1) How to reach Amazon?

https://medium.com/@maneesha.wijesinghe1/what-happens-when-you-type-an-url-in-the-browser-and-press-
enter-bb0aa2449c1a
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/2092527/what-happens-when-you-type-in-a-url-in-browser
https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-series-of-steps-that-happen-when-a-URL-is-requested-from-the-address-
field-of-a-browser
http://edusagar.com/articles/view/70/What-happens-when-you-type-a-URL-in-browser
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/what-happens-when-you-type-url-browser-press-enter-wijesinghe/
Steps:
1. Firstly, When a pc boots up it obtains its own IP address, IP address of local DNS server and Default
gateway and subnet block using DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol) DORA process.
2. Then The browser checks the cache for a DNS record to find the corresponding IP address of
maps.google.com. In order to find the DNS record, the browser checks four caches.
a) First, it checks the browser cache. The browser maintains a repository of DNS records for a fixed
duration for websites you have previously visited. So, it is the first place to run a DNS query.
b) Second, the browser checks the OS cache. If it is not found in the browser cache, the browser would
make a system call (i.e. gethostname on Windows) to your underlying computer OS to fetch the record
since the OS also maintains a cache of DNS records.
c)Third, it checks the router cache. If it’s not found on your computer, the browser would communicate
with the router that maintains its’ own cache of DNS records.
d)Fourth, it checks the ISP cache. If all steps fail, the browser would move on to the ISP. Your ISP
maintains its’ own DNS server which includes a cache of DNS records which the browser would check
with the last hope of finding your requested URL.

3. If the requested URL is not in the cache, ISP’s DNS server initiates a DNS query to find the IP address of the
server that hosts maps.google.com. (You may wonder why there are so many caches maintained at so many
levels. Although our information being cached somewhere doesn’t make us feel very comfortable when it
comes to privacy, caches are important for regulating network traffic and improving data transfer
times.)
4. (As mentioned earlier, in order for my computer to connect with the server that hosts maps.google.com, I
need the IP address of maps.google.com.) The purpose of a DNS query is to search multiple DNS servers
on the internet until it finds the correct IP address for the website. This type of search is called a recursive
search since the search will continue repeatedly from DNS server to DNS server until it either finds the IP
address we need or returns an error response saying it was unable to find it.

5. In this situation, we would call the ISP’s DNS server a DNS recursor whose responsibility is to find the
proper IP address of the intended domain name by asking other DNS servers on the internet for an answer.
The other DNS servers are called name servers since they perform a DNS search based on the domain
architecture of the website domain name. Diagram to explain the domain architecture.
 https://webhostinggeeks.com/guides/dns/ Many website URLs we encounter today contain a third-level
domain, a second-level domain, and a top-level domain. Each of these levels contains their own name
server which is queried during the DNS lookup process.

6. For maps.google.com, first, the DNS recursor will contact the root name server. The root name server will
redirect it to .com domain name server. .com name server will redirect it to google.com name
server. google.com name server will find the matching IP address for maps.google.com in its’ DNS
records and return it to your DNS recursor which will send it back to your browser.

7. These requests are sent using small data packets which contain information such as the content of the
request and the IP address it is destined for (IP address of the DNS recursor). These packets travel through
multiple networking equipment between the client and the server before it reaches the correct DNS server.
This equipment use routing tables to figure out which way is the fastest possible way for the packet to
reach its’ destination. If these packets get lost you’ll get a request failed error. Otherwise, they will reach
the correct DNS server, grab the correct IP address, and come back to your browser.
8. Browser initiates a TCP connection with the server.
(Once the browser receives the correct IP address it will build a connection with the server that matches IP
address to transfer information. Browsers use internet protocols to build such connections. There are a
number of different internet protocols which can be used but TCP is the most common protocol used for
any type of HTTP request.)
9. In order to transfer data packets between your computer(client) and the server, it is important to have a
TCP connection established. This connection is established using a process called the TCP/IP three-way
handshake. This is a three step process where the client and the server exchange SYN(synchronize) and
ACK(acknowledge) messages to establish a connection.
a)Client machine sends a SYN packet to the server over the internet asking if it is open for new connections.
b)If the server has open ports that can accept and initiate new connections, it’ll respond with an
ACKnowledgment of the SYN packet using a SYN/ACK packet.
c)The client will receive the SYN/ACK packet from the server and will acknowledge it by sending an ACK
packet.
Then a TCP connection is established for data transmission!
10.The browser sends an HTTP request to the web server.
(Once the TCP connection is established, it is time to start transferring data! The browser will send a GET
request asking for maps.google.com web page. If you’re entering credentials or submitting a form this
could be a POST request. This request will also contain additional information such as browser
identification (User-Agent header), types of requests that it will accept (Acceptheader), and connection
headers asking it to keep the TCP connection alive for additional requests. It will also pass information
taken from cookies the browser has in store for this domain.)
Sample GET request (Headers are highlighted):

(If you’re curious

about what’s going on behind the scenes you can use tools such as Firebug to take a look at HTTP
requests. It is always fun to see the information passed between clients and servers without us knowing).
10. The server handles the request and sends back a response.
11. The server contains a web server (i.e Apache, IIS) which receives the request from the browser and passes
it to a request handler to read and generate a response. The request handler is a program (written in
ASP.NET, PHP, Ruby, etc.) that reads the request, its’ headers, and cookies to check what is being
requested and also update the information on the server if needed. Then it will assemble a response in a
particular format (JSON, XML, HTML)
12. The server sends out an HTTP response.
The server response contains the web page you requested as well as the status code, compression type (Content-
Encoding), how to cache the page (Cache-Control), any cookies to set, privacy information, etc.
Example HTTP server response:

13. If you look at the above response the first line shows a status code. This is quite important as it tells us the
status of the response. There are five types of statuses detailed using a numerical code.
1xx indicates an informational message only
2xx indicates success of some kind
3xx redirects the client to another URL
4xx indicates an error on the client’s part
5xx indicates an error on the server’s part

14. So, if you encountered an error you can take a look at the HTTP response to check what type of status code
you have received.The browser displays the HTML content (for HTML responses which is the
most common).
15. The browser displays the HTML content in phases. First, it will render the bare bone HTML skeleton.
Then it will check the HTML tags and sends out GET requests for additional elements on the web page,
such as images, CSS stylesheets, JavaScript files etc. These static files are cached by the browser so it
doesn’t have to fetch them again the next time you visit the page. At the end, you’ll see maps.google.com
appearing on your browser. (though this seems like a very tedious prolonged process we know that it takes
less than seconds for a web page to render after we hit enter on our keyboard. )

2) Packet Flow at each layer:

Downstream (on source side):
1)The Application layer encapsulate the HTTP request into HTTP data header and handled the header to transport
layer for further processing.
2 & 3)The presentation layer provides format of the data like asci for text msg or JPEG for image file. And Then
the session layer establishes, controls and ends the sessions between local and remote applications.
4)After that, the transport layer will recives and encapsulate the data supplied by application layer inside a
TCP/UDP header forming a segment, Adds DESTINATION AND SOURCE TCP OR UDP PORT to segment and
finally handle the segment to network layer for packing procedure.
5)Now, the network layer will recives and encapsulates TCP/UDP header inside an ip header forming an IP packet
,it will translate the destination domain name into IP address using DNS and add the destination and source IP
address to IP packet and finally routes the IP packet using outgoing NIC or interface through the data link layer.
6)Data link layer will receives the IP packet from n/w layer and encapsulates the IP Packet inside the Ethernet
header and trailer to forming a frame, adds destination and source MAC address to the frame based on ARP
table,and finally forwards the frame to next hop using the device outgoing NIC or interface through physical layer.
 7)Now, physical layer will receive a frame and covert it into bits, then encodes the bits into signals based on the
type of media used (cu,wireless,fiber) and transmits the signals 1 at a time using the devices outgoing NIC or
through the transmission media used.

