2003 Bush Search and Rescue Victoria Manual

Bushwalkers
Search and Rescue
Manual
Front Cover B&W: Search at Lake Mountain, courtesy The Age

Front Cover Inset: Search training, Mt Cole, Monica Chapman
Back Cover: Navigation and radio training, Warby Ranges, Neville Byrne
Towing a sked, Mt St Gwinear, Rik Head
Bushwalkers
Search and Rescue
Manual
Second Edition
2003
Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs Inc.

Published by:
Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs Inc.
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue
332 Banyule Road Viewbank Victoria 3084
www.bsar.org
FIRST PUBLISHED 1993

SECOND EDITION 2003
Printed by
McPhersons Printing Group
Mulgrave Victoria 3170
National Library of Australia card number and ISBN

0 9596528 2 5
© Copyright Federation of Victorian Bushwalking Clubs Inc.

Bushwalkers Search and Rescue 2003
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means -
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise - except for
brief extracts for the purpose of review, unless the written permission of the
copyright owners has been given beforehand.
Contents
Foreword to the First Edition 1993 .................................................. viii
Preface to the Second Edition 2003 .....................................................ix
Acknowledgements ................................................................................ x
Chapter 1 - Introduction ..................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 - History .............................................................................. 3
Chapter 3 - Structure .......................................................................... 7
Responsibility for Search and Rescue ............................................................ 7
Call-Out System .............................................................................................. 8
Field Structure ................................................................................................. 9
Skills and Experience .................................................................................... 10
Training ......................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 4 - Joining ............................................................................ 11
Who can Join? ............................................................................................... 11
Practices ........................................................................................................ 11
How to Join ................................................................................................... 11
Employer Support ......................................................................................... 11
Entry Requirements....................................................................................... 12
Search Attendance Requirements ................................................................. 14
Chapter 5 - Responsibilities .............................................................. 15
Introduction ................................................................................................... 15
Club Delegate ................................................................................................ 15
Personal Details............................................................................................. 15
Family ........................................................................................................... 16
Employer ....................................................................................................... 16
Behind the Log .............................................................................................. 16
Training ......................................................................................................... 17
In the Future .................................................................................................. 18
Compensation ................................................................................................ 18
Chapter 6 - Call-Out .......................................................................... 19
Introduction ................................................................................................... 19
General Call-Out ........................................................................................... 20
Local Call-Out ............................................................................................... 21
Call-Off ......................................................................................................... 21
Transport ....................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 7 - Equipment and Food ..................................................... 23
Introduction ................................................................................................... 23
Equipment Lists and Details ......................................................................... 23
Day Searching Equipment ............................................................................ 28
Group Equipment .......................................................................................... 28
BSAR Equipment .......................................................................................... 30
Food for Three Days ..................................................................................... 31
Chapter 8 - Search Organisation ...................................................... 33
Field Organiser .............................................................................................. 33
Search Groups ............................................................................................... 34
v
Search Group Leader .................................................................................... 34
Searchers ....................................................................................................... 40
First Aiders .................................................................................................... 43
Composite Search Groups ............................................................................. 43
Reserve Group .............................................................................................. 43
Briefing ......................................................................................................... 43
Police ............................................................................................................. 45
The News Media ........................................................................................... 45
Peer Support Program ................................................................................... 46
Chapter 9 - Searching ........................................................................ 47
Search Skills .................................................................................................. 47
Search Techniques ........................................................................................ 50
Reconnaissance Search ................................................................................. 53
Feature Search ............................................................................................... 53
Line Search ................................................................................................... 53
Probe Search ................................................................................................. 55
Marking Boundaries ...................................................................................... 56
Day Searching ............................................................................................... 56
Searching in Snow ........................................................................................ 57
Dogs .............................................................................................................. 58
Time .............................................................................................................. 58
Technology in Searching ............................................................................... 59
Chapter 10 - Rescue ........................................................................... 61
On Finding the Lost Person .......................................................................... 61
Evacuation ..................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 11 - Additional Skills .......................................................... 67
First Aid ........................................................................................................ 67
Hypothermia Management ............................................................................ 67
First Aid Kits ................................................................................................. 69
Bush Stretcher ............................................................................................... 72
Sked Stretcher ............................................................................................... 76
Rope Climbers ............................................................................................... 78
Helicopters .................................................................................................... 79
Communications ........................................................................................... 82
Sound and Visual Signals ............................................................................. 90
Chapter 12 - Administration............................................................. 91
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue Committee ................................................ 91
Club Delegates .............................................................................................. 91
Police Liaison Officers .................................................................................. 93
Field Organisers ............................................................................................ 94
Club Contacts ................................................................................................ 95
Club Committees ........................................................................................... 97
Peer Support Coordination ............................................................................ 98
Funding ......................................................................................................... 98
Information for Employers ........................................................................... 99
Further Reading ................................................................................ 100
vi
Figures
Figure 3.1 Call-out system ................................................................................ 8
Figure 3.2 Field structure .................................................................................. 9
Early stages of a search showing road patrols, search of main
Figure 9.1
feature and line search in the area of highest probability......... 52
Figure 9.2 Line search - multiple sweeps ........................................................ 54
Figure 9.3 Line searching between linear features ....................................... 54
Figure 9.4 Spiral search from isolated object ................................................ 54
Figure 9.5 Probe search ................................................................................... 55
Figure 9.6 Director of skier from pole tracks .................................................. 57
Figure 11.1 Bush stretcher .................................................................................. 72
Figure 11.2 Square Lashing ............................................................................... 73
Figure 11.3 Diagonal lashing ............................................................................ 74
Figure 11.4 Ski sled ............................................................................................ 75
Figure 11.5 Rope climbers ................................................................................ 79
Figure 11.6 Helicopter safety diagrams .......................................................... 80
Figure 11.7 Typical radio ................................................................................. 83
Figure 11.8 Radio simplex operation ............................................................... 87
Figure 11.9 Radio repeater .............................................................................. 88
Figure 11.10 Radio trunking ................................................................................ 88
Tables
Table 7.1 Personal equipment to take on a search....................................... 24-26

Table 7.2 Day searching personal equipment list........................................... 28-29
Table 7.3 Day searching group equipment list .............................................. 30
Table 7.4 Sample 3-day food list ...................................................................... 32
Table 9.1 Key search skills ................................................................................. 47
Table 9.2 24-hour time ...................................................................................... 58
Table 11.1 Mandatory personal search and rescue first aid kit..................... 70-71
vii
Foreword to the First Edition 1993
The Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs is the peak organisation
of walking clubs which promotes interest in safe and enjoyable bushwalking
and conservation of the bush.
In 1949, a walker, Ambrose Howie, was lost at Wilsons Promontory.
There was no Police Search and Rescue Squad and the search operations
were under the control of the local Police at Foster. Several experienced
members of the Federation attended the search area and offered their serv-
ices. Howie was not found, but the Police were impressed by the profession-
alism of the walkers. A report was made to Police Headquarters which re-
sulted in an invitation being extended to discuss the formation of a Federa-
tion Search and Rescue Unit and this duly occurred.
Since then, the Federation has developed a soundly based administra-
tive structure that has the capacity to support its considerable operational
expertise in the areas of bushwalking, mountaineering, cross-country skiing
and associated search and rescue skills.
Victoria is fortunate to have a diversity of natural terrain and an abun-
dance of National Parks for the public to enjoy. Inevitably, the use of these
facilities will lead to the inexperienced and, at times, the experienced adven-
turer finding themselves in difficult and often life-threatening situations.
Since its foundation, the Federation Search and Rescue Section has
assisted in most major searches conducted in Victoria. In that period, they
have established an excellent rapport with the Victoria Police and, in par-
ticular, the Search and Rescue Squad.
The support of the employers of members of the Search and Rescue
Section has been an essential component of the successful work of the Fed-
eration.
In 1989, I had the pleasure to present the Section with a Chief Com-
missioners Certificate in appreciation of its 40 years service to the public of
Victoria. This Manual is indicative of the continuing professionalism of the
Unit, and I commend it to you.
Kelvin Glare
Chief Commissioner of Police
viii
Preface to the Second Edition 2003
The first editon of this manual, published in 1993, developed from a
series of duplicated instruction booklets produced since 1949 by the Fed-
eration of Victorian Walking Clubs Search and Rescue Section for its mem-
bers. Over this period of more than 50 years much has changed, yet much
remains the same.
The volunteer work of the Victorian bushwalking community in pro-
viding searchers when people are lost in remote bush areas is the basis for
this manual. The information on bushwalking equipment, the skills and
techniques utilised by bushwalkers when searching and the operational
structure of what is now called Bushwalkers Search and Rescue (BSAR)
have well and truly stood the test of time.
What has changed considerably is the support provided to searchers
in the field, largely through technology in all its manifestations, and the
growing community requirements for accountablity, particularly reflected
here in much more detailed advice for those people in leadership positions
in Bushwalkers Search and Rescue.
To this end, changes made in this second edition include:
further emphasis on the role of the searcher and the search group
leader
expanded and elaborated information on the organisation and
management of a search
updated information on communication and other search related
technologies
explanation of Bushwalkers Search and Rescue policies
more detailed and updated equipment requirements.
During the life of this manual further changes in the organisation
and operation of Bushwalkers Search and Rescue will occur from time to
time. Members will be kept updated through their Club Delegate and
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue newsletter Behind the Log.
Manual Sub-Committee
ix
Acknowledgements
This manual was revised and updated for Bushwalkers Search and
Rescue by a sub-committee of members from the BSAR Committee of the
Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs (VicWalk) Inc. consisting of:
Duncan Brookes
Monica Chapman
Chris Jarvis
Joanna OBrien
Frank Zgoznik
This sub-committee wishes to acknowledge and especially thank John
Retchford with assistance from Duncan Brookes and Mike Tegg for their
contributions to the writing of the first edition. Thank you also to Stuart
Brookes and Jayne Retchford for contributing drawings to the first edition
that have been retained in the second and Stuart Brookes for the redrawing
of some of the diagrams for this edition.
Monica and John Chapman are thanked for the design, layout, image
scanning and digital preparation of the manual.
Many others, including the Police Search and Rescue Squad and Po-
lice Air Wing, contributed in various ways, particularly by providing mate-
rial and commenting on the draft. We thank them all.
Black and white cover photograph by courtesy of The Age. Other
photographs supplied from Stuart Brookes collection, Neville Byrne, Peter
Campbell, John Chapman, Monica Chapman, Peter Dunbar, Rik Head,
Karl Hradsky, Leigh Johnstone, Luke Maslin and Frank Zgoznik.
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue wishes to

