities or and different students can be chosen or can
assessments. volunteer to take on the roles.
 Role-plays are best used when there is a
Formative quizzes problem or an issue under discussion
 Formative quizzes are a very good way of doing  Example between a lawyer and a client, or a
continuous assessment with your students, and nurse/midwife and a patient, and having the
finding out from them whether they are students discuss and explore the problem
understanding the course content - their levels actively and creatively would lead to deeper
of understanding and where their gaps are. understanding of how to solve the problem.
 They are aimed at developing and deepening  They are fun for the whole class and students
engagement with the knowledge and tend to respond well to being asked to undertake
understanding of it. more enjoyable tasks.
 These quizzes can be designed for large and
small class groups, and can be done in lectures Freewriting
or in tutorials.  A very useful tool for getting students to think
 They can be a very useful way of revising for and write, and be a little critical, at the same
tests and exams, or preparing for written time.
assignments, and they create a more interactive  Freewrites are short and focused on a single
way of working through the course content, question or mini-topic.
rather than simply 'lecturing' it.
  Students can be encouraged to write during  Ask the students to write down explanations and
class – at the beginning or the end, or at take notes because this entails looking at your
different points during a discussion. Ideas for presentation or visualising what you’re
group work in lectures presenting.
 These freewrites can be just for them, or  Colour or emphasises key points in text.
educators can collect them at certain points  Avoid using large blocks of text.
during the term or semester and read a  Include exercises where the students create
representative selection to get a snapshot of mind maps.
how the class is coping with the tasks that are  Use storytelling to help with visualisation.
being set.  Colour-code and organise any materials you
provide as this helps organise things in their
minds.
 Get students to visualise using phrases, such
as, "Picture this", "Let's see what you would do."