Upstream(on destination side):

1)Physical layer will capture the signals and it will convert the electrical signals to bit stream as frame and handles
the frame to data link layer.
2)now, data link layer receives the frame and applies Frame Check Sequence on each frame for error detection ,if
no error found, it will deencapsulate the frame and discard the MAC address and handle the Ip packet to Network
layer.
3) Now, the network layer will recives and reads the packets destination and sorce ip address, and compare the
destination address to known IP routes or subnets by reading the routing table entries. Now, it will route the ip
packet to given interface in routing table.
4)receives and encapsulated the segment supplied by n/w layer and analyze any destination TCP or UDP source
port numbers and finally handle the data to the application layers service after analysis of port number. example, If
the port number is 80 , it handles the data to HTTP servies that is associated with that port and responsible to
respond and process web pages data.
5)and at last application layer, will check the request in the packet and according to that open new data connection
to transfer data or do further process to fulfill the client’s demand.

3) What Linux command to check open ports?

 Netstat
 Which process is using a particular port:
 # netstat -an | grep ':80' : To get the process
 which is using the given port.
 -I for interfaces
 -a for all ports

4) How will you troubleshoot slow website?

 I would first ask the user whether every application on the computer is slow or is it just one particular application.
if it is just one, try and sort that out.
If the answer is all applications are running slow, look at common causes like, virus scans scheduled, free disk
space on the home drive, RAM, lastly if the deployment team is rolling out any updates (which should not be done
during business hours, but i've seen that happen too ;)
If you suspect network latency, a simple ping test from the user's computer will tell you how many milli seconds
network traffic is taking to reach the server.
 At a high level there are 3 things one or more of which may be slow:
01. Your computer, 02. internet connection, 03. the server
01. Your computer it can be slow because of some anti-virus scan, some process using high processor/network,
HDD may be full, your computer may be virus infected, and thousands other possible reasons.
02. Internet: Your proxy setting may be using a slow proxy, your ISP may be slow, the server may have failed over
to a different Geo, so it is taking long time to route the calls, etc.
03. Slow server: Server might be under DOS attack, All the instances may not be up, because of festival
season/deal/new offering much more than usual # of people are using the site, servers running out of space,
Networking issue in data center, slow or dead partner servers, etc. to name a few.
 DO “tracert” command in cmd and If there are a large number of failed hops it may be an indication that
some ISPs along the route are having some network issues which in turn are causing your site to load
slowly.
Network drop:
1)check the physical connection of LAN or Router or check wifi is not off
2) run the network troubleshooter
3) check for valid ip address using ipconfig
4) try a ping and tracert command
 Ping 8.8.8.8
this will send four packets to Google. If they fail to send, you’ll be told what the problem was. For more
information, type this line to trace the route between your computer and google’s dns servers.
tracert 8.8.8.8
The above command gives you a step-by-step breakdown of the path that the information takes to reach the
destination you specify. Watch it, and if it fails, check to see where the problem occurs. If an error pops up early in
the route, the issue is likely with your local network.

Packet Loss:
1) Try to ping –n 20 8.8.8.8 ,if successful, increase n by 100 to test for longer period of time.(This only tests for
packet loss impacting ICMP or all traffic. Protocol specific loss may not be reflected.)
2) If packet loss was seen, the next step is to identify where the packet loss begins to occur. 'tracert' can be
used to check each layer 3 device along the path to the destination."tracert -d 8.8.8.8".
This will perform a trace route to 8.8.8.8 and present each hop as an IP address. Substitute 8.8.8.8 with
whatever address must be tested to.
3) As a more robust test, the tool MTR can be used to perform a continuous series of traces and present a %
of loss at each hop in the path to more clearly identify where the loss is occurring.
Tracert only provides information for layer 3 devices in the path, such as routers. However, in the case
where packet loss is occurring at the first hop, and must pass through a wireless access point and switch to
get there, additional testing is required to isolate the problem. In this case, testing will need to be done
multiple times, while getting progressively closer to the layer 3 device. The following steps are illustrated in
the image below:
1. Ping the access point to test wireless quality. If using a Cisco Meraki AP, ping my.meraki.com.
If loss begins occurring here troubleshooting wireless performance.
2. Ping a client connected to the same VLAN (if configured) on the switch that the wireless client is connected
to. If multiple switches exist along the path, repeat this step as needed.
If loss begins occurring here, the issue is most likely:
- Duplex/speed settings mismatch on the link between the AP and the switch, or switch and wired client
- Bad cable between the AP and switch, or switch and wired client
3. Connect a client directly to the router/firewall, on the same VLAN as the wireless client, and ping it from the
wireless client.
If loss begins occurring here, the issue is most likely:
- Duplex/speed settings mismatch on the link between the switch and the router/firewall, or router/firewall
and wired client
- Bad cable between the AP and switch, or router/firewall and wired client
Duplex mismatch
This occurs when two ends of a link are using different speed/duplex settings, such as 100Mbps/half-duplex
and 1000Mbps/full-duplex. When this occurs, some or all traffic will be lost on the link. To correct this, ensure
both sides of the link have identical settings. Ideally, both ends of the connection should be set to "Auto" for
both speed and duplex. If a speed or duplex setting must be manually set of one end, ensure that it has
been set to the same values on the other end as well.
Link congestion (too much traffic)
This occurs when more traffic is attempting to go over a network link than it can support. Such as 60Mbps of
traffic passing over the same 20Mbps link. This creates a bottleneck, resulting in some traffic being
dropped.
Firewall blocking certain traffic
Even if packet loss isn't occurring for all types of traffic, an upstream firewall may be filtering certain types of
traffic. This can result in some websites loading and others failing, or some services being accessible, while
others are not. If a firewall exists between two devices/locations experiencing these symptoms, ensure that
the firewall is not blocking the traffic that is experiencing the problem.
Bad cable or loose connection
A cable that has been poorly/incorrectly terminated or damaged can result in an incomplete or inaccurate
electrical signal passing between devices. Swapping a cable with a new one, or performing a cable test on
the one in question, can help to eliminate this as a possibility.
5)Subnetting:

https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/ip/routing-information-protocol-rip/13788-3.html

6)Difference between TCP and UDP?

7) Difference between static and dynamic routing

https://techdifferences.com/difference-between-static-and-dynamic-routing.html

1. The routers are configured manually, and the table is also created manually in static
routing whereas in dynamic routing the configuration and table creation is automatic and
router driven.
2. In static routing, the routes are user-defined while in dynamic routing the routes are
updated as topology changes.
3. Static routing does not employ complex algorithms. As against, dynamic routing uses the
complex algorithm for calculating shortest path or route.
4. Dynamic routing is suitable for large networks where the number of hosts is high.
Conversely, static routing can be implemented in a small network.
5. When a link fails in static routing, the rerouting is discontinued and requires manual
intervention to route traffic. In contrast, link failure in dynamic routing does not disrupt
rerouting.
6. The message broadcast and multicast in dynamic routing makes it less secure. On the
other hand, static routing does not involve advertisement which makes it more secure.
7. Dynamic routing involves protocols such as RIP, EIGRP, BGP, etc. Inversely, static routing
does not require such protocols.
8. Static routing does not need any additional resources while dynamic routing requires
additional resources such as memory, bandwidth, etc.