thank Sport and Recreation Victoria who again
SPORT AND
supported this publication with a grant towards RECREATION
its printing. VICTORIA
Donations from the family and friends of the late William Peden con-
tributed to the publication of this manual. Members of Bushwalkers Search
and Rescue are very appreciative of this support and generousity.
x
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Welcome to Bushwalkers Search and Rescue. The principal aim of
this book is to introduce members of the Federation of Victorian Walking
Clubs Bushwalkers Search and Rescue to their roles and responsibilities
within the organisation. It is also intended that this book provide a back-
ground of the history, structure, administration and operational methods
so that the role of the individual is understood within a broader context.
Bushwalkers are invariably free spirits who work more effectively when they
thoroughly understand the group of which they are a part and the methods
they are expected to employ. The organisation of informed and motivated
people into small groups in which the ideas of the individual are readily
heard seems to be much more effective on searches than a more military-
style model with a few generals and many relatively uninformed troops
doing just what they are told.
Wherever possible, this book tries to answer the question of why things
are done in a particular way.
We are one of several organisations Police call on to assist with searches
in remote areas. Each organisation is called because of the particular exper-
tise it brings. The State Emergency Service often provides searchers, skilled
drivers with four-wheel drive vehicles and sometimes horses. In alpine areas
in winter, resort-based ski patrollers are used. Local Police and land manage-
ment authority staff (e.g. National Park rangers) will often have begun search-
ing before Bushwalkers Search and Rescue volunteers arrive. Each of these
organisations has its own speciality and together we provide the resources
necessary in most large searches.
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue is fortunate to be able to call on the
services of so many skilled people. The entry requirements ensure that all
members are experienced bushwalkers and many bring additional outdoor
(ski touring, mountaineering) and other skills into the organisation. Thus
this manual assumes these personal skills and concentrates on the more
specific aspects of search and rescue.
To many outsiders, searching seems to be a fairly random process and
its success is seen to be largely a matter of luck. There is no doubt that luck
does play a part, but searchers make their own luck to a large extent.
Search organisers take account of many factors, but probably the most im-
portant one is the knowledge of how a large number of lost people behaved
in the past. Other factors include the background and experience of the lost
1
person, knowledge of likely survival times and the competence of the search-
ers. It can therefore be seen that, while the process remains one of playing
the odds, well-run searches weigh the odds very heavily in the lost per-
sons favour.
Searchers on the 1952 Marysville search
Disclaimer
Procedures, structures and other details described in this manual
are current at the time of writing, but may change over time. Members
should keep up-to-date through their Club Search and Rescue Delegate.
2
Chapter 2 - History
The Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs (VicWalk) Inc, as its name
implies, is a grouping of clubs - now more than seventy. The Federation
promotes safe and enjoyable bushwalking, conservation of the bush and
represents bushwalking to the public and to government. As well as
bushwalking, the activities of member clubs include ski touring, rock climb-
ing, orienteering, mountaineering, canoeing, bicycling, rafting and rogaining.
Since 1949 the Federation has maintained a Search and Rescue Sec-
tion. The Section was formed to assist Police during searches for people
lost in remote or difficult terrain. This occurred after a number of indi-
vidual members of bushwalking Clubs served as volunteers during an un-
successful search for a solo walker lost at Wilsons Promontory. Senior Po-
lice were very impressed with the skill and independence of these walkers
and encouraged the Federation to establish a formal search and rescue
group. Several clubs made this a reality.
In the early 1990s the Section changed its name to Bushwalkers Search
and Rescue. Further information on the history of the Section (and the
Federation generally) is contained in The Scroggin Eaters by Graeme
Wheeler.
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue is probably the largest organised pool
of bushcraft and mountain skills in Victoria. These skills, together with an
appropriate organisational structure and regular search practices, form the
basis for an emergency group which has quietly served the Victorian public
for many decades. The organisation is to-
tally voluntary and involves around 300
people. It is noteworthy that the Search and
Rescue Section considerably pre-dates the
Police Search and Rescue Squad.
Since its inception in 1949, the Search
and Rescue Section has provided advice to
VicWalk clubs, the VicWalk council, gov-
ernment and other organisations.
John Retchford with the then Minister for

Sport, Recreation & Racing, Hon. Tom
Reynolds, at the launch of the 1st edition of
the manual, 8th May 1993
3
Searches involving Bushwalkers Search and Rescue
1949 Wilsons Promontory - solo walker, unsuccessful
1950 Warrandyte - elderly woman, not found
1952 Marysville (Paradise Plains) - six walkers
1953 Mt Donna Buang - Snowgirl search, two sightseers
1955 Baw Baw Plateau - walker, 10 days, not found
1956 Mt St Leonard - two Scouts, found safe
1959 Blackwood - lost woman
1960 Olinda - man, not found
1961 Mt Magdala - woman walker, found dead on cliffs later
1966 Mt Donna Buang - 15 missing teenagers, frostbite
1968 Lake Mountain - man lost
1969 Mt Slide and Powelltown - missing aircraft, four dead
1971 Mt Buffalo - missing walker
1972 Mt Buffalo - another missing walker
1972 Lake Mountain - lost schoolboys, touring skis used
1972 Toorongo Falls - lost child, 12 days, 100 BSAR searchers,
unsuccessful
1973 Baw Baw Plateau - man missing from 4 wheel drive
1973 Mt Wills - lost man, not found
1974 Steavenson Falls - lost boy, not found
1974 Murchison Falls - lost male, not found
1974 Wellington Plains - school group, many scattered in snow,
evacuated
1976 Lerderderg Gorge - evacuation of injured walker
1976 Humphray River - lost man
1976 Mt Baw Baw - lost skier
1978 Lerderderg Gorge - lost man, later found drowned
1978 Mt Hotham - two lost skiers, found dead
1979 Mt Buffalo - missing woman
1979 Mt Donna Buang - three lost teenagers, quickly found
1980 Seven Acre Rock - intellectually disabled girl
1980 Blackwood - intellectually disabled girl
1981 Mt Bogong - recovered body, winter
1982 Mt Murray - lost Scout, quickly found
1982 Cathedral Range - evacuation of injured girl
1982 Wongungarra River - bicycle man found
1982 Dargo area - girl found, evacuated by helicopter
4
1983 Mt Buffalo - lost schoolboy
1983 Lake Mountain - lost boy found at conclusion of winter
practice
1983 Mt Feathertop - fallen climber, died
1983 Mt Cope - two teenage girls missing, quickly found
1984 Mt Feathertop - pair missing in snow
1985 Mt St Gwinear - two lost skiers, quickly found
1985 Mt Stirling - two lost skiers, found dead
1985 Mt Feathertop - cornice collapse, man killed
1986 The Razorback(Mt Hotham) - skier slid on ice, died
1987 Wilsons Promontory - intellectually disabled boy lost, not
found
1987 Falls Creek - man lost from Village at night, died
1987 Strathbogie Range - intellectually disabled boy lost
1988 Falls Creek - solo male daywalker
1988 Dargo Plains - male four wheel driver, not found
1989 Rocky Valley Creek - overdue fishermen
Bill Bewsher (centre pointing) directs searchers on the 1955 Baw Baw
Plateau search
5
1989 Pretty Valley Creek - lost fisherman
1989 Dargo Plains - deer shooter
1989 Mt Baw Baw - lost male cross country skier
1990 Mt Buller - four teenage boys missing overnight
1990 Mt Hotham - three adult skiers missing overnight
1990 Razorback Ridge - nine Venturer Scouts overdue in blizzard
1990 Mt Buller - missing teenage boy, found in Howqua Valley
1990 Mt Buller - adult skier missing overnight
1992 Mt Stanley - intellectually disabled man - evacuated by
stretcher
1992 Lake Mountain - three tobogganists, two evacuated by
stretcher
1993 Wongungarra River - solo walker, found safe after seven
nights
1994 Woods Point - deer shooter, found safe
1996 Mt Cobbler - walker found safe at foot of waterfall
1996 Mt Hotham - adult snowboarder, found dead after snow melt
1997 Falls Creek - adult skier, found safe
1998 Wilsons Promontory - intellectually disabled boy, found, 58
BSAR searchers on first call-out
1998 Mt Hotham - adult skier
1999 Mt Kosciuszko - four snowboarders, found dead after snow
melt, first interstate search
2000 Mt Fainter South - adult walker
2000 Whitfield - missing woman, not found
2000 Mt Feathertop - male tourist
2000 Mt Samaria - intellectually disabled boy, evacuated by
stretcher
2001 Tanjil Bren - intellectually disabled adult, not found
2001 Tawonga Gap - para-glider pilot, found dead outside search
area
2001 Mt Buller - snowboarder
2002 Mt Useful - missing woman, not found
2002 Noojee - missing man, found dead
2002 Lake Mountain - missing man, found dead
All lost people on this list were found unless otherwise indicated.
6
Chapter 3 - Structure
Responsibility for Search and Rescue
There are so many groups, both volunteer and government, involved
in aspects of search and rescue that it is understandable that the public and
the news media are confused about who carries the final responsibility. An
agreement made between the Commonwealth and the States in 1962 made
it clear that Police are responsible for all searches on land and coastal waters.
The Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs Bushwalkers Search and Res-
cue is set up to assist Police and responds only to requests for help from the
Victoria Police.
Searchers gathered for a briefing by Police Search & Rescue Squad at