Small group activities

 Used in lectures to encourage students to
participate, to think, to speak and to interact with 2. Aural learners
you and with one another about aspects of the Aural learners respond to sound, music, recordings,
lecture topic or theme. rhymes, rhythms etc. They remember conversations well
and music causes an emotional response in them.
 Using small group work requires some
organization and forward planning and often the Strategies for teaching aural learners:
creative use of space when in cramped or tiered  Encourage your students to participate in
lecture rooms, but can be very rewarding and discussions.
enjoyable for lecturers and students.  If reading is required suggest audio books if
appropriate.
The learning styles  Suggest for them to listen to music as they go
over material.
Everyone has a dominant learning style depending on
 Suggest rereading their notes back to
the
themselves when they get home.
situation. There are eight in total:
 Use mnemonic devices and rhyming.
 If you are explaining a story, play relevant
 Visual learners
sounds from your computer.
 Aural learners
 Verbal learners 3. Verbal learners
 Social learners Verbal learners favour using words and linguistic skills -
 Logical learners in speech and in writing, such as, reading, writing,
 Physical and tactile learners listening or speaking.
 Solitary learners
 Naturalist learners They like word games, puns and rhymes etc and are
often strong public speakers.
1. Visual learners
Visual learners retain information more effectively when Strategies for teaching verbal learners:
visual aids are used, such as, pictures, images, film  Use verbal teaching and writing activities.
clips, colours and diagrams. They're also good at  Ask them to discuss or present.
understandingvisual data presented in maps, charts and  Use acronyms or mnemonic devices.
graphs.  Get the class to read aloud. Try to get them to
read in a varied way rather than in monotone.
Strategies for teaching visual learners:  Role-playing, for example, practicing elevator
 Use visual aids - most other learners will benefit pitches or interactions between employees and
from visual elements as well. clients.
 Provide visual analogies and metaphors to help  Ask them to teach members of the class certain
with visual imagery. material..
 Sometimes graphics are not easy to use for  Suggest they reread and rewrite their notes,
specific topics but consider writing key points in including summaries.
front of the class as this provides visual cues.  Incorporate quizzes into your lessons.
 substitute words for colours and pictures.  Show them or provide them with lists of key
words.
  Providing these learners with a combination of  Include activities where they use a pen and
information in a variety of verbal ways can assist paper to map out their thoughts and problem-
their learning, solve because writing is a physical exercise.
 Find a venue that provides these learners with
for example, they may initially read about a concept, large spaces so they can write and draw.
afterwards they listen to an audio to support what has  Encourage them to draw diagrams, graphs and
been read, then they write notes and finally they partner maps.
up with someone and discuss the topic.  Get them to interact with physical objects or
solve puzzles.
 Role-playing.
 Provide real life examples, such as, case
studies.
 Suggest reviewing their notes whilst they
engage inphysical activity.
 Ask them to teach other class members some of
the lesson content.
 When you are asking them to visualise, explain
the sensations that would be felt, such as, "The
wind wasforcibly hitting against the left side of
4. Social learners
my body."
Social learners process information by interacting with
and relating to others. They enjoy working with others
7. Solitary learners
and are often strong leaders.
 Solitary learners like to work and learn by
Strategies for teaching social learners: themselves and self-study.
 Be inquisitive and ask them what they think  They may come across as shy or cold as they
about a concept/topic/idea. keep to themselves.
 Ask them to bounce ideas off of each other and  If you get solitary learners feeling comfortable
compare their ideas with others'. during some of the training they are more likely
to speak up during presentations or group work
 Allow them to discuss and share stories.
 Include group work - Engage in a role-play.
Strategies for teaching solitary learners:
 Ask questions so you know what they're thinking
5. Logical learners
and how they're feeling.
 Logical learners favour using logic and
 Provide individual problem-solving exercises.
reasoning.
 Explain why the lesson material is important as
 They like to classify and categorise information
solitary learners are often interested I outcomes.
and solve problems with numbers.
 Along with this, give the class ways to track their
 Logical learners are especially good at analysing
progress.
cause and effect relationships.
 Suggest links between what they have
Strategies for teaching logical learners: previously learned/should know and new
concepts.
 Provide the class with problem-solving tasks.
 Challenge them to work things out for
8. Naturalist learners
themselves.
Naturalist learners process information by working with
 Ask them to interpret abstract visual information. and experiencing nature. They learn by finding patterns
 Include critical thinking exercises. in nature and using scientific logic for understanding.
 Provide statistics and facts.
 Ask them to suggest conclusions after providing Strategies for teaching naturalist learners:
them with evidence.  Include experiments in your lessons.
 Get them to imagine that what you're teaching is
6. Physical and tactile learners a new ecosystem that they can understand by
Practical learners process information effectively when finding patterns.
they use their bodies and when they are actually doing  This will help them link concepts together.
something.
 Have exercises where they can identify and
They put their learning into practice.
classify
 Use examples linking to daily life, people or
Strategies for teaching physical and tactile learners:
nature.
 Use physical exercises and provide hands-on
 Provide observational data, such as case
experiences.
studies.
 Exercises where they are standing and walking
 Evidence against the different learning styles
are very effective.
  The concept that people learn better when and because knowledge continuously changes
taught through their preferred learning style is once it is in the learner. Mind
very popular.
Learning based…
However the evidence for this is lacking so we’ve  Takes place when all the sense are utilized
included this section to make you aware of studies  Will be enhanced when the learned is stimulated
showing that different learning styles may not be that directed, guided and feedback in immediately
effective. given
 Each learner has its own learning style
For a new paper in Anatomical Sciences Education, a
pair of researchers at Indiana University School of Teaching and learning Go together
Medicine have conducted an investigation into learning  One cannot succeed with the support or success
styles with hundreds of undergrads. The findings do not of the other
support the learning styles concept, reinforcing its  Teaching style of the teacher should jibe with
reputation among mainstream psychologists as a myth. the learner’s styles.
 Learner is the center of teaching
The study showed that student grade performance was  Knowledge of the learner and his learning style
not correlated in any meaningful way with their dominant should be considered
learning style or with any learning style(s) they scored
 Learners become complex individuals capable
highly on. Also, while most students (67 per cent)
od learning on their own, the repertoire of
actually failed to study in a way consistent with their
teaching should also increase.
supposedly preferred learning style, those who did study
in line with their dominant style did not achieve a better
grade than those who didn’t.

Additional evidence against the different learning styles:

-----------------------------------J.O.B--------------------------------
 No evidence to back idea of learning styles
 Learning styles as a myth
 The myth of 'learning styles'
 Teachers must ditch 'neuromyth' of learning
styles
 The concept of different “learning styles” is a
myth

Despite the conflicting evidence for the effectiveness of

different learning styles, it’s good to know different
teaching methods.

By varying the methods of teaching, you’ll keep the

attention of your students for longer and make the
learning experience more enjoyable.

Discovery learning
 States that the individual learns from his own
discovery of the environment
 Learners are inherently curious, hus they can be
self motivated until they find answers to the
problem
 Gave rise to the emerging theory of
constructivism and self-learning
 Learning is flexible exploratory and independent

Reception Learning
 Though learners sre inherently curious, they
may not be able to know what is important or
relevant and they need external motivation in
order to learn.
 Both also emphasize that prior learning is
important in order to learn new things and
because knowledge in order to learn new things