8)Traceroute
When host is trying to ping server, but if it is not working then we can check the problems in between routers, for
that we can use traceroute, which gives us the complete network devices list in between with their ip addresses, so
we can ping each of them individually & check where’s the problem.
How does traceroute work? Traceroute uses the TTL (Time to Live) field in the IP packet header. Normally, TTL
is used to prevent packets from being forwarded forever when there is a routing loop. Whenever an IP packet is
forwarded by a router, the TTL is decreased by one. When the TTL is zero, the IP packet will be discarded.
Traceroute uses the TTL (Time to Live) field in the IP packet to send probes to the destination, allowing us to
discover the path from the source to the destination. You have also seen how Windows uses ICMP and Linux uses
UDP for traceroute. TTL is used to prevent packets from being forwarded forever when there is a routing loop.

Tracert –d : do not resolve hostname to ip address.

Options for Linux (traceroute):

-i It specifies the interface through which the traceroute will go. By default is selected
according to the routing table.
-I Use ICMP ECHO instead of UDP datagrams. (A synonym for “-P imcp”).
-s It chooses an alternative source address. By default, the address of the outgoing interface
is used.
-t Type of service. The value must be a decimal integer in the range from 0 to 255. You can
use it to check if different types-of-service result in different paths.
https://networklessons.com/cisco/ccna-routing-switching-icnd1-100-105/traceroute/

9)ICMP
ICMP is a vital part of the IP protocol it is typically considered a layer 3 protocol. While ICMP is not used
regularly in end-user applications, it is used by network administrators to troubleshoot Internet connections in
diagnostic utilities including ping and traceroute.
ICMP messages are transmitted as datagramsand consist of an IP header that encapsulates the ICMP data. ICMP
packets are IP packets with ICMP in the IP data portion. ICMP messages also contain the entire IP header from the
original message, so the end system knows which packet failed
ICMP Header: Type, Code, Checksum
Type 8 is used for an ICMP request and type 0 is used for an ICMP reply. We use type 3 for destination
unreachable messages.
https://networklessons.com/cisco/ccnp-route/icmp-internet-control-message-protocol/
https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS42VS_7.3.1/com.ibm.qradar.doc/c_DefAppCfg_guide_ICM
P_intro.html
The second byte called Code specifies what kind of ICMP message it is. For example, the destination unreachable
message has 16 different codes.
0 = Network Unreachable - generated by a router if a forwarding path (route) to the destination network is not
available;

1 = Host Unreachable - generated by a router if a forwarding path (route) to the destination host on a directly
connected network is not available (does not respond to ARP);

6 = Destination Network Unknown - This code SHOULD NOT be generated since it would imply on the part of
the router that the destination network does not exist (net unreachable code 0 SHOULD be used in place of code
6);

7 = Destination Host Unknown - generated only when a router can determine (from link layer advice) that the
destination host does not exist

The third field are 2 bytes that are used for the checksum to see if the ICMP header is corrupt or not.

ICMP has been used to execute denial-of-service attacks (also called the ping of death) by sending an IP packet
larger than the number of bytes allowed by the IP protocol.
10)Ping
If ping is working, it tells me that everything on the physical layer, data link layer, and network layer in between
H1 and H2 are functional.
https://networklessons.com/cisco/ccna-routing-switching-icnd1-100-105/ping-troubleshooting-on-cisco-ios/
https://www.lifewire.com/ping-command-2618099
ping is working, doesn’t mean that an application would work. TCP traffic for certain ports could be blocked by an
access-list or a web server is not listening on TCP port 80. Firewall can be a problem.

11) MTR:Mytraceroute
MTR combines the functionality of both the Ping and traceroute Utilities (or alternatives of traceroute), providing
a robust tool for troubleshooting purposes.
MTR can provide a complete overview of the connection between two hosts on the Internet.
1)Connectivity to destination device
2)packet loss
3)Roundtrip time
By sending a series of packets and causing them to return after one hop, then two, then three, MTR is able to
assemble the route that traffic takes between hosts on the Internet.
So, it gives a simple outline of the route that traffic takes across the Internet, MTR collects additional information
regarding the state, connection, and responsiveness of the intermediate hosts which can be used for network
dignostics.

How report generated? sudo apt-get install mtr , sudo mtr –report google.com
Using MTR command.
because MTR provides an image of the route traffic takes from one host to another, it is essentially a
directional tool. The route taken between two points on the Internet can vary a great deal based on
location and the routers that are located upstream. For this reason,it is a good idea to collect MTR
reports in both directions for all hosts that are experiencing connectivity issues.

Linode Customer Support will often request MTR reports both to and from your Linode if you are
experiencing networking issues. This is because, from time to time, MTR reports will not detect errors
from one direction when there is still packet loss from the opposite direction.

12)DHCP
In all steps the destination ip address is 255.255.255.255. DHCP Uses udp ports 67 and 68. The DHCP server listens/
operates on udp port 67 while the Clients use port 68.
https://www.cloudshark.org/captures/291dfdfb602d
13)ARP
https://www-sop.inria.fr/members/Vincenzo.Mancuso/ReteInternet/09_arp.pdf

14)Bandwidth, Delay and Latency

What is the difference between Bandwidth, Delay and Latency?
“Latency” is just the time that it takes us to do an operation. For example, the time that we spend waiting at a stoplight
is a latency.
“Bandwidth” refers to how much data you can move in a given amount of time.
Bandwidth
Rated throughput capacity of a given network medium or protocol. Bandwidth is the different between the highest
and lowest frequencies available for network signals.
https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/bandwidth
Latency
Delay between the time when a device receives a frame and the time that frame is forwarded out the destination port
Data latency is the time between a query and the result displaying on the screen.
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/latency
Delay
Length of time between the initiation of a transaction by a sender and the first response received by the sender.
Length of time required to move a packet from source to destination over a given path.

15)MTU, Window Size, MSS

What is MTU, Window Size, Segment (MSS)?

UDP does not have an MSS. UDP has datagrams, and maximum size of udp datagram is limited by many factor
(maximum to the length of UDP datagram length header field =16 bits, that is including header). The hard limit is
the size IP can carry.

MTU is always layer 1 and represents capacity of a physical link. But there are situations where protocols/software
need to define MTU manually, eg IP MTU or MPLS MTU.

IP MTU is used to determine whether an ip packet needs to be fragmented or not.

MSS is always calculated from MTU to avoid any further fragmentation. In case no MTU value is found MSS with
minimum size (576) will be send (as you know MSS = MTU - layer3 header + layer 2 header). and MTU is maximum
packet size an interface can support.
Offset bit is set to Zero if there are more data to be sent. And it is set to one if there is no more fragmented packet to
follow.
4) TCP and UDP
5) Prefix Match and Route Summarization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqEcCzhlWis
6) State full and Stateless Firewall
A firewall can be described as being either Stateful or Stateless.

STATELESS Firewalls
Stateless firewalls watch network traffic and restrict or block packets based on source and destination addresses or
other static values. They’re not ‘aware’ of traffic patterns or data flows. A stateless firewall uses simple rule-sets
that do not account for the possibility that a packet might be received by the firewall ‘pretending’ to be something
you asked for.
A stateless firewall filter, also known as an access control list (ACL), does not statefully inspect traffic. Instead, it
evaluates packet contents statically and does not keep track of the state of network connections.
Purpose of Stateless Firewall Filters
The basic purpose of a stateless firewall filter is to enhance security through the use of packet filtering. Packet
filtering enables you to inspect the components of incoming or outgoing packets and then perform the actions you
specify on packets that match the criteria you specify. The typical use of a stateless firewall filter is to protect the
Routing Engine processes and resources from malicious or untrusted packets.

STATEFUL Firewall
Stateful firewalls can watch traffic streams from end to end. They are aware of communication paths and can
implement various IP Security (IPsec) functions such as tunnels and encryption. In technical terms, this means that
stateful firewalls can tell what stage a TCP connection is in (open, open sent, synchronized, synchronization
acknowledge or established). It can tell if the MTU has changed and whether packets have fragmented. etc.
 Neither is really superior and there are good arguments for both types of firewalls. Stateless firewalls are typically
faster and perform better under heavier traffic loads. Stateful firewalls are better at identifying unauthorized and
forged communications.

7) DNS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4F5TctHI4c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=833Qnc-7-ug
DNS data is divided into small parts so that it can be managed easily, which is known as DNS zones. DNS zones
are DSN data base’s file, which usually are in text format stored in various multiple DNS servers.

Two types of DNS zones types: Forward and reverse lookup zones
Forward is used for name to ip resolution. Reverse lookup zones are used for ip to name resolution. (used for
troubleshooting)
We can create various sub zones in these zones which are: Primary, Secondary, Active directory integrated zones,
and stub zones.
 Primary zones are DNS databases’ read write copy. We can add/edit/remove entries from these files. It is installed
on a server called primary server. Only one primary server.
 Secondary zones are read only copy of DNS’s database, where we cannot modify the entries. It is used for
redundancy for name resolution. It can take the data from 3 ways: from the primary zone, or from its peer
(secondary zone) or from active directory integrated zone. Problem? Contains too much information which is
never going to be used by a particular network device.
 Stub zones is like secondary zone (read only). It’s a pointer towards DNS server of another zone. Only name
server records of that zone are updated (not the host or some other’s data). Stub zones are used to make the
query process faster. Contains only partial data.
 AD integrated zones are joint with the Active directory. An active directory zone is simply a primary zone stored
in active directory. We can only see these files where the active directory is installed (usually it is installed in
Domain Controllers). Read write copy. Used for fault tolerance, high availability, redundancy.
DNS records
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6uEwzkfViSM

DNS records are basically mapping files that tell the DNS server which IP address each domain is associated with,
and how to handle requests sent to each domain. When someone visits a web site, a request is sent to the DNS server
and then forwarded to the web server provided by a web hosting company, which contain the data contained on the
site.

Various strings of letters are used as commands that dictate the actions of the DNS server, and these strings of
commands are called DNS syntax. Some DNS records syntax that are commonly used in nearly all DNS record
configurations are A, AAAA, CNAME, MX, PTR, NS, SOA, SRV, TXT, and NAPTR. The following paragraph
details the meaning and usage of each of these syntax.

DNS Syntax Types Explained

An “A” record, which stands for “address” is the most basic type of syntax used in DNS records, indicating the
actual IP address of the domain. The “AAAA” record is an IPV6 address record that maps a hostname to a 128-bit
Ipv6 address. Regular DNS addresses are mapped for 32-bit IPv4 addresses.

The “CNAME” record stands for “canonical name” and serves to make one domain an alias of another domain.
CNAME is often used to associate new subdomains with an existing domain's DNS records.

The “MX” record stands for “mail exchange” and is basically a list of mail exchange servers that are to be used for
the domain.
 The “PTR” record stands for “pointer record” and maps an Ipv4 address to the CNAME on the host.

The “NS” record stands for “name server” and indicates which Name Server is authoritative for the domain.

An “SOA” record stands for “State of Authority” and is easily one of the most essential DSN records because it
stores important information like when the domain was last updated and much more.

An “SRV” record stands for “service” and is used to define a TCP service on which the domain operates.

A “TXT” record lets the administrator insert any text they'd like into the DNS record, and it is often used for denoting
facts about the domain.

https://my.bluehost.com/hosting/help/508

8) Iptables

https://www.booleanworld.com/depth-guide-iptables-linux-firewall/

https://www.tecmint.com/basic-guide-on-iptables-linux-firewall-tips-commands/

Firewall decides fate of packets incoming and outgoing in system. IPTables is a

rule based firewall and it is pre-installed on most of Linux operating system. By
default it runs without any rules. IPTables was included in Kernel 2.4, prior it was
called ipchains or ipfwadm. IPTables is a front-end tool to talk to the kernel and
decides the packets to filter. This guide may help you to rough idea and basic
commands of IPTables where we are going to describe practical iptables rules
which you may refer and customized as per your need.
Different services is used for different protocols as:

 iptables applies to IPv4.

 ip6tables applies to IPv6.
 arptables applies to ARP.
 ebtables applies to Ethernet frames..
IPTables main files are:

 /etc/init.d/iptables – init script to start|stop|restart and save rulesets.

 /etc/sysconfig/iptables – where Rulesets are saved.
 /sbin/iptables – binary.
There are at present three tables.

 Filter
 NAT
 Mangle
At present, there are total four chains:

 INPUT : Default chain originating to system.

 OUTPUT : Default chain generating from system.
 FORWARD : Default chain packets are send through another interface.
 RH-Firewall-1-INPUT : The user-defined custom chain.
Note: Above main files may slightly differ in Ubuntu Linux.
How to start, stop and restart Iptabe Firewall.
# /etc/init.d/iptables start

# /etc/init.d/iptables stop

# /etc/init.d/iptables restart

To start IPTables on system boot, use the following command.

#chkconfig --level 345 iptables on

Saving IPTables rulesets with below command. Whenever system rebooted

and restarted the IPTables service, the exsiting rules flushed out or reset.
Below command save TPTables rulesets in /etc/sysconfig/iptables file by
default and rules are applied or restored in case of IPTables flushes out.

#service iptables save

Checking the status of IPTables / Firewall. Options “-L” (List ruleset), “-v”
(Verbose) and “-n” (Displays in numeric format).

[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -L -n -v

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT 0 packets, 0 bytes)

pkts bytes target prot opt in out source

destination

6 396 ACCEPT all -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0 state RELATED,ESTABLISHED

0 0 ACCEPT icmp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0

0 0 ACCEPT all -- lo * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0

0 0 ACCEPT tcp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0 state NEW tcp dpt:22
 0 0 REJECT all -- * * 0.0.0.0/0
0.0.0.0/0 reject-with icmp-host-prohibited

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT 0 packets, 0 bytes)

pkts bytes target prot opt in out source

destination

0 0 REJECT all -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0 reject-with icmp-host-prohibited

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT 5 packets, 588 bytes)

pkts bytes target prot opt in out source

destination

Display IPTables rules with numbers. With the help of argument “–line-
numbers” you can append or remove rules.

[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -n -L -v --line-numbers

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT 0 packets, 0 bytes)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source

destination

1 51 4080 ACCEPT all -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0 state RELATED,ESTABLISHED

2 0 0 ACCEPT icmp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0

3 0 0 ACCEPT all -- lo * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0
4 0 0 ACCEPT tcp -- * * 0.0.0.0/0
0.0.0.0/0 state NEW tcp dpt:22

5 0 0 REJECT all -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0 reject-with icmp-host-prohibited

Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT 0 packets, 0 bytes)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source

destination

1 0 0 REJECT all -- * * 0.0.0.0/0

0.0.0.0/0 reject-with icmp-host-prohibited

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT 45 packets, 5384 bytes)

num pkts bytes target prot opt in out source

destination

Flushing or deleting IPTables rules. Below command will remove all the
rules from tables. Take rulesets backup before executing above command.