the practice held on Mt Stirling 2001
7
Call-Out System
Police requests for assistance are directed to BSAR Police Liaison
Officers (PLOs), who first arrange for a Field Organiser (FO) and then
telephone the Club Contacts. The Club Contacts then telephone their
individual club members. The call-out procedure is summarised in Figure
3.1 and the role and qualifications of PLOs are listed in Chapter 12.
Figure 3.1 Call-out system
Where a country club is called out by the local Police, the Club Con-
tact notifies a PLO of the call-out.
Country members joined search at Tawonga Gap 2001
8
Field Structure
In the field, Bushwalkers Search and Rescues contribution to a search
is controlled by a Field Organiser, who reports directly to Police. The FO
may appoint a deputy and will usually organise searchers into groups of
four, including an experienced Group Leader. On a large and complex search,
the FO may use other FOs to control several groups to achieve a particular
task. A typical field organisation is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The roles and
detailed duties of FOs, Group Leaders and Members are outlined in Chap-
ter 8.
Figure 3.2 Field structure
9
Skills and Experience
All members, both men and women, are skilled, experienced
bushwalkers and navigators, with all necessary equipment. Many members
have first aid training, while some are expert rock climbers, mountaineers,
cross-country skiers, cavers and canoeists. All members must meet specified
standards of experience in bushwalking and are encouraged to gain further
experience in the fields listed above. Some members have participated in
expeditions to New Zealand, Europe, the Andes, the Himalaya and Antarc-
tica.
Training
Practice weekends include instruction sessions in search and rescue
techniques and also simulated searches and rescues. It is not necessary to
train members in bushcraft and camping, because the entry requirements
ensure that they come with these skills and because their normal bushwalking
and outdoor activities continue to hone those skills. Training sometimes
concentrates on a specific aspect of search and rescue, such as searching in
heavy snow on skis and snow-shoes, or mountain rescue. Search practices
are run in collaboration with the Police Search and Rescue Squad.
Workshop session in progress Mt Stirling practice 2001
10
Chapter 4 - Joining
Who can Join?
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue is open to members of Federation
clubs who meet the experience and age entry requirements listed be-
low. The entry requirements basically ensure that members are compe-
tent and experienced bushwalkers, ready to receive specific training in
search and rescue techniques.
A search call-out is not the time to recruit new members and non-
members will not be permitted to attend a search.
Practices
An excellent way to find out more about Bushwalkers Search and
Rescue membership is to attend a practice. Non-members of BSAR are
welcome at most practices and will quickly gain an insight into the
methods of the organisation through practice activities and also by talk-
ing to members. It is essential that members regularly attend practices.
How to Join
A club member can only join BSAR by submitting an Application
for Membership to their Club Committee. This committee then checks
to ensure that the applicant meets the entry requirements. This step is
an important feature of BSAR, because it is unlikely that the BSAR
Committee will know the applicant and relies completely on the Clubs
recommendation.
The application form is available from your Club Delegate to the
BSAR Committee. If your club is without a Club Delegate or any search
and rescue volunteers and you wish to participate in Bushwalkers Search
and Rescue, write to the BSAR Convenor.
Employer Support
Before joining, enlist the support and understanding of your em-
ployer so that if you are called for a search they will be co-operative. If
you consider that a letter from the BSAR Committee to your employer
explaining the purpose of BSAR and asking for their co-operation would
be helpful, please advise your Club Delegate. Information for employers
is included in Chapter 12.
11
Entry Requirements
Applicants are expected to meet the following entry requirements.
Age
Applicants must be at least 18 years of age.
Experience
A minimum of 16 full days of bushwalking, including one or more
continuous periods of at least four days plus four weekends. One of the
overnight walks must have been in adverse conditions and another in
snow.
Navigation
Applicants must be competent in off-track navigation, be able to
give and interpret grid references, be conversant with orienting a map/
oneself using a compass and relate map to terrain. Applicants must be
capable of being independent in the bush.
Food
BSAR members are expected to cook and provide their own nutri-
tious meals using light weight rations similar to those listed in Chapter
7.
Equipment
Applicants must have a complete range of equipment in good con-
dition. This includes skiers having suitable skis and ice climbers having
a full alpine kit. Refer to Chapter 7 for more detail.
Fitness
Applicants must be capable of prolonged heavy scrub-bashing on
steep slopes. Club committees are reminded that searching imposes
greater mental and physical demands than normal bushwalking or ski-
touring and recommendations for BSAR membership should be made
with this in mind.
Leave
It is necessary that applicants have suitable arrangements with their
employers for leave during searches.
12
Desirable Skills
Other skills are recognised with BSAR, but are not mandatory for
entry. These skills are listed on the Application for Membership Form
and upon applying you should identify the level of skill you have at-
tained in each additional area as follows:
Skiing Experience
Applicants of suitable ability are classed as intermediate or ad-
vanced skiers. Beginner skiers and people who have not skied with a
pack are excluded from this category.
Intermediate skier Advanced skier
• overnight snow camping experience In addition to all skills for Intermediate

• ski touring with overnight pack skier:
• can per form linked turns on • can per form linked turns on slope
intermediate angles
gradient up to 15 degrees, eg. resort up 35 degrees; eg. Resort "Black" run
"Blue" run • can ski steep tree-covered snow
• can ski tree-covered snow terrain terrain
• have cross country downhill (XCD) ski
equipment - skis, bindings & boots
Ice Climbing Experience

New Zealand technical mountaineering course or equivalent
Competent with ice axe & crampons
Leadership Experience
Qualified - BMLC/STLC graduate/staff member or equivalent
Club Leader - Club Leader of your bushwalking club
First Aid Experience
Medical practitioner
Wilderness First Aid or ASPA
First Aid Medallion
Current First Aid Advanced Certificate
Current First Aid Basic Certificate
Expired First Aid qualification
13
Search Attendance Requirements
Members are required to arrive at the departure point for a search
with food and equipment so that they can be independent for three days
should this be necessary. In the event of a prolonged search, return
transport cannot be guaranteed for a shorter search period than two
days. Some guidance on food and gear is given in Chapter 7. Police and
BSAR provide specialised equipment.
Snow searches involve

extended periods in cold
conditions usually on skis, but
often on foot, regularly in
poor visibility, wind and
during snowfalls
Scrub and steep

terrain are
features of most
searches in sub-
alpine areas.
Searchers should
be equipped
with sturdy
gloves and wet
weather gear at
all times
14
Chapter 5 - Responsibilities
Introduction
As a member of BSAR you are now on call. It is assumed that
you will maintain yourself and your gear in the state of readiness you
have agreed to on application. We, the members of BSAR, offer this
service because of our experience, skills, special knowledge and equip-
ment.
It is understood that our services will not be called upon by the
Police unless the need is considered sufficiently great. We will normally
only be called to search in bush or mountain country, including the
snowfields, where our skills are used to best advantage.
We will not be called to help in any case involving criminal inves-
tigation or, under normal circumstances, to find the body of a person
known to be dead, but rather the humanitarian one of assisting where a
person may be lost, injured or distressed. Occasionally, however, the lost
person will be found dead, in which case we may help to recover the
body.
Speed and ease of call-out are essential. The rapid availability of
trained BSAR volunteers is usually a key element in a successful remote
area search.
Club Delegate
Contact with BSAR is through the Club Delegate to the BSAR
Committee. It is your responsibility to know who your Club Delegate is
and to keep in touch. Club Delegates will notify members of changes in
BSAR policy and generally keep members abreast of activities such as
practices.
Personal Details
Relevant personal details are recorded on the Membership Appli-
cation Form. If these details change at any stage, you must notify your
Club Delegate immediately. Most important are contact details, but do
not overlook other information such as the gaining or expiration of a
First Aid Certificate.
Your Club Delegate will contact you annually to confirm that your
details are current.
15
Family
Leave details of the Club Contacts with family before heading out
on a search. Then, if some emergency makes it necessary that a member
be contacted in the field, family members can be put in touch with the
PLO handling the search. Discourage enquiries being directed to Po-
lice. Victoria Police is a very large organisation and it is most unlikely
that information of the detail required will be readily available. BSAR
operates fairly autonomously, so it is much more productive for queries
to be directed through our system. The best point of enquiry is the Club
Contact.
Occasionally there may be lengthy delays (as much as 24 hours) be-
tween the reported finding of lost people and the return of searchers to
their homes. This may be due to a long evacuation, time taken for distant
searchers to return to base or transport delays. It is also possible that news
reports are inaccurate. Members and their families should be aware that
only limited reliance can be placed on media reporting of searches.
Employer
Your employment circumstances will change from time to time. Most
members experience periods when work commitments make it impossible
to respond to any search callouts. However, if your long term work circum-
stances look like preventing a direct involvement in searches, it is best to
drop off the list of searchers, and perhaps consider another role, such as
Club Contact.
From time to time you may also have a new boss or change jobs. When
this occurs it is important to promptly gain the support and understanding
of your employer regarding your involvement in BSAR. A callout in the
early hours of the morning is not the time to recall that your new boss
has never heard of BSAR. Information for employers is included in Chap-
ter 12.
Behind the Log

Bushwalkers Search and Rescue has a bi-annual newsletter called
Behind the Log. It is currently the only direct communication with each
individual member. Other communication avenues are through your Club
Delegate and attendance at search practices.
16
Training
The general form of training for BSAR is through the annual prac-
tice weekend. Members are encouraged to attend at least one practice
every two to three years. If you have not attended a search or practice
recently, please attend the next practice.
Only by keeping the members up-to-date about developments and
techniques can BSAR be maintained at a high efficiency. Training is
provided in specialist equipment including Police radios, BSAR GPS
units and rescue stretchers. These practices offer the only opportunity
to test out new ideas and suggestions and try out new people in unfamil-
iar roles. Practices also provide a good opportunity to get to know fellow
members.
Search practices
provide opportunities
for members to
acquire the skills of
making and carrying
bush stretchers and
towing Skeds or ski
sleds
17
In the Future
In the normal course of bushwalking activities be observant, with
the idea of developing suggestions on aspects of search and rescue work.
Refer ideas and present comments and suggestions (preferably in writ-
ing) to the Convener, BSAR Committee or your Club Delegate. These
comments and suggestions, which are always very welcome, can alter-
natively be submitted during any practice.
Compensation
In Victoria, BSAR members are covered by the Emergency Man-
agement Act (1986). This provides for their compensation if injured or if
property is damaged, during both searches and practices, provided they
are registered members of BSAR and they have been officially requested
to attend the search or the practice. Membership of BSAR is deemed to
be registration under the Act.
Non-members attending practices are not covered by the Act. They
are, however, most welcome to attend normal practices and would find it
beneficial. They may find they are covered by their Clubs insurance.
18
Chapter 6 - Call-Out
Introduction
Our organisation will only respond to an official Victoria Police call.
We will normally only be called for searches in bush and mountain areas,
perhaps snow covered, where our members skills are most appropriate, rather
than in urban or farming areas.
Members should make every effort to respond to a call-out. Your com-
mitment as a searcher is valuable irrespective of who is missing. The detail
you first hear is normally very brief and may not communicate the serious-
ness of the situation. BSAR are called out by the Police because we provide
a source of personnel with expertise not readily available from other emer-
gency services organisations.
A call-out means you are needed.
Police and BSAR members at the Mt Stirling practice 2001
19
General Call-Out
Sometimes news reports may indicate that someone is lost in the bush
or snow and this may give some advance warning, but call-outs can occur
at any time, usually in advance of news reports. Weekends are probably the
most likely time for trouble. It is also far more likely that calls will be at night
rather than during the day. This is because people are seldom reported miss-
ing before nightfall and by the time Police investigate and a decision is made
to call BSAR for a dawn start next day, it is usually late at night. When
these two factors are combined, the period around weekends is probably
the most likely time for a call-out with Monday nights being the most com-
mon. Searches are never called off due to bad weather or rough conditions.
When Police decide to enlist our aid they will contact one of the PLOs,
who in turn obtains assistance from another PLO and appoints an FO.
Together, the PLOs telephone each Club Contact. The Club Contacts will
telephone their BSAR members.
A search call-out is not the time to recruit new members and non-
members will not be permitted to attend a search.
Call-outs can take a long time. Also, at this early stage of a search, the
Club Contact or the PLO will have very little information, some of which
may be inaccurate. For both these reasons you should not waste time re-
questing details, but concentrate on times, transport arrangements and spe-
cial equipment requirements. These are best written down immediately.
As a volunteer you are not compelled to make yourself available and
you should only do so if no serious inconvenience would result and you and
your equipment are up to standard.
Call-outs are for up to two full days of searching. Travelling to and
from the search area is typically done at night. If you cannot commit your-
self for two days, it is best to make yourself unavailable. If you are unavail-
able initially, please inform your Club Contact whether you may be able to
attend later call-outs should they arise during the search.
If you are available, you will be told briefly of the area, the person or
persons lost, the maps required, if known, any special equipment that may
be required, and the place and time of departure. Ensure you have the cor-
rect place and time. Note pm or am if the time is not given in the 24 hour
system. If you cannot give an immediate reply you must promptly advise the
Club Contact whether or not you can attend. Do not report to the depar-
ture point without having advised the Club Contact first. If and when you
are called, you are asked not to recruit other volunteers, no matter how
20
willing or capable. Extra people may upset transport arrangements and they
may not be covered by the Emergency Management Act.
Often as little as two or three hours notice is given and if delays or
difficulties have occurred you may not have sufficient time to reach the
departure point. Search groups must leave at the designated time, so if you
are unable to make the departure point, let your Club Contact know and
wait for the next call-out.
Local Call-Out
Country Clubs may establish close working relationships with local
Police and be called out directly by them. In this case one of their Club
Contacts must notify a PLO of the situation and the fact that they are going
into the field. No further action is required by the PLO.
If an FO is called out as part of a local call-out and the search escalates
to require Melbourne-based clubs, then that FO, as the first involved, re-
mains in charge. The Melbourne contingent is then managed by a deputy
FO.
Call-Off
A call-off, in the event of a person being found, can occur at any time
up to the arrival at the search area. This may cause considerable inconven-
ience (less inconvenience than a search), but they cannot be helped and
must be accepted.
Transport
BSAR searchers on general call-outs travel from the departure point
to search base by Police bus. You will be advised by your Club Contact of the
location of the departure point and the time of departure.
In some cases a second suburban departure point will be arranged by
the PLO with Police during the initial phase of the call-out, and Club Con-
tacts will be advised to offer two options to members. Inform your Club
Contact which departure point you will use and stick to that option.
Country members and some suburban members remote from the de-
parture point but en-route to the search area may make arrangements for
pick up by the Police bus via their Club Contact. This will need to be
approved by the PLO.
21
Plan to arrive at the departure point at least fifteen minutes prior to
the scheduled departure time. This allows time for you to park your vehi-
cle, check in with the FO and assist with loading the bus. It is not possible
to wait for late members.
For local call-outs, transport is preferably provided by local Police or
SES with 4WD vehicles to facilitate access to the search area.
Search base, Tawonga Gap 2001
Reimbursement for use of private vehicles is not generally available.

The use of private cars to the search area by BSAR members is strongly
discouraged. BSAR has a long-standing policy that members use the Po-
lice bus transport to the search area. The reasons are:
Search groups are easily organised and briefed by the FO en-route
Search group members can organise themselves before reaching the
search area
The destination may change while en-route to the search area
The search may be called off while members are en-route
Searchers can rest and sleep prior to searching
Fatigued searchers do not have to drive home at the end of a search
The bus provides a venue for post search de-briefing during the journey
home
Some search locations do not suit access by private vehicles.
To conclude, it is crucial that BSAR members operate as a coherent
unit for the duration of a search, from departure to return. The use of pri-
vate vehicles can significantly interfere with this process.
22
Chapter 7 - Equipment and Food
Introduction
Members are expected to be fully self-sufficient for three days even
though the attendance requirement is for two days. The full list of
bushwalking equipment shown below and three days food should be brought
for all call-outs.
Equipment Lists and Details

The following lists assume the member is an experienced overnight
walker capable of operating in all conditions, including snow. Each mem-
ber must bring the normal gear for a three-day walk. Excess equipment
may be left at search base in a labelled bag showing name, club, home
address and telephone number. Likewise, all major items should be labelled
with your name and club.
Do not leave items out assuming somebody else will have them. Your
equipment must be kept in a good state of repair.
In addition to normal bushwalking or ski-touring gear, the following
is required.
A break for lunch, Baw Baw National Park practice 1999
23
Personal Search Equipment
All items mandatory unless stated otherwise
Item Comment
Tent Do not plan to share a tent with a friend. You may

be split into separate groups.
Sleeping mat, closed Self-inflating mats may puncture during casualty

cell foam management, evacuation or emergency bivvy. Take
both if desired.
Sleeping bag
Spare clothes
Towel & soap Optional. Useful where base accommodation is

provided.
Stove, billy, fuel & Ensure adequate fuel for three days cooking.
matches
Eating utensils
Water Minimum two litres in sturdy container(s). Fill at home.
Food for three days Easily prepared, nutritious and durable. Refer to
separate list of suggestions later in this chapter.
First aid kit & medication Refer to Chapter 11.
Sunscreen, sunglasses,
h at
Weatherproof clothing Gore-Tex® or equivalent material hooded jacket and

over trousers
Gaiters
Torch, power ful Power ful head torch recommended with spare
batteries and globe.
Long trousers, heavy Required for prolonged periods of thick scrub

duty bashing.
Gloves, leather Leather garden gloves or leather riggers gloves.

Required for scrub bashing.
Cordage, 10 - 12 metres Venetian blind cord or 5 mm sisal recommended.

Required for bush stretchers.
24
Personal Search Equipment - Continued
Item Comment
Cutting implement For fabricating a bush stretcher, clearing evacuation

(garden saw or path or preparing an emergency shelter. Ensure the
machete) cutting edge is suitably guarded.
Coloured toilet paper, For marking boundaries of areas searched, clues,

one roll finds, etc.
Large plastic bags (2) Wheelie bin liners ideal. Used for hypothermia
treatment, bivvy bag.
Storage bag or large For storage of personal items at base. Ensure name
sports bag and club is clearly visible. Must be waterproof, as
shelter at base is not guaranteed.
Compass, whistle & map

case
Note pad and pen Store in waterproof plastic bag.
Map of area (if known) Optional. In most cases, photocopies of areas to be

searched will be issued at base. Personal maps, in
colour, can aid navigation.
GPS unit Optional. Confirm grid datum in use before leaving

base (AGD for maps printed pre 2000, GDA for maps
printed post 2000).
Large felt tipped pen Optional. Marking the group number on search
(waterproof) boundary markers (toilet paper).
Rope, 30 metres 8 mm Optional. Personal support on steep terrain or

kernmantle (scrambling negotiating small cliffs. Assisting with stretcher escort
rope) in steep terrain.
Karabiner, screw gate Optional. Stretcher escort, personal support, pack

(2) hauling.
Large day pack Optional. Minimum 40 litres, as most day packs are
too small for searching. An alternative is to use your
weekend size pack for day searching.
25
Personal Search Equipment - Continued
Item Comment
Cross country skis and Only bring a type suitable for back country skiing with
stocks heavy loads. Metal edges are essential.
Applies only to members Safety straps.

listed as Skiers according
to the membership Skins or rope climbers could be useful. Bundle your skis
requirements. and stocks together for transport.
BSAR Bushwhacker skis may be issued at base. These

skis are fitted with Nordic 75mm three-pin XCD
bindings only. Do not rely upon these being available.
Snow shoes Optional. Snow shoes can also be brought if you have
them.
Mobile telephone Optional
Table 7.1 Personal equipment to take on a search
A large day pack of sufficient capacity to carry the items listed for day
searching, including a sleeping bag, is essential as well as the normal pack.
As an alternative, the normal pack may be used in place of the day pack,
provided a sturdy bag which can be easily carried is brought for the balance
of your equipment, e.g. sturdy sports bag.
Clothing should be brightly coloured, if possible, to aid recognition
in the bush, or a bright panel or pack cover could be used with day pack or
weekend size pack. BSAR usually issues a bright pack cover for the dura-
tion of the search. These have proved to be very effective for visibility in
scrub, poor light and snow.
Remember that searching is often done in much rougher terrain and
scrub than would normally be experienced on bushwalking trips, hence
the need for such items as scrub gloves, tough long pants and gaiters.
In addition, a BSAR armband may be issued and should be worn
near the search base to distinguish BSAR volunteers from others. It should
be removed upon leaving base to prevent its accidental loss in the bush.
Maps are usually supplied by the Police. However, BSAR members
should bring their own maps if possible.
26
Packing group and personal gear
Snow conditions require cross-country skis or snow-shoes. Skis must

be fitted with reliable safety straps.
A few searches require more specialised equipment such as ropes, ice
axes or crampons. If you have this equipment and the ability to use it effec-
tively, bring it if there seems to be a likelihood of it being useful. The con-
cept of bringing extra equipment just in case may seem like heresy to the
weight-conscious walker or ski tourer. However, unlike on a normal trip,
surplus gear can be left at the search base when the search terrain and
conditions are known. Time is always allowed for this purpose. A policy of
when in doubt, bring it is appropriate for search packing.
27
Day Searching Equipment
As the majority of searches involve day searching, the items listed for
day use should be packed into the day pack or set aside while packing at
home, to be ready for a quick departure on arrival at search base.
When going out on a day search (planning to be back at base that
night), take the following items:
Day Searching - Personal Equipment

Large day pack (min 40 litres) or A normal weekend size pack is

weekend size pack recommended. Items not taken into
the field can be stored at base in the
storage bag.
Weatherproof clothing Gore-Tex® or equivalent material

hooded jacket and over-trousers.
First aid kit & medication Refer to Chapter 11.
Sunscreen, sunglasses, hat
Cordage
Fire lighting items
Coloured toilet paper, one roll For marking a search boundary.
Large plastic bags
Food, scroggin For personal needs. Include more than

normal to cater for the casualty and in
case of an unplanned overnight out.
For example, extra noodles, packet
soups, fruit etc.
Water Two litres. Fill up before leaving home.
Notepad & pen Inside a plastic bag
Torch, spare battery & globe
Warm clothes Be prepared for an unplanned night

out. Take extra for the rescued person
Compass and whistle
28
Day Searching - Personal Equipment - Continued
Map A photocopy of the search area will

usually be issued at base. Personal
maps of the area brought from home,
if available, should also be taken.
Scrub gloves
Sleeping mat, closed cell foam For casualty management and

personal use
Long trousers Shorts are not suitable for searching
Gaiters
Eating utensils Optional. For feeding the rescued

person and personal use, particularly if
having to bivvy out and eat
emergency rations.
Scrambling rope & karabiners Optional
Table 7.2 Day searching personal equipment list
BSAR pack covers and arm bands are usually issued to members on
arrival at search base via the leader.
Group Equipment
Shared between a group of four, quantities may vary depending upon
the number of people missing. The group leader should allocate who takes
what item.
Each search group must be self-sufficient in the field, and each leader
will check the equipment of their group before leaving search base to en-
sure the group is adequately equipped.
At search end, group equipment must be returned to its owner, Police
or BSAR.
29
Day Searching - Group Equipment
Tent (1) A style with two entrances is most

suitable for casualty management.
Sleeping bag (1+) At least one
Stove, fuel, billy & matches
Cutting implements (2) Ideally, one of each type (garden saw

and machete)
Pack covers, arm bands, radio harness Issued by BS&R for identification at
base and in the field.
Radio Supplied by Police with instruction on

use. To be returned to Police at the
end of each day for recharging
GPS unit Confirm grid datum in use before

leaving base. BS&R GPS units may be
issued.
Table 7.3 Day searching group equipment list
BSAR Equipment
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue has specialist equipment that is is-
sued to members during searches and practices. This equipment includes
Sked multi purpose stretchers, Bushwhacker cross country skis, brightly col-
oured BSAR pack covers (which can also be used as bivvy shelters and
casualty protection), radio harnesses, GPS units and BSAR armbands (for
identification around base). Other items include cordage, a ski sled kit,
and some haulage ropes.
Most of the equipment is stored in Melbourne. Some equipment in-
cluding a Sked, GPS units, ice axes, crampons and ropes are stored at Mount
Beauty Police Station for local call-outs.
Practices provide opportunities to use this equipment. Take advan-
tage of these so that you are familiar with them when required to use BSAR
equipment on a search. This applies particularly to the Skeds, Bushwhackers
and GPS units.
Please return all issued equipment at the end of the search or prac-
tice. Report any lost or damaged items to your Group Leader or Field Or-
ganiser.
30
The Police Field Catering Unit is a welcome addition on any search
Food for Three Days

You will need to bring lightweight food for three days on every search
call-out. This is in addition to any food you may bring for the journey to
the search area.
We are expected to be fully self-contained in both food and shelter
and our search assignments will be determined on this basis. Your food
needs to carry well and to be easily prepared in difficult conditions. The
food brought for a search in hot conditions, when total fire bans are possi-
ble, will need to include items that do not require cooking.
The Police field catering unit and other service organisations some-
times provide meals when searchers are at the base area. This is a most
welcome bonus for us, but in no way replaces the requirement that each
member must bring food for three days to every search.
An example of a good food list for a search call-out is shown below as
a guide only. Experienced bushwalkers will have their own preferences.
Note that the major items are relatively cheap and can be kept aside
at home specifically packed for a search. The fresh items listed are likely to
be on hand or easily obtained at the last minute.
31
Sample Three-day Food List
Item Quantity for 3 days
Muesli, rolled oats, cereal 150g m
Dry biscuits, flat bread or rye bread, 300g m

(or sandwiches)
Margarine 100g m
Spreads, vegemite, honey, peanut 150g m

butter, etc.
Cheese 150g m
Soup, single serve packets 12 packets
Pasta or rice packet meals 3 by 120gm packets
Dried fruit 150g m
Chocolate 100g m
Energy bars 6 b ar s
Sweets or scroggin, etc. 100g m
Tea or coffee 40g m
Powdered milk 150g m
Su g a r 100g m
Powdered fruit drink 3 packets
Salt Small container
Water. Fill bottles at home 2 litres, more if hot
Table 7.4 Sample 3-day food list
32
Chapter 8 - Search Organisation
Field Organiser
The nominated FO leads and manages the Bushwalkers Search
and Rescue members on each search, under the direction of the Police.
A group of about ten very experienced members have been designated
for the FO role. The first FO available when the call-out commences
takes on the job for that particular search.
The FO will usually appoint a deputy. Together they will represent
BSAR volunteers at all discussions and planning meetings. They will
give all instructions to members, either directly or through the Group
Leaders. Searches work best when either or both the FO and deputy
remain at the search base almost all the time. The official contact with
the Police is through the FO, but in the field this may not be practical.
Once in the field instructions from the FO come via Police radio.
For detailed information on the role of the FO, see the Bushwalkers
Search and Rescue booklet Field Organiser and Police Liaison Officer
Notes and Check List.
A young Stuart Brookes OAM (2nd from right), together with local
Forestry Officer, assists Police with search planning
33
Search Groups
The normal organisational structure for BSAR members on a search
is the formation of search groups of four members. Usually while being
transported to the search location, the FO will select Group Leaders from
the members who have responded to the call-out and form the search groups
around those leaders.
Even though your Club may rate you as a leader, you may not necessar-
ily be used in that position in the field. Having many competent leaders is
one of our real strengths. By working in small teams, everyone can make a
significant contribution of ideas and skills, so your experience will not be
wasted. Members of the group must take responsibility for first aid, radio
communications and navigation.
The FO will attempt to form balanced and self-contained search groups,
usually of four (occasionally five) members. This is generally achieved by
grouping people from the same club, who may have walked together many
times. The efficiency of the group is enhanced by their mutual confidence.
At search base (as elsewhere) it is essential to stay with your group. If
you have to briefly leave the group ensure that your leader is informed of
your whereabouts, so that you may be readily contacted if needed at any
time.
As BSAR acts as an independent body for administration, all check-
ing in and out at search base must be through the FO.
Search Group Leader

Experience over many years has suggested that Group Leaders are the
key people in the successful operation of BSAR.
Search Group Leaders are the vital link between the FO and the search-
ers. They are responsible for ensuring that the search tasks are carried out in
the best possible way, communicating progress of the search to the FO and
search command and ensuring the proper management and well being of
their group members.
Group Leaders receive a briefing and relay instructions to group mem-
bers. They are responsible for ensuring their search groups have sufficient
equipment and food before departing search base on their assigned tasks.
They are responsible for ensuring their search group functions as a coherent
team throughout the search, both in the field and at base. They also
have responsibility for passing on information and suggestions from the
group to the FO.
34
Instructions are given to group leaders, Mt Stirling practice 2001
The Group Leaders briefing of the search group will cover such
matters as the general situation (if this has not already been done), the
search tasks and the type of search technique to be used, basic radio
arrangements, call signs, transport, group organisation, collaboration with
adjacent groups, food and equipment requirements, and arrangements
for excess equipment left at search base.
Group Leaders should stress to their group the importance of re-
maining together at every stage of the search. A clear understanding
must be reached on the course of action the group is to follow to re-
unite the group if one member should become separated in the field.
Group Leaders should remember their responsibility for the wel-
fare of their group. Searchers are always expected to be prepared to
undertake difficult and sometimes physically demanding tasks, but in
the event of exhaustion or injury of a group member, the care and evacu-
ation of that person takes priority over the continuation of the search.
Group Leaders should keep the FO informed of any developments that
may affect the running of the search.
35
Group Leader Selection by the Field Organiser
On a search, the Field Organiser will consider for selection as
Group Leaders:
1. Other FOs
2. Members who:
are previous search group leaders, current overnight club trip
leaders or hold BMLC/STLC certificates AND
have previously participated in a search where field work was
involved AND
have attended at least one practice search in the last five
years.
Specific Duties of the Group Leader
En route to the search

The Field Organiser will issue a list of names of the members of
your group.
1. Transfer the names to your log.
2. Identify, introduce and bring together your group members and
question them on:
a. Completeness of food and equipment - tents, cutting imple-
ments, cord, first aid, stove and fuel, full water bottles, cloth-
ing, maps, toilet paper marker, whistles, sleeping bags, mats,
skis, specialist equipment, food, clothing, etc.
b. Physical fitness
c. Previous search and practice experience
d. First aid qualifications and experience.
3. Appoint a First Aider.
4. Instruct your group members to remain together and with you,
including when at base and in camp. Ensure that this occurs.
At search base
1. Obtain or make written instructions on the area that your group is
to search.
2. Ascertain, and check personally if possible, the names, areas
and radio call signs of the other Group Leaders, especially those
whose search area is adjacent to yours.
3. Re-check and record any rendezvous times and places, including
the latest time to return to base.
36
4. Check and record your task and any transport arrangements
for getting into the field and back to base.
5. Obtain maps of search area, preferably one per group member.
Ensure map has a grid and map datum is known. If maps do not
have grid numbers, find out what they are and write them on
the map.
6. When issued with a portable radio:
a. allocate it to a competent operator (which may be yourself)
b. test it before leaving base
c. if issued with a spare battery, ensure that you know how to
change it
d. arrange, check and record schedules
e. ascertain and record your own, and other important call
signs
f. ensure that a message pad is readily available to the opera-
tor, and that all messages received and sent are put in writ-
ing
g. make sure that the operator stays with you and is under
your control.
h. check the recall arrangements.
7. When issued with a GPS unit:
a. allocate it to a competent operator
b. check battery status and unit operation
c. ensure you have spare batteries
d. check configuration of unit including map datum and grid
reference format
e. confirm your current location is correctly displayed on the
unit
f. store the location of search base as a Waypoint. Call it base
Radio briefing, Mt Stirling practice 2001

37
g. store the location of the start of your search task as another
Waypoint
If you are unsure with what you are required to do in your search
area, discuss the details with the FO or the Deputy FO before setting
out.
Fully brief your group on the instructions and requirements for the
search.
1. Remind your group of the importance of operating as a coher-
ent unit in the field.
2. Discuss with your group appropriate strategies to ensure that
the group does not become separated while in the field. Reach
a clear understanding on the course of action that the group is
to follow to re-unite the group if one member should become
separated from the rest of the group in the field.
3. Oversee the packing of appropriate food and equipment by your
group members. Ensure water bottles are filled.
4. Ensure all necessary group and special equipment is shared ap-
propriately and is packed.
5. Ensure the surplus gear of your group members is placed to-
gether in one secure location, as directed by the FO.
In the field
The normal principles and practice of good bushwalking leader-
ship should be followed. Constantly monitor the group members to en-
sure their well being, that effective searching is taking place, and that
there is no risk of group members becoming separated.
1. Maintain a log of the progress of your search, significant events,
radio messages and grid references.
2. Precise navigation is essential. Encourage each group member
to monitor their position and to regularly confirm progress with
each other.
3. Leave toilet paper markers at key points or lines of travel (eg
drop off point, search area boundaries, creek junctions in your
search area.) Detailed notes or markers should also be left at
other prominent features (including camp sites), especially if
you are on an overnight search in your area, or if you do not
have radio communications with base. Notes should include
date, time, group details and intentions. Any clues found (eg
footprints) should be reported and the site marked.
38
4. If the missing person is found, immediately communicate with
the search base. This may involve two members moving to a
nearby high point, if local circumstances and the condition of
the missing person permit this to be done with safety.
5. If radio contact cannot be effected, two experienced members
of the group should return to the base, leaving a trail that is
distinct from both directions, once again provided this can be
done, considering the safety of both the missing person and
your group members.
6. Once radio communication is established the search command
will determine the course of action required to evacuate the
missing person, considering your advice on the circumstances
of the situation.
7. The designated (qualified) first aid member of the group has
absolute control of the management of the casualty(s). All treat-
ment and observations must be recorded.
8. Your group may have to deal with a deceased person. Do not
move a corpse unless instructed, or if it is necessary to prevent
its loss (e.g. rising floodwaters). Preserve the scene.
On return to base
1. Promptly give a brief report to the FO. You will be expected to
mark on the master map precisely the areas searched by your
group.
2. Provide specific GPS data on the route taken by your group
and if required, download the data from your GPS unit.
3. Continue to keep your search group members together while at
search base, in camp or in accommodation.
4. Refer any questions from the press to the Police. If you are nomi-
nated by the Police or FO to speak to the press, try to obtain a
briefing on the parameters within which you are to confine your
comments. Give yourself time to collect your thoughts before
making comment and give facts, not opinions or speculations.
5. At the conclusion of the search, ensure all your group mem-
bers shared equipment and BSAR gear is returned.
Following the search
1. If your search group played a key role in the search, (eg found
the missing person), or was involved in any significant incident
39
that affected the course of the search, a detailed written report
should be prepared for the FO.
2. If you have any constructive suggestions for improving the
organisation make a concise written report and forward it to the
FO or the BSAR Convener.
Searchers
At all times on a search you are an official representative of
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue. The general public judge you not only
on results but on appearances. Most importantly, you are judged on your
conduct. This section details the responsibilities and specific expecta-
tions of you as a member of BSAR.
The Field Organiser will expect that you have responded to the call-
out because you:
Are fit
Are ready for two days away
Have the correct food and equipment for three days (in
the event of an emergency)
Meet any special requirements of the call-out
Have the support of your employer to attend.
Remember, a call-out is not the time to recruit new members. Only
registered members, called out through the Club Contact can attend a search.
Ensure you arrive at the departure point ahead of time. Follow any
instructions you may be given for parking your car and then fill in the at-
tendance sheet.
Once you are on the Police bus, be considerate of the fact that
most members will wish to get some sleep. Please leave the front seats
free for the FO and assistants. Later, when the FO has allocated you to
a search group, you will be expected to get together with your group.
Under the guidance of your Group Leader, ensure that you organise
yourself for the search task.
Remain with your group throughout the search. This includes when
being transported, at base, in camp or accommodation and while in the
field. Keep your Group Leader informed of your movements if you are
required to be away from your group at any stage.
Hurry up and wait! is a common description of what it is like at
the search base. There always seem to be excessive delays, while searchers
wait around, keen to get started. In fact much detailed planning and
40
The SES frequently provide transport for BSAR search groups
organisation is taking place. Remember that a search cannot be planned

in advance like an ordinary trip. During the inevitable delays check
your instructions and ensure that you and your search group are packed,
organised, fed and ready to go.
Throughout the search you may notice minor problems or delays.
However, the job gets done, so please maintain a sense of proportion if
you wish to comment on any issue that has occurred.
Especially on a larger search, the search base area is busy with
many interesting things going on. Avoid being distracted by the activ-
ity. Ensure you stay with your group, listen carefully to all briefings and
remain focussed on the task at hand.
Be considerate of the likely presence of the family and friends of
the missing person(s), the media, and members of other search organi-
sations. While it is normal for searchers to discuss the circumstances of
the search, the actions and possible condition of the lost person(s), the
search strategies and progress, take care to keep these conversations
private.
Group Leaders and FOs are always open to suggestions, ideas and
comments, but give them at the appropriate time, not when they are in
conference, particularly with Police Search Coordinators.
The FO has the role of making statements to the media on behalf
of BSAR. If the media approaches you for comment, refer them to the
41
FO or Police. In some instances the FO may ask a member to be inter-
viewed. If so, restrict your comments to the FOs parameters, think care-
fully before speaking, and give facts rather than speculation or opinions.
If in any doubt, refer the question back to the FO or Police.
Do not bring a camera on a search as this gives the impression that
the search is not being treated seriously. There are times, however, when
photographs are required for publicity, recruitment or training and the
FO will specifically nominate a photographer and supply a camera.
Take note of Chapter 9, describing the key skills of an effective
searcher: observation, navigation, calling, listening, marking, recording
and coverage. Once in the field, follow best bushwalking practice and
the directions of your Group Leader to ensure that your search group
operates as a team to effectively complete the search task. Take every
precaution to ensure that you do not become separated from your search
group.
Maintaining search concentration is a big challenge, given the
fact that most searchers usually find nothing. Invariably BSAR work in
very difficult terrain and usually poor weather, so searching is very tedi-
ous and exhausting. While it can be tempting to let your hair down at
times, refrain from frivolous behaviour, particularly after the search and
at search base.
If you are issued with a radio or GPS unit, take great care of them.
Avoid getting them soaking wet. Return items promptly at the end of
each day. You will probably be issued with a BSAR pack cover and
armband. Make sure these items are well secured, as they are easily lost.
Return them at the end of the search.
At the conclusion of the search, there is often an assembly of search-
ers from all organisations, usually conducted by the Police Operations
Commander. The purpose of this meeting is to formally conclude and
sum up the search and to thank all concerned. Friends or family of the
missing person and the media are usually present. The FO will make
any comments on behalf of BSAR. This is not the forum for question or
comment on the conduct of the search.
Members have a good opportunity to comment during the de-brief
on the bus on the way home. Further, at its next meeting the BSAR
Committee will review the search. Comments, questions and sugges-
tions are most welcome and should be directed through your Club Search
and Rescue Delegate. After all major searches, the Police conduct a
formal debriefing, usually a couple of weeks later. BSAR will be involved,
42
again providing the oppor-
tunity for comments to be
passed on and points of view
to be exchanged.
First Aiders
Every attempt is made
by the FO to ensure that
there is at least one group
member qualified in first aid
(e.g. current St John or Red
Cross First Aid Certificate Patient care, VNRS practice 2002
or equivalent). While this
member is responsible for all first aid administered by the group, each
group member should carry a first aid kit as specified in Chapter 11.
Composite Search Groups

BSAR groups are sometimes augmented by Police, park rangers or
similarly skilled people, such as when a BSAR group has only three
members. Welcome these additional searchers to the group.
Reserve Group
On some searches one or even two search groups may be kept at or
near base so they can deal with unexpected circumstances that arise
during the search. These circumstances may include a sighting from
the air, a clue noticed by a vehicle patrol or the need to back up a group
that has found the missing person. On rare occasions it has been neces-
sary to assist an injured searcher. Reserve groups are especially valuable
when the search groups are a long way from the search base and cannot
be readily re-deployed. Members usually want to be out searching and
sometimes resent being kept in reserve, but they often act as a flying
squad and have frequently been very central to the success of a search.
Briefing
Prior to the commencement of each days searching, a briefing will
be held and each group allocated a search area. The whole group will
probably be briefed in a general way by the FO. Then each group will be
43
Police briefing for all searchers, Tawonga Gap 2001
briefed by its leader on such matters as general arrangements (if this has
not already been done), basic radio arrangements, call sign, transport,
re-grouping (if the group is split), the type of search technique to be
used, collaboration with adjacent groups and arrangements for excess
equipment left at search base.
In addition, the radio operator of each team will:
be issued with a radio and spare battery
be allocated a call sign
be allocated the channel to be used
be instructed on the scheduled reporting times (often half
hourly or hourly)
be informed of the call sign of the base station and any
other control stations that may be used as an alternative
base for relaying messages
be familiar with the geographically adjacent groups call
signs
Ask any questions prior to leaving the briefing - not over the
radio later.
44
Police
Victoria Police is the agency responsible for managing search and
rescue incidents in this State. Initially local Police and resources will
respond to these incidents. The Search and Rescue Squad will also be
alerted to provide advice and assessment of the incident. If necessary a
qualified Police Search Coordinator (Incident Controller) and a team
from the Squad will be sent to the incident. The Police Search Coordi-
nator will decide when BSAR are to be called out.
The overall command and control responsibility for the search lies
with the Operations Commander, usually the most Senior Police Officer
from the region. The search coordination and management of search
teams is the responsibility of the Police Search Coordinator (Incident
Controller). This will be either a local Police Officer or Search and
Rescue Squad member when they attend.
You must act on all reasonable instructions given by a Police Of-
ficer or any other person to whom the officer delegates authority. Actual
instructions to BSAR members will, however, normally come from the
FO, often via the Group Leader.
Occasionally, groups are formed using members from a variety of
organisations, including Police. Police Forward Command will nominate
a group leader for such a group. In such circumstances, the BSAR Group
Leader would continue to be responsible for the BSAR members within
that group.
Extremely strong ties of respect, trust and friendship have been
built up in the past between BSAR and the Police, in particular, mem-
bers of the Search and Rescue Squad. You are asked always to bear this
in mind and to endeavour to foster this relationship.
The News Media

We should welcome media representatives at searches, but at the
same time exercise considerable caution. The public have a legitimate
right to accurate information and it is in BSARs interest that we have
good public relations. However, there are some elements of the media
who appear to feel that the drama of peoples lives and welfare is dull
stuff and that only acrimony and criticism sell newspapers and televi-
sion time. These reporters have pressed BSAR members to make com-
ments critical of other organisations and to generally stir up trouble.
45
The Police are responsible for the conduct of a search, so only they
can issue accurate, complete and official statements concerning the
search. BSAR members should not speak to reporters, either formally or
informally. A simple question can be followed by a more contentious
one. Members need to be very discrete, particularly in the vicinity of the
search base, when discussing theories, future plans, particular events
and criticisms.
The media may ask a search group to stage a shot, for example as
they head off from search base. There is no problem with this occurring,
provided it does not overly delay things, or change what the group was
going to do anyway.
Under certain circumstances the Police may invite the Field Or-
ganiser or another member of BSAR to speak to the media. When this
occurs, the Police will brief the member on specifically what is to be
covered. In general, comments should be restricted to an account of
BSARs involvement and search conditions.
Peer Support Program

From time to time, BSAR members may be involved in incidents
that put a strain on their normal ability to cope. The Peer Support Pro-
gram has been established to assist searchers who may be affected by a
particular event. The trained Peer Supporters also have a sound under-
standing of the operations of BSAR.
A Peer Supporter provides support to searchers, either as groups or
individuals, following an event that may be traumatic or significant to that
individual or group. This support may occur immediately after the event or
within a few days. The process allows sharing of emotions in strict confiden-
tiality. Peer Supporters are able to refer members to professional coun-
selling if required via the Peer Support Coordinators.
A PLO will contact a Peer Support Team Leader after the initial
call-out of searchers has been completed. The PS Team Leader then
has the responsibility to assemble and activate a Peer Support team as
required. This happens in the same way as a search call-out to find out
who is available. However, any trained Peer Supporters who have par-
ticipated in the search are ineligible to act as part of the Peer Support
team for that search. The PLO keeps the PS Team Leader appraised of
the situation during the search to enable the PS Team Leader to pro-
vide a meaningful briefing to the Peer Support team assisting the search.
46
Chapter 9 - Searching
Search Skills
When out in the bush it is important that you remain focussed on the
task of trying to find the missing person. Effective searching requires you to
fully utilise your skills as a bushwalker and actively seek information from
your surroundings. The key skills you need are:
Observation Be on the lookout for the missing person. Also, be alert for
clues that may indicate the passage of the missing person
such as tracks, discarded items and sleeping sites.
Navigation Be able to find and search your group's designated area

and know your location at all times. You will be required to
report your location if you find something.
Calling Try to attract the attention of the lost person. Calling also
notifies other searchers of your presence.
Listening Stop and listen for calls from the lost person, or other search
groups.
Marking Key points along the boundary of your search area should
be marked with toilet paper to indicate to other search
groups that you have passed through the area. If you find
anything of interest to the search surround the area with
toilet paper to mark its location.
Recording Be able to fully and accurately report on areas that you

have searched. At significant locations, write down your
grid reference and the time you were there. Ensure you
have your grid reference on paper before communicating
via radio. You may be required to transmit your location
several times.
Coverage Ensure that you have fully covered the area your group has
been allocated in the manner requested by the FO. Ensure
that you cover the area between you and the next
searcher. Some intensive search techniques require you to
be extremely thorough in covering this area so keep the
spacing appropriate to the density of vegetation.
Table 9.1 Key search skills
47
Regular calling followed by a period of listening is the routine of a
search group. The group must stop regularly to listen for calls. Use the lost
persons name when calling, or alternatively use a number system within
the group. For example, if you are in group five, each member in your group
can call out five-one, five-two, five-three and five-four respectively. This sys-
tem attracts the attention of the missing person and at the same time lets
each group member monitor the position of other group members. Nearby
searchers can also tell that the calls they hear are from other searchers and
not the missing person. The effectiveness of calling is reduced when there is
wind, running water, large numbers of birds or helicopters nearby.
It need hardly be said that searchers should always be alert for signs
of the lost person, but it is hard to remain vigilant for extended periods of
time. Nevertheless it is very important to do so. Be observant of clues that
indicate the presence or passage of the lost person. On the ground look for
clues such as footprints in mud and creek beds, trodden grass, ski tracks and
discarded items like food wrappers and matches. Above ground be aware of
broken branches, scrape marks on logs and torn clothing. Be particularly
observant at key locations where someone walking in the area is forced to
follow a particular passage. This includes the centre of a steep gully, a gap
in thick scrub or the crossing point over a large log or stream.
Search group checking and notifying its position
48
Try to put yourself in the position of the lost person. What track
would you take through this bit of bush? Would you crash through that
thick part or would you pass through that obvious gap? Or perhaps you
would seek shelter under an overhanging rock.
Look closely for small things near to you, but do not neglect to also
look around on both sides and also back the way you have come. Many
things are hidden to a particular line of sight but can be plainly seen from
another angle.
Search groups of four members are highly visible with BSAR pack covers
Footprints can be very valuable clues, but it can often be very frus-
trating trying to determine whether or not they were made by the missing
person. Prints are usually indistinct or incomplete. Tread details are often
unknown. This is not to denigrate the value of footprints, merely to point
out some of the problems.
There are lots of natural and unnatural materials in the bush that
can confuse and mislead a search. Animals can also create unwanted clues.
If unsure, look for other clues nearby to support or disprove your suspi-
cions. Good judgement is vital.
If you do find a significant clue report it to search base. The Police
may want to bring dogs in to attempt to track the person from that point.
49
Its location should be marked, both around the site with a line of toilet
paper markers, and on the map. Avoid damage to the clue and minimise
handling of items such as clothing. An isolated sighting may not seem too
significant in itself, but may fit into a pattern when added to reports from
other groups. Good observation and reporting of clues has been very im-
portant in focusing a search in the correct area and the eventual finding of
the lost person.
Search Techniques
No two searches are ever the same, but the following notes give a
general outline of some of the search techniques that have proved effec-
tive in the past. Because lost people will eventually succumb to exposure
unless they are unusually well equipped, search plans will be a balance
between thoroughness and
speed. This balance will be
different in winter, when
the survival time is much
shorter than in summer.
But one thing is cer-
tain: neither thoroughness
nor speed will be enhanced
by charging into the field
without a proper plan.
Time spent in initial plan-
ning is time when no
searching takes place, but
it is essential that system-
atic plans are made. Sub- Search coordination
sequent planning sessions
seldom delay the search because they can take place while the search is in
progress or at night.
When making the initial search plans, certain assumptions are often
made:
The lost person is alive and able to reply to shouts or other sound
signals. Working on this assumption allows a much greater cover-
age, with individual searchers and search groups spaced much
further apart than if all the intervening country had to be cov-
ered by eye. This assumption may have to be modified later if the
50
passage of time and the weather suggests that exposure may be
reducing the mobility of the lost person.
Lost people will seldom cross a road or defined track. This means
that roads and tracks are often used to set bounds to a search area.
It is essential that they be patrolled and, because there is no telling
when a person might stumble on a road, the patrol must be main-
tained throughout the search.
Lost people eventually need water and they also usually take lines
of least effort. Both these factors often mean that they eventually
make their way down to creeks. It is thus very important to thor-
oughly search the creeks.
Lost people often wander, seldom selecting a single direction and
walking in a purposeful way. This means that one cannot assume
that, because an area has been searched, there is no need to cover
it again. It also means that it is better to commence searching at
the last known location of the lost person.
The above assumptions are very general, and will not always be cor-
rect, especially when dealing with children or people with a medical condi-
tion. They can, however, often help to guide a search, particularly in its early
stages and in the absence of clues.
There are no absolutes in search situations and a vivid imagination
can conjure up unlimited possibilities, many of them improbable. Search
strategy is a matter of assessing probabilities based on the information avail-
able and previous experience.
One should not infer from these notes that searches grind inexorably
along, slavishly following some master plan. In fact search planners need to
remain very flexible, appraising information as it becomes available and
responding appropriately. One way of building flexibility into the plan is
the use of reserve groups, as noted in the previous chapter. These groups
can often be used to quickly back up other groups, investigate reported clues
or follow up new information.
From the above comments it is possible to discern three main types of
searching:
Reconnaissance
Feature
Line
These are detailed on the following pages.
51
Figure 9.1 Early Stages of a search showing road patrols, search of
main features and a line search in the area of highest probability
52
Reconnaissance Search
This is usually the first search technique to be initiated and it is often
maintained throughout the duration of the search. Reconnaissance search-
ing can be done by vehicle (four-wheel-drive or motor cycle), by aircraft (usu-
ally helicopter), on foot or on skis. Its main aims are to:
find the lost person quickly and easily by searching the areas of
highest probability.
familiarise search planners with the terrain to help their plans for
more intensive searching.
attempt to establish the boundary of the search area, for example
searching the perimeter of a ski resort to check for tracks leaving
the resort.
Reconnaissance searching covers roads, tracks and clear areas and needs
to be maintained because vehicle noise often attracts the lost person, who is
then found on a later pass. Later in a search, reconnaissance searching is
often combined with putting out and picking up search groups.
Feature Search
Feature or general searching, aims to cover lines and areas of high
probability. It is usually performed by groups of four moving along well-
defined terrain features such as ridges and creeks or resort boundaries.
The members of the group are usually spread across the feature to
maximise coverage. The distance between group members is determined by
the density of vegetation and the characteristics of the terrain. Group mem-
bers must maintain visual contact with each other and ensure reasonable
coverage of the ground in between.
At regular intervals the group should stop, call and listen. There are
two reasons for calling: to help maintain contact between team members
and to attract the attention of the lost person. For the latter reason, it is vital
that searchers stop frequently and listen for a reply.
Line Search
Line or contact searching aims to achieve complete coverage of every
square metre of the terrain searched. Unfortunately, achieving this com-
plete coverage is extremely slow and tedious. As its name implies, line search-
ing is usually performed by forming a line of searchers at such a distance
that no item between them (person on the ground, article of clothing, foot-
53
Figure 9.2 Line search -
multiple sweeps
Figure 9.3 Line searching

between linear features
Figure 9.4 Spiral

search from an
isolated object
54
print) will be missed. In thick scrub the distance may be as little as one
metre.
Line searches are very difficult to control if the number in each line
exceeds about twelve. It is usually best to make multiple sweeps with a line
of twelve searchers (three search groups) within a naturally bounded area
(Figure 9.2). Alternatively the line can be started from a linear feature,
such as a track or a creek, and then subsequent teams can be started at
intervals of a few minutes to work from the boundary marked by the previ-
ous group (Figure 9.3). When no natural starting line exists, it is possible
to work outwards on a spiral path from a marked central square, marking
the outer flank for the next rotation (Figure 9.4).
With a long line it is best if the person coordinating the line drops
behind and directs the process from this position as the searchers move
forward.
Probe Search
Figure 9.5 Probe search
55
This variation on the line search is suitable for use alongside tracks
and roads where there is very dense bush. The theory behind the tech-
nique is that if a searcher cannot penetrate the bush beyond a certain point
then neither can a lost person, hence the area beyond can assumed to be
searched.
1. A group of searchers is lined up along the side of a track or road.
2. Each searcher attempts to line search into the bush until they are
stopped by the bush. Note that some searchers will penetrate fur-
ther into the bush than others depending on the bush density.
3. Each searcher returns to the track double-checking for the lost
person.
4. The search team moves further along the road or track to repeat
the process.
Once completed it can then be reasonably assumed that the lost per-
son cannot be in that section of bush. This technique allows elimination of
large tracts of bush without the need to line search the entire area (Figure
9.5).
Marking Boundaries
The most practical material for marking boundaries is toilet paper.
When speared on twigs or wrapped around trees near eye-level it is very
visible in the bush. At times it is an advantage to mark the paper with a felt
pen to distinguish the group putting in the markers or the day on which
the trail was laid. Toilet paper is ecologically sound for this purpose. Al-
though it will easily last for the duration of a search, it quickly shrivels to
an inconspicuous ball and then drops as individual wood fibres to the
ground.
Day Searching
Heavy packs make any group slower. Many search areas are near roads
or tracks and it is faster to send groups into the bush and bring them back to
base for the night, often by vehicle. The requirement to bear in mind when
packing for a day search is that the group may have to support themselves
and an injured person overnight. The sensible level of equipment will vary
with the season, but will usually include extra clothing and food for each
person plus one sleeping bag, mat and tent or fly between the group of four.
This should enable the group to spend a safe night under all but extreme
conditions and still benefit from light day packs while searching.
56
Searching in Snow
The general approach to search-
ing outlined above applies almost
equally when the search is in snow coun-
try, but a number of special factors also
need consideration. The days will be
shorter. Cold and probably wet condi-
tions mean a shorter time before lost
people succumb to hypothermia, so
there will often be an added urgency and
BSAR will probably be involved earlier
in the search. This adds to the likeli-
hood of the search being called off if the
lost person is found quickly by local
searchers. However, this is vastly pref-
Figure 9.6 Direction of skier
erable to being called too late and then
from pole tracks being unable to reach the lost people in
time to save them.
Snow shows tracks well, at least

for a time, and this can be of great ad-
vantage on a search. Open areas can
quickly be covered, or scanned by eye
in clear weather, and then the tree line
searched, looking for tracks leading
into the shelter of the bush. This often
works around ski resorts. Pole marks
usually reveal the direction of travel of
the cross-country skier (see Figure 9.6).
Skiers in trouble often mark their lo-
cation, or the point at which they left
a run or trail to seek shelter, by plant-
ing their skis in the snow in the form
of a cross. It is worth looking for such A long climb up from South
indicators. Buller Creek 2001
Searches often take place after
heavy snowfalls and adverse weather conditions where a skier or
snowboarder has ventured beyond the resort boundary or patrolled area.
57
Dogs
There is no doubt that properly trained
dogs can perform impressive feats, using scent-
ing and tracking skills, to discover missing peo-
ple. It can be more difficult for a dog to follow
the trail when too much time elapses between
the passage of a lost person, or the dropping and
subsequent discovery of an object bearing their
scent. Nevertheless, their skills should not be
discounted. Dogs are a valuable resource for hu-
man searchers, but not a substitute for them.
Occasionally a dog and handler from the

Police Dog Squad is sent with a BSAR group
Time
The 24-hour time system is used for search operations, as it dispenses
with the use of a.m. or p.m. and thus reduces the risk of error. It is always
used in radio communication.
a) The time is written as four figures.
b) The first two figures of the group represent the hours past the
previous midnight from 00 to 23 inclusive.
c) The second two figures of the group represent the number of min-
utes past the hour from 00 to 59 inclusive.
d) The group is always followed by the word hours.
24-Hour
Time Spoken form
representation
12 midnight 0000 hours zero hundred hours
12:07 a.m. 0007 hours triple zero seven hours
1:00 a.m. 0100 hours zero one hundred hours
10:00 a.m. 1000 hours ten hundred hours
5:14 p.m. 1714 hours seventeen fourteen hours
11:59 p.m. 2359 hours twenty-three fifty-nine hours
Table 9.2 24-Hour Time
58
Technology in Searching
Mention has already been made of the use of radio communications
to help coordinate searches and the use of specialist vehicles to transport
searchers, but these uses of technology are merely aids, although very valu-
able ones, to searching. The actual searching relies on the senses, mostly
sight and sound, of the searchers.
Several technologies are available as aids to human searchers. Infra red
scanning equipment mounted in a helicopter is available. It virtually forms
a heat picture on a computer screen in the aircraft. This technique has
been successful in other forms of searching, such as finding people in water,
but has so far proved of limited value in the bush due in part to the shield-
ing effect of the tree canopy.
Radio beacons and EPIRBs have proved to be of great value for find-
ing crashed aircraft and boats in distress. The radio signal, when detected by
an aircraft (or possibly a satellite) can alert authorities to the fact that a crisis
exists and can then guide search aircraft equipped with direction-finding
receivers to the site. While the system has worked well for aircraft and boats,
early experience is that there are problems with false or frivolous alarms
from ground parties.
GPS units are effective tools for determining present location and are
useful in confirming map and compass navigation. They rely on receiving
signals from several satellites at different angles for accuracy. However,
dense vegetation, wet conditions and steep gully sides may impede satellite
signals.
GPS units can also record the route taken by search groups and this
helps confirm that the search area has been covered. Data can be
downloaded from the units onto a computer and overlayed onto a map of
the search area.
BSAR owns a number of GPS units for issue to search groups to aid
accurate navigation. Members should make every effort through practice
weekends to become familiar with their use. A GPS unit is a useful tool,
but it does not replace map and compass and the knowledge of how to use
them.
Another useful adjunct to map and compass is an altimeter. They
provide a reasonably accurate estimation of altitude. This information can
be combined with information from your map to improve the accuracy of
defining your location. Some outdoor watches include this feature.
59
Searchers confirm location using a GPS, Noojee 2002
Mobile phones are a common accessory to the modern bushwalker.

Mobile coverage is generally restricted in areas BSAR are called to search
and you may experience poor reception. Inform your Group Leader if you
have one. Avoid personal calls while searching. During the course of the
search do not discuss operational matters with people not involved in the
search.
Increasingly, missing people use their mobile phones to assist in their
rescue.
60
Chapter 10 - Rescue
On Finding the Lost Person
Providing the person is found in good condition, this must surely be
one of the high points of many a bushwalking career!
Make an immediate call to base (out of earshot of the person) even
though this will be followed by a more detailed report after the situation
has been appraised. This will allow the search organisers to begin making
evacuation plans and may prevent further groups being sent to other areas
unnecessarily. The leader of the group finding the lost person will assume
local control and coordinate the activities of other groups sent in to assist,
either throughout the evacuation or until a more senior person (such as a
Police Officer or FO) arrives at the scene.
Person in Good Condition
No matter how fit the lost person seems, do not neglect to make a
thorough examination before the person is allowed to walk. Many people
keep going strongly through a crisis but suffer a sudden collapse when they
no longer need to continue. The possibility of hypothermia, exhaustion or
shock needs to be considered and other medical conditions may be known.
The first step is to find out how the person feels. While the first aider is
busy, the Group Leader should inform base of the situation and the exact
location of the group. As soon as the casualtys condition has been as-
sessed, the Group Leader will request whatever back up they consider nec-
essary.
Patient management, Mt Stirling practice 2001
61
Person Injured
If the lost person is found to be injured, the above steps will still need
to be taken and then some careful thought given to casualty support and
evacuation. If the casualty is to be carried out, support groups will be needed,
in which case it may be necessary to guide them to the scene. If evacuation
is to be by helicopter, a clearing large enough for the aircraft to land will be
ideal. Failing that, a large enough clearing from which to winch the casualty
may be required.
The Group Leader will also need to consider the needs of their group.
Sometimes the casualty cannot be moved until the next morning, either
because of the lateness of the hour or because the casualtys condition needs
to be stabilised before being fit to travel. In this case, the group may be
facing a night with limited tents, sleeping bags and food. It may be possible
to arrange for extra gear to be brought in with support groups. If not, the
group will need to use the time available to improvise shelter and to collect
an abundant supply of firewood to last them through the night.
Person Dead
Do not assume that the person is dead unless it is obvious (massive
injuries, decomposition). Carry out an exhaustive search for signs of life,
particularly in cold conditions. The body may be very cold and the heart
beat and respiration very difficult or impossible to detect but the casualty
may still be alive. If any doubt whatever exists, the casualty must be assumed
to be alive and every effort made to begin appropriate treatment. Again,
while treatment is proceeding, the Group Leader should inform Base of the
exact situation and request whatever support they feel is appropriate.
If it is apparent that the casualty is dead, try to avoid moving the body
until clearance is obtained from Police. Police are official agents of the Coro-
ner and will almost certainly want to visit the site. Indeed, the Coroner may
wish to attend if there are lessons to be learned from the incident. Excep-
tions to this rule occur when the body is at risk, for example if it is likely to
be washed away by a rising creek or damaged by animals.
Many people worry that they could not cope with examining or mov-
ing a dead body. While this is a very natural concern, experience suggests
that most people, while saddened by the death of a fellow human, are not
unduly affected by the body itself. If you feel you cannot help, tell your
Group Leader and do not feel guilty about it. After all, dead people no
longer need our help.
62
Group Leaders should limit the number of people going to the site of
the body and should allow those people a few minutes to collect their
thoughts and reconcile them as much as possible. Few of us are faced with
the reality of death often enough to have a well-developed philosophy to
fall back on.
Be aware that radio traffic is often heard by others, including the me-
dia. Police are progressively introducing secure channels, but until they are
available for searches, assume others are listening.
Evacuation
By Foot
Many lost people, after a proper evaluation of their condition, when
they are warmed and have had some food and drink are perfectly capable of
walking out. Lost people are often tired after their ordeal, so it is prudent to
divide their belongings among the rescue group and to station a rescuer on
either side in case they should be unsteady on their feet. