Introduction to Basic Machining Processes

Machining processes in manufacturing engineering field refers to material removal processes using
machine tools. In such processes, excess material from a work-piece is removed by a machining tool
attached to a machine tool. Machining tool is also called cutter, cutting tool, or sometimes referred as
tool. Machine tool is generally powered by an electric motor, but some of the machine tools may be
human powered. All the machining processes studied under this module are manually operated. Thus
these machines will have a limitation with regard to the controlling of the machining tool.

Cutting tool used in milling machine for face milling operation

Material removal process

In such processes, a cutting tool is brought in contact with the work-piece and a thrust force is applied
to make an initial indentation on the work-piece. Then tool is moved with respect to the work-piece.
This movement may be moving the tool or moving the work-piece. Either way what requires is a
relative motion between the tool and the work-piece. The tool, which is harder than the work-piece,
induces shear stress on the work-piece, cause some material to be sheared off from the work-piece.
Cutting tool or the work-piece, if the other is making cutting motion, will provide feed motion by
moving in a perpendicular direction to the cutting direction. The material sheared off from the work-
pieces are in form of chip and hence referred as chips.

Machine tools available at a typical workshop

• Lathe
• Horizontal / Vertical / Universal Milling
• Shaper / Planer
• Pedestal Drill
• Radial Arm Drill
• Power Saw
• Bench Grinder
• Surface Grinder

Schematic illustration of cutting mechanics

Lathe Machine

A small lathe machine

Lathe machine which sometimes called as turning machine turns the work-piece attached to it. This
motion is called the primary cutting motion. The cutting tool advances towards the work-piece. This
motion is called feed motion. Lathe machines are available from small desktop size to huge size such
as 10 m in length. Older lathe machines may be following British unit system.

Anatomy of a Lathe machine

Important component of a typical lathe

Headstock
It houses the source of power for the tool and work-piece. Modern lathe machines are powered by an
electric motor, but some of the older machines were powered by IC engines. This power source is
coupled with a gear box, which can alter the direction and the speed of rotation of the work-piece.
There is a holding device such as a chuck is used to hold the work-piece. Three jaw chuck, four jaw
chuck, face plate, etc. are used as holding device and it is housed in the headstock.

Tailstock
For some operations tailstock may be used. When turning a long work-piece, if it is fixed to the chuck
by only one end, it may vibrate. To prevent this, a spindle like equipment called dead centre could be
used to align the work-piece primary axis to the axis of revolution. Tailstock can be slide along the
machine bed and locked at required position. The spindle on the tail stock can be slide with respect to
the tailstock using the hand wheel to a precise displacement. The spindle can be replaced with a drill
chuck with drill but is attached can drill a hole in the work-piece. However the tail stock does not
have power feed, and hence has to fed manually.

Carriage and the tool post

Carriage slides along the machine bed on the guide ways, and accommodates the tool post. The tool
post holds the tool and it can be slide across the machine bed. Some lathe machines comes with a tool
turret instead of the tool post and hence several tools can be mounted at the same time.

Chip formation in metal turning

Lathe machine is a very versatile machine, which

mostly makes axisymmetric parts by turning, but it
can make flat surfaces, as well as threads too.
Some of the operations can be done in lathe
machine are illustrated in the figure below.

Thread making in Lathe

External thread cutting in lathe machine Internal thread cutting using a special tool

Threads can be easily cut with lathe machine. Size, type, and length of the threads can be selected
from the selectors in the head stock. Threads will be cut in several cycles, starting with an initial
rough cut and final finishing cut. External threads as well as internal threads can be cut with a lathe.
For internal threads, cutting tool has to be changed and the feed direction has to be changed.
 Different operations done in a typical lathe machine

Trouble shooting guide for turning

Drilling
Drilling a very basic technique to create a circular hole in a work-piece by removing material. There
are numerous machine tools specially made for drilling and also there are few other machines which
can use the same cutting tool to drill a hole but not being designed only for drilling. Hand drill, hand-
held power drill, pedestal drill, and radial-arm drill are specifically designed for drilling. Lathe and
milling machine are also can be used to drill. Hand-held power drill can be used to drill small holes on
work-pieces. Power and hence the size of the holes can be made are higher with pedestal drill and
radial-arm drill proportionate to the machine tool size. When using the hand-held drill, the work-piece
must be firmly secured to a work-bend or similar stable surface by using proper work-holding method
such as a vise, or clamp, etc. Before attempting to drill on the surface, centre point of the hole must be
marked using a centre punch and a hammer with a small indentation. This is done to prevent the drill
bit slipping over the surface. For drilling of larger holes, it is advised to drill in several diameter steps
instead of drilling at once.

Types of drilling machine tools (Made only for drilling purpose)

Hand-held electric drill

Pedestal drill
 Radial arm drill

Types of drill bits

1
Shaping / Planing
Shaping and planing are two similar processes which used for making a planer surfaces. This planer
surface could be of flat plane or grooved surface. In both machine tools the tool reciprocates with
reference to the work-piece. In shaping machine the work-piece makes feed motions and the tool
which mounted on the ram reciprocates and does provide the cutting motion. On contrary, in the
planer, work-piece makes the cutting motion by reciprocating and the tool gives the feed motions.
Shaper or planer is used only for rough cuts aiming bulk material removal. These rough cuts make a
very rough surface which requires further machining operations to improve surface quality and
dimensional accuracy.

Anatomy of a shaper machine

Important components of a shaper machine

Large planer machine at work

 Tilted head of a shaper machine

Different cuts made a shaper machine with head stock tilted

When the head is tilted in the shaper it can cut planer surface inclined and vertical. However since the
milling machine can perform the operations done in shapers and planers, newer workshops might
consider omitting shapers and planers.

Milling
Milling is a popular manufacturing process, as it can make a variety of geometries which other
processes could not perform. However manually operated milling machine does have some limitations
when compared its counterpart computer numerical controlled (CNC) machines. Manual milling
machines can make a range of geometries such as, flat surfaces both vertical and horizontal, 2-
dimensional cross sectioned profiles, formed surfaces, gears, splines, keyways, grooves, and many
more.

Classification of milling operations

Manual milling operations can be categorised in to two types as peripheral and end milling, based on
the where the cutting edge is placed in the cutting tool. Cutting edge or edges of the end milling types
is place at the bottom end of the cutting tool. On the other hand in peripheral milling type, cutting
edges are at the periphery of the cutting tool. Milling operations can further be categorised based on
the cutting tool movement with respect to the work-piece, as up milling and down milling.
 Manual
Milling

Peripheral Face / End

Milling Milling

Down Down
Up Milling Up Milling
Milling Milling

Peripheral milling operations in a horizontal milling machine

Peripheral milling
The cutter axis is parallel to the surface being milled, and it is perpendicular to the cutting direction.
Making of planer surface is known as slab milling. Straddle milling and form milling does make non-
planer surfaces. Slotting and slitting operation are another two operations which belong in to
peripheral milling processes family.

End milling
End milling and face milling
operation both are similar in
machining except for the cutting
tool. Cutter axis is perpendicular
to both cutting direction and
surface being machined. Planer
face can be made using these
operations.

Face milling and end milling

Down milling
Down milling makes chips that are thicker at the beginning and gradually get thinner at the end.
Cutting edges of the cutter engage with the work-piece at the uncut surface and leaves at the newly
formed surface. The cutter pulls the work-piece towards itself. Resultant force of the cutter does have
a vertically down component, and the load on the machine bed increases, hence down milling is to use
only in machines that are designed for the purpose. On the other hand this downward force reduces
the clamping force.

Up milling
Up milling makes the chip thinner at the beginning and thicker at the end. Cutter lifts the work-piece
as the resultant force has a vertical upward force. This necessitates greater clamping force which
needs stronger work holding techniques. The removed chip goes to the newly formed surface and
might cause poor surface finish.

Types of milling machines

Milling machine types

There are two major types of manual milling. Vertical and horizontal are the two types which are
classified based on the cutting tool rotating axis. In vertical milling machine cutter rotates about a
vertical axis. Both types of milling machines can perform peripheral types and end milling type
operations. Another type of milling machine called universal milling machine which can be used in
both vertical and horizontal configurations.