[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -F

Deleting or appending rules, let us first see the rules in chains. Below
commands shall display rulesets in INPUT and OUTPUT chains with rule
numbers which will help us to add or delete rules

[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -L INPUT -n --line-numbers

Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT)

num target prot opt source destination
1 ACCEPT all -- 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 state
RELATED,ESTABLISHED
2 ACCEPT icmp -- 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0
3 ACCEPT all -- 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0
4 ACCEPT tcp -- 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 state NEW
tcp dpt:22
 5 REJECT all -- 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 reject-
with icmp-host-prohibited
[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -L OUTPUT -n --line-numbers
Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)
num target prot opt source destination

Let’s say if you want to delete rule no 5 from INPUT chain. Use the following
command.

[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -D INPUT 5

To insert or append rule to INPUT chain in between 4 and 5 ruleset.

[root@tecmint ~]# iptables -I INPUT 5 -s ipaddress -j DROP

We have just tried to cover basic usages and functions of IPTables for
begineer. You may create complex rules once you have complete
understanding of TCP/IP and good knowledge of your setup.
9) HTTP

https://www.jmarshall.com/easy/http/

HTTP is the network protocol of the Web. It is both simple and powerful. Knowing HTTP enables you
to write Web browsers, Web servers, automatic page downloaders, link-checkers, and other useful tools.

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It's the network protocol used to
deliver virtually all files and other data (collectively called resources) on the World
Wide Web, whether they're HTML files, image files, query results, or anything
else. Usually, HTTP takes place through TCP/IP sockets (and this tutorial ignores
other possibilities).

A browser is an HTTP client because it sends requests to an HTTP server (Web

server), which then sends responses back to the client. The standard (and default)
port for HTTP servers to listen on is 80, though they can use any port.

What are "Resources"?

HTTP is used to transmit resources, not just files. A resource is some chunk of
information that can be identified by a URL (it's the R in URL). The most common
kind of resource is a file, but a resource may also be a dynamically-generated query
result, the output of a CGI script, a document that is available in several languages,
or something else.

While learning HTTP, it may help to think of a resource as similar to a file, but
more general. As a practical matter, almost all HTTP resources are currently either
files or server-side script output.
10) VLAN

A VTP client can overwrite a VTP server if the revision number is higher because a VTP server is also a VTP client.
11) Load balancers
https://kemptechnologies.com/load-balancer/load-balancing-algorithms-techniques/
https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/what-is-load-balancing
Load balancing is a technique used to distribute workloads uniformly across servers or other compute resources
to optimize network efficiency, reliability and capacity. Load balancing is performed by an appliance -- either
physical or virtual -- that identifies in real time which server in a pool can best meet a given client request, while
ensuring heavy network traffic doesn't unduly overwhelm a single server.
load balancing provides failover. If one server fails, a load balancer immediately redirects its workloads to a
backup server, thus mitigating the impact on end users.
Load balancing is usually categorized as supporting either Layer 4 or Layer 7. Layer 4 load balancers distribute
traffic based on transport data, such as IP addresses and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) port numbers. Layer
7 load-balancing devices make routing decisions based on application-level characteristics that include HTTP
header information and the actual contents of the message, such as URLs and cookies. Layer 7 load balancers are
more common, but Layer 4 load balancers remain popular, particularly in edge deployments.
How load balancing works
Load balancers handle incoming requests from users for information and other services. They sit between the
servers that handle those requests and the internet. Once a request is received, the load balancer first determines
which server in a pool is available and online and then routes the request to that server. During times of heavy
loads, a load balancer can dynamically add servers in response to spikes in traffic. Conversely, they can drop
servers if demand is low.
A load balancer can be a physical appliance, a software instance or a combination of both. Traditionally, vendors
have loaded proprietary software onto dedicated hardware and sold them to users as stand-alone appliances --
usually in pairs, to provide failover if one goes down. Growing networks require purchasing additional and/or
bigger appliances.
In contrast, software load balancing runs on virtual machines (VMs) or white box servers, most likely as a function
of an application delivery controller (ADC). ADCs typically offer additional features,
like caching, compression, traffic shaping, etc. Popular in cloud environments, virtual load balancing can offer a
high degree of flexibility -- for example, enabling users to automatically scale up or down to mirror traffic spikes
or decreased network activity.
Methods:
1)Round Robin
2)least connections- assign the server haing less current conections
3)Least time algorithm – considers both server response time and active connection. Servers that have a better
balance of fewest connections and fastest response time receive a greater proportion of the connections.
4) predictive -The servers in the specified pool with better performance rankings that are currently improving,
rather than declining, receive a higher proportion of the connections.
5) fastest method: The Fastest method passes a new connection based on the fastest response time of all servers.
This method may be particularly useful in environments where servers are distributed across different logical
networks. On the BIG-IP, only servers that are active will be selected.
12) Common Port Number
FTP-20,21
SSH-22
Telnet-23
IPSec-50,51
DNS-53
DHCP-67,68
HTTP-80
HTTPS-443
BGP-179
SMTP-25
 13) Host A and B are unable to communicate with each other
https://www.computerworld.com/article/2494764/data-center/server-s-down--how-do-i-find-out-what-s-
wrong-.html
i) First check on the network from host A, whether a computer from the same network as of host A is able to
communicate with the host B or not? If it is able to communicate then there is a problem with host A. If unable
to communicate then there is a problem with host B or somewhere in the network.
ii) I will then use ethtool on host A to actually verify whether host A is actually configured on the network or not.
With ethtool we can see the speed and duplex too which should match on the interfaces to work. So, we can do
speed and duplex to auto.
iii) Next, I will check to see whether the interface and configured correctly and is up and running which I will do
with the help of eth 0 command.
iv) Next I will check whether a default gateway is setup between them or not? Using route command in linux I can
check to see the routing table which will show me the default gateway.
v) Once I have seen this I will try to ping the Ip address and if a reply comes back then it’s working fine and if it
dosent then it can mean that the fireall may be blocking the icmp packets.
 Help! My network is down: https://netbeez.net/blog/troubleshooting-network-problems/
 IP address in CIDR: http://droptips.com/cidr-subnet-masks-and-usable-ip-addresses-quick-reference-guide-
cheat-sheet
14) ACL :
ACL is a set of rules which will allow or deny the specific traffic moving through the router.
It is Layer3 Security which controls the flow of traffic from 1 router to another.Also called PACKET FILTERING
FIREWALL.
1)filtering
2)classification
If we have a VPN that encrypts traffic between the two routers. Whenever we create a VPN we can use an access-
list to “select” what traffic should be encrypted. We can use an access-list to “select” traffic, this is called
classification.
Wildcard mask: tells the router which portion of the bits to match/ignore.
Global subnet mask-255.255.255.255
Customized subnet mask-255.255.255.0
Wild card mask(from abv 2)-0.0.0.255(G-C)
Wild card mask for host-0.0.0.0
FTP:
FTP is an application protocol ,which use to transfer files to/from remote file system. Its based on client-server
model. FTP client contacts FTP server on port 21 using TCP and browse remote directoy by sending different
commands. For example if FTP client wants to have list of all files and folders present on FTP server, it issue
“list” command on port 21, and FTP server sends the list on port 20,which is used for data connection.
(USER,PASS,LIST,RETR,STOR)

15) SNMP:
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application-layer protocol used to manage and monitor
network devices and their functions using NMS. Provides common language for network . SNMP is supported on
routers,switches,ap,printers,scanners etc. SNMP can be used to monitor services such as Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
SNMP performs many functions rely on PUSH/PULL communications between N/W device and management
system .
SNMP issue read/write commands .ex: resetting password or change configuration settings.
Give bandwidth, cpu, memory in use with some SNMP mangers to admin.
 GET: Generated by the SNMP manager and sent to an agent to obtain the value of a variable, identified by its
OID, in an MIB(management info base) .
RESPONSE: Sent by the agent to the SNMP manager, issued in reply to a GET request. Contains the values of
the requested variables.
GETNEXT: Sent by the SNMP manager to agent to retrieve the values of the next OID in the MIB's hierarchy.
GETBULK: Sent by the SNMP manager to the agent to obtain large tables of data by performing multiple
GETNEXT commands.
SET: Sent by the SNMP manager to the agent to issue configurations or commands.
TRAP: An asynchronous alert sent by the agent to the SNMP manager to indicate a significant event, such as an
error or failure, has occurred.
16) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Email is emerging as the one of the most valuable service in internet today. Most of the internet systems use
SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another. SMTP is a push protocol and is used to send the mail
whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP (internet message access protocol) are used to retrieve those mails at
the receiver’s side.
Working: SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP connection to
the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection. The SMTP server is always on listening mode. As
soon as it listens for a TCP connection from any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection on that port (25).
After successfully establishing the TCP connection the client process sends the mail instantly.
SMTP has persistant connections.
3 phase: handshaking, transfer, closure.
17) GRE (Generic routing Encapsulation):
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a protocol that encapsulates packets in order to route other protocols
over IP networks.
GRE was developed as a tunneling tool meant to carry any OSI Layer 3 protocol over an IP network. In essence,
GRE creates a private point-to-point connection like virtual private network (VPN).
In contrast to IP-to-IP tunneling, GRE tunneling can transport multicast and IPv6 traffic between networks.
Advantages of GRE tunnels include the following:
GRE tunnels encase multiple protocols over a single-protocol backbone.
GRE tunnels provide workarounds for networks with limited hops.
GRE tunnels connect discontinuous sub-networks.
GRE tunnels allow VPNs across wide area networks (WANs).
While GRE provides a stateless, private connection, it is not considered a secure protocol because it does not use
encryption like the IP Security (IPsec)
Cookies: An id sent from the web server to be stored in a client’s web browser for tracking and security. As for
example, when we are doing online shopping on amazon and adding something in our shopping cart, it will be
saved in cookies from amazon server, so next time when we again login through the same account, it will have the
last session information.
18)CDN: is short for content delivery network. It is a system of distributed servers (network) that deliver pages
and other Web content to a user, based on the geographic locations of the user, the origin of the webpage and the
content delivery server.
How CDNs Work
Servers nearest to the website visitor respond to the request. The content delivery network copies the pages of a
website to a network of servers that are dispersed at geographically different locations, caching the contents of the
page. When a user requests a webpage that is part of a content delivery network, the CDN will redirect the request
from the originating site's server to a server in the CDN that is closest to the user and deliver the cached content.
CDNs will also communicate with the originating server to deliver any content that has not been previously
cached.
The process of bouncing through CDNs is nearly transparent to the user. The only way a user would know if a
CDN has been accessed is if the delivered URL is different than the URL that has been requested.
 26) Reverse Proxy: A reverse proxy accepts a request from a client, forwards it to a server that can fulfill it, and
returns the server’s response to the client.
Whereas deploying a load balancer makes sense only when you have multiple servers, it often makes sense to
deploy a reverse proxy even with just one web server or application server. You can think of the reverse proxy as a
website’s “public face.” Its address is the one advertised for the website, and it sits at the edge of the site’s network
to accept requests from web browsers and mobile apps for the content hosted at the website. The benefits are two-
fold:
Increased security – No information about your backend servers is visible outside your internal network, so
malicious clients cannot access them directly to exploit any vulnerabilities. Many reverse proxy servers include
features that help protect backend servers from distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, for example by
rejecting traffic from particular client IP addresses (blacklisting), or limiting the number of connections accepted
from each client.
Increased scalability and flexibility – Because clients see only the reverse proxy’s IP address, you are free to
change the configuration of your backend infrastructure. This is particularly useful In a load-balanced
environment, where you can scale the number of servers up and down to match fluctuations in traffic volume.
Another reason to deploy a reverse proxy is for web acceleration – reducing the time it takes to generate a response
and return it to the client. Techniques for web acceleration include the following:
Compression – Compressing server responses before returning them to the client (for instance, with gzip) reduces
the amount of bandwidth they require, which speeds their transit over the network.
SSL termination – Encrypting the traffic between clients and servers protects it as it crosses a public network like
the Internet. But decryption and encryption can be computationally expensive. By decrypting incoming requests
and encrypting server responses, the reverse proxy frees up resources on backend servers which they can then
devote to their main purpose, serving content.
Caching – Before returning the backend server’s response to the client, the reverse proxy stores a copy of it
locally. When the client (or any client) makes the same request, the reverse proxy can provide the response itself
from the cache instead of forwarding the request to the backend server. This both decreases response time to the
client and reduces the load on the backend server

27)Proxy server:

 it acts as intermediary between Server and client(requesting machine).A client connects to the proxy server,
requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource available from a different server
and the proxy server evaluates the request as a way to simplify and control its complexity.
proxies reduces overload of main server by serving requests by themselves. Proxy servers can make a network
virtually invisible to external users.
An advantage of a proxy server is that its cache can serve all users. If one or more Internet sites are frequently
requested, these are likely to be in the proxy's cache, which will improve user response time.
28) Cloud vs traditional and how will you improve:

In an era of tight budgets many businesses, from enterprise level to small and medium sized business, are looking
for efficient new ways to manage their web hosting needs. The hosting environment is changing, and some are now
looking beyond traditional setups, and into the possibilities of cloud hosting.

Traditional Hosting

Traditional hosting comes mainly in two forms, dedicated and shared. With dedicated hosting, a company pays for
the complete resources of one or more servers from a service provider. The client has a set amount of dedicated
bandwidth, CPU, RAM, and drive space, and the client has full control over the server’s resources.
With shared hosting, which is more common among small and medium sized businesses, the client pays for a set
amount of space (storage) on a single server, and that server’s resources are shared by a number of other websites.
It’s a cost-efficient, low-maintenance way to host a website or application, and the hosting company is responsible
for managing, maintaining, and updating the units.
Traditional hosting, especially shared hosting, has its drawbacks though. Because the resources of a single server
are shared among a number of different websites, spikes in traffic to those websites can mean decreased
performance for your own. Security breaches and other performance issues on other sites make take yours down as
well. And there’s a single point of failure. If the server itself experiences technical problems, everyone hosted on
that server will be affected.

With shared hosting, you’re also paying for a set amount of storage and processing power. If you have a
predictable flow of traffic, this may be a good solution for you. But if your traffic is increasing rapidly, or if you
see sudden spikes in traffic due to a new product or feature, you may be constrained the amount of storage you
currently have.

You will need to adapt by purchasing additional server space to add to your storage space and processing power.
But if traffic falls again, you will be paying for resources that you aren’t using.

Cloud Hosting : Cloud hosting offers a level of scalability that traditional hosting can’t. Cloud hosting companies
provide virtual space on an on-demand, as-needed basis. Instead of paying for a set amount of space upfront on a
single server, the user pays as they go for what they actually use.

With cloud hosting, the load is balanced across a cluster of multiple servers. The information and applications
contained on those servers are mirrored across the whole cluster, meaning that if an individual server goes down,
there is no lost information or downtime. Because of this redundancy, cloud hosting is much more elastic and
resilient. Problems with one website or application are unlikely to affect your bandwidth or performance.

Cloud hosting companies provide Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS). They house, run, and maintain all of the
necessary hardware, and the customer pays for the resources the use, similar to how we pay for utilities like
electricity.

IT departments don’t need to invest in in-house server hardware. And customers don’t need to pay for up front for
extra storage or processing capacity that they don’t use. Cloud hosting is more quickly scalable than traditional
hosting. If an application or website receives more or less traffic, the cloud servers scale up and down
automatically. With cloud hosting, there’s no need to manually add or remove server space as there is in shared
hosting.

Cloud hosting is still a relatively new technology, and many who have experience with traditional hosting are
hesitant to move to something different. Shared hosting provides consumers with a convenient, low-entry hosting
solution, and many users never experience problems. But if you’re looking for a low-cost, flexible, easily scalable
hosting solution, it may be time to move to the cloud.
29-A) Browsing 2 different things on the same browser, how it will be defined which packets of data should be
sent where :
Packet has destination ip address in IP Packet, so each router on the next hop will know which route to take to
reach to that destination.
29-B) is every website use same port for same website on browser?
Local ports are going to be different ,but the remote ports are gonna be 80 for all http request or 443 for all https.

30) POP,IMAP,EMAil:

Both POP (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message access protocol) allow
people to get access to their email from a remote server; however, that is where most
similarities end. POP simply downloads email to your computer, and usually (but not
always) deletes the email from the remote server. The problems arise if you have more
than one device where you read your mail (desktop, laptop, tablet or phone). Here's
why it's bad: You have to delete or file the same email on every device

Logging into each device, you will see lots of unread emails with no indication of which
you deleted, read, flagged or filed Any folders you created and organize on one device
won't be replicated on the other devices

IMAP allows users to store their email on remote servers. This two-way protocol also
allows the user to synchronize their email among multiple devices, which is extremely
important today, when most people have at least two devices - their laptop and
smartphone.
IMAP (Internet Messaging Access Protocol)
• Emails are stored on the server.
• Sent messages are stored on the server.
• Messages can be synced and accessed across multiple devices.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
• Emails are stored on a single device.
• Sent messages are stored on a single device.
• Emails can only be accessed from a single device.
• If you want to keep messages on the server, make sure the setting "Keep email on server" is enabled or all
messages are deleted from the server once downloaded to the app or software.

31) BGP: BGP is inter AS routing and exterior gateway protocol. BGP runs on the OSI Application Layer and get
reliability with the use of TCP ( port 179).
Border Gateway Protocol advertises, learns and chooses the best paths inside the global Internet. When two ISPs
connect, they typically use BGP to exchange routing information. Enterprises also sometimes uses BGP to exchange
routing information with ISPs, allowing the Enterprise routers to learn Internet routes. when we have multiple
Internet connections and we want to influence some packets to take one path and some packets to take another we
use BGP.
BGP Tables / Databas :
Neighbor Table: This contains the list of all configured BGP neighbors. The ‘show ip bgp summary’ command
would show the neighbor table
Forwarding Table / Routing Information Base (RIB): This contains a list of networks along their path and attributes
which are known by BGP. The ‘show ip bgp’ command would display the information.
Routing Table: This table lists the best path to the destination networks and also the next hop for each network. Like
other protocols, the ‘show ip route’ will show the routing table
Multihoming :A site with a single ISP connection is called Singled-homed. That is making use of more than one
ISPs for your network i.e. at a time you connect to more than one ISP. Multihoming is used for redundancy and
backup, in case of failure of one of the ISPs the other is still active and also for better performance
BGP Peers (neighbors) :The routers used in BGP (called speakers) must form neighbor relationship (called peers)
with other routers to function properly.
iBGP (internal BGP) : The routers that form neighbor relationship with the AS. The iBGP neighbors need not be
directly connected.
eBGP (external BGP): The routers that form neighbor relationship between different AS. The eBGP neighbors need
to be directly connected.
BGP Message Types
Open: This message is sent after BGP neighbor is configured. This message is sent to establish or form peering with
that neighbor. This message contains information such as the AS number, router ID and the hold-time.
Update: Routing information between peers is transferred using this message. This message would include, new
routes, withdrawn routes and the path attributes.
Keepalive: Similar to Hellos in the other routing protocols, BGP uses keepalives which help in keeping the peering
session active. The BGP peers exchange keepalive messages every 60 seconds.
Notification: In the event of a problem which causes the router to end the BGP peering session, the BGP neighbor
is send a notification message and the connection is closed. Also report errors in previous messages.

BGP Peering State

When a BGP peer session is formed, it passes through some states. This process is called the BGP FSM (Finite State
Machine).
Idle - The BGP process is either administratively down or waiting for the the next retry attempt. At this state there
is no peering. The router would be searching the routing table to see if a route exists to reach a neighbor.
Connect - The BGP process is waiting for the TCP connection to be completed. If it is successful, it will continue
to the OpenSent state. In case it fails, it will continue to the Active state.
Active - BGP will try another TCP three-way handshake to establish a connection with the remote BGP neighbor.
If it is successful, it will move to the OpenSent state.
Opensent - The TCP connection exists, and a BGP Open message has been sent to the peer, but the matching Open
message has not yet been received from the other router.
Openconfirm - An Open message has been both sent to and received from the other router. Next step is to receive
a BGP Keepalive message (to confirm that all neighbor-related parameters match) or a BGP Notification message
(to learn that there is some mismatch in neighbor parameters).The router may also go into ACTIVE state if there is
no response to the Open message.
Established: When the peering has been established. At this state the routing begins. This is the desired state.
The command ‘show ip bgp neighbors’ and ‘show ip bgp summary’ can help us verify BGP peering status.
BGP Attributes
AS Path: Is a Well-known, Mandatory attribute. It contains the list of AS though which the updates have traversed.
The path that has the shortest AS Path is most preferred or desirable.
Next Hop: Is a Well-known, Mandatory attribute. As BGP is an AS to AS protocol, Next hop would NOT mean
next router but instead Next Hop is equal to the IP to reach the next AS. This it is the IP address of the next AS to
reach a given network.
Origin: Is a Well-known, Mandatory attribute. Tells some information about a network i.e. it tells how BGP learned
about that network.
– IGP ‘i’ means it is advertised in BGP using a network command
– EGP ‘e’ means it is redistributed from some other source (EGP)
– Incomplete ‘?’ means redistributed into BGP from an IGP or static
Weight: Is a partial attribute. This is a Cisco proprietary attribute. It gives information on how to exit an AS. The
path with the highest weight is more desirable. This is of local significance. The default weight is 0 for learned routes
and 32768 for locally injected routes.
Local Preference: Is a Well-known discretionary attribute. It is a value that tells the iBGP peers which path needs
to be used to exit or leave the AS. The path with the highest preference is considered more desirable. These are
advertised only the iBGP neighbor within the AS and the default value is 100.
MED (Multi-Exit Discriminator): Is an Optional, Non-Transitive attribute. It define how the data traffic should
enter an AS i.e. it shows the neighboring AS the available paths to select if some data need to arrive to your AS.
32) OSPF:
OSPF is link state routing protocol which works on digikrtr algoritham , to initially construct the shortest path and
then populate routing table with best path.its a classless protocol, so supports vlsm.
The main advantage of OSPF is it supports unlimited hop counts. It supports equal load balancing. Updates through
multicast 224.0.0.5/6.
 BGP OSPF IS-IS EIGRP IGRP RIPv2
Metric Attributes Cost, Arbitra BW,Dealy,Reliability Distance(BW,Delay Hop count
BW ry Cost ,Load,MTU )
Class Classless classle classle classless classful Classless(v1:class
ss ss ful)
Inter AS Link Link Hybrid Distance vector, Distance vector,
state, state, bellman ford bellman ford
Dijkstr dijkstr
a a
Updates Unicast multic multic multicast broadcast Broadcast via
ast ast
Updates - 224.0. - 224.0.0.10 - 255.255.255.255
via 0.5/6 RIPV2-
224.0.0.9(multicast)
Type open OpenEnterp Cisco IP Protocol 9 Open standard
rise Prprietary,IP,IPX,Ap
Ver.of pletalk
Cisco
LB NO LB ELB ELB Unequal LB ELB equal load balancing
Max hop - unlimit unlimit 224 255 15(max routers-16)
count ed ed
AD 20 (external), 110 115 90(inter AS), 100 120
200(internal) 170(outer AS)
Update - 10 sec No update, hello 90 sec 30 sec
Timer every 5 sec (fast
LAN/WAN), 60 sec
slow WAN
Invalid 180 (30+150)
timer
Flush Dead 240(180+60)
40 sec
Hold on 15 sec(UP*3)(fast) 180
180(slow)
Converg 40 sec 15 sec >=4 min
ence
time
TCP Port 179 VLSM RTP for reliability, ASN number in
,CIDR VLSM configuration

Computer Network | IP security (IPSec)

The IP security (IPSec) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard suite of protocols between 2
communication points across the IP network that provide data authentication, integrity, and confidentiality. It also
defines the encrypted, decrypted and authenticated packets. Management of cryptographic keys and Security
Associations can be either manual or dynamic using an IETF-defined key management protocol called Internet
Key Exchange (IKE). To participate in a virtual private network (VPN), a host must encrypt and authenticate
individual IP packets between itself and another communicating host. IPSec is one of several mechanisms for
achieving this, and one of the more versatile.

IPSec uses IP filtering to determine which traffic should be protected by IPSec.

Uses of IP Security –
IPsec can be used to do the following things:
 To encrypt application layer data.
 To provide security for routers sending routing data across the public internet.
 To provide authentication without encryption, like to authenticate that the data originates from a known sender.
 To protect network data by setting up circuits using IPsec tunneling in which all data is being sent between the two
endpoints is encrypted, as with a Virtual Private Network(VPN) connection.
Components of IP Security –
It has the following components:
1. Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) –
It provides data integrity, encryption, authentication and anti replay. It also provides authentication for payload.
2. Authentication Header (AH) –
It also provides data integrity, authentication and anti replay and it does not provide encryption. The anti replay
protection, protects against unauthorized transmission of packets. It does not protect data’s confidentiality.

3. Internet Key Exchange (IKE) –

It is a network security protocol designed to dynamically exchange encryption keys and find a way over Security
Assocaition (SA) between 2 devices. The Security Association (SA) establishes shared security attributes between
2 network entities to support secure communication. The Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) and Internet
Security Association which provides a framework for authentication and key exchange. ISAKMP tells how the set
up of the Security Associations (SAs) and how direct connections between two hosts that are using IPsec.
Internet Key Exchange (IKE) provides message content protection and also an open frame for implementing
standard algorithms such as SHA and MD5. The algorithm’s IP sec users produces a unique identifier for each
packet. This identifier then allows a device to determine whether a packet has been correct or not. Packets which
are not authorized are discarded and not given to receiver.

Working of IP Security –
1. The host checks if the packet should be trasmitted using IPsec or not. These packet traffic triggers the security
policy for themselves. This is done when the system sending the packet apply an appropriate encryption. The
incoming packets are also checked by the host that they are encrypted properly or not.
2. Then the IKE Phase 1 starts in which the 2 hosts( using IPsec ) authenticate themselves to each other to start a
secure channel. It has 2 modes. The Main mode which provides the greater security and the Aggressive
mode which enables the host to establish an IPsec circuit more quickly.
3. The channel created in the last step is then used to securely negotiate the way the IP circuit will encrypt data
accross the IP circuit.
4. Now, the IKE Phase 2 is conducted over the secure channel in which the two hosts negotiate the type of
cryptographic algorithms to use on the session and agreeing on secret keying material to be used with those
algorithms.
5. Then the data is exchanged accros the newly created IPsec encrypted tunnel. These packets are encrypted and
decrypted by the hosts using IPsec SAs.
6. When the communication between the hosts is completed or the session times out then the IPsec tunnel is
terminated by discarding the keys by both the hosts.

Que) disk space df –l

1. df command – Shows the amount of disk space used and available on Linux file systems.
2. du command – Display the amount of disk space used by the specified files and for each
subdirectory.
3. You can print all available fields, enter:
$ df –o
4. $ df -h ### Human format
$ df -m ### Show output size in one-megabyte
$ df -k ### Show output size in one-kilobyte blocks (default)

Df –l -l, --local limit listing to local file systems

Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options too.

-a, --all include dummy file systems

-B, --block-size=SIZE use SIZE-byte blocks

-h, --human-readable print sizes in human readable format

-H, --si likewise, but use powers of 1000 not 1024

-i, --inodes list inode information instead of block usage

-k like --block-size=1K

-l, --local limit listing to local file systems

--no-sync do not invoke sync before getting usage info

(default)

-P, --portability use the POSIX output format

--sync invoke sync before getting usage info

-t, --type=TYPE limit listing to file systems of type TYPE

-T, --print-type print file system type

-x, --exclude-type=TYPE limit listing to file systems not of type TYPE

 -v (ignored)

--help display this help and exit

--version output version information and exit

Display output using inode usage instead of block usage

An inode is a data structure on a Linux file system that stores all information about file. To list
inode information, enter:
$ df -i
$ df -i –h
6.Find out the type of each file system displayed
Pass the -T option to display the type of each filesystems listed such as ext4, btrfs, ext2, nfs4, fuse, cgroup,
cputset, and more:
$ df -T
$ df -T -h
$ df -T -h /data/
Linux Server troubleshooting:
1) check the hardware:this shell command tells you if your Ethernet
device link is detectable:
$ sudo ethtool eth0  If the answer is yes, you know the
port is talking to the network.
Other common hardware problems can't be spotted by a mark one eyeball. For example, bad
RAM causes all kinds of problems. VMs and containers can hide these problems, but if you
see a pattern of failures linked to a specific bare-metal server, check its memory.

To see what a server's BIOS/UEFI reports about its hardware, including memory, use
the dmidecode command:

$ sudo dmidecode --type memory

If this looks right—it may not be, as SMBIOS data isn't always accurate—and you still
suspect a memory problem, it's time to deploy Memtest86. This is the essential memory
checking program, but it's slow. If you're running it on a server, don't expect to use that
machine for anything else while the checks are running.

You should also determine whether the

2) check the server is running or not:
problem is with the server per se or the server application.
There are numerous ways to check to see if an application is
running. Two of my favorites are:
$ sudo ps -ef | grep apache2

$ sudo netstat -plunt | grep apache2

If it turns out that, say, the Apache web server isn't running, you can
start it with this:
 $ sudo service apache2 start

In short, before jumping in to work out what's wrong, make sure you
work out which element is at fault. Only once you're sure you know
what a problem is do you know the right questions to ask or the next
level of troubleshooting to investigate.
3) Use TOP command to see all running processes:

system debugging step is top, to check load average, swap, and which processes are using
resources. Top shows all of a Linux server's currently running processes.
To find the process consuming the most memory, sort the process list by pressing the Mkey.
To see which applications are using the most CPU, press P; and to sort by running time,
press T. To more easily see which column you're using for sorting, press the b key.

with htop you can use the mouse and scroll the process list vertically and horizontally to see
all processes and complete command lines.

4) check the disk space: using df (disk filesystem) command to view a full summary of
available and used disk space.

5) check the server log: For instance, if you have an Apache server running on an Ubuntu
server, by default the logs will be kept in /var/log/apache2.One useful troubleshooting
tool is dmesg. This displays all the kernel messages. That's usually way too many, so
use this simple shell script to display the last 10 messages:

$ dmesg | tail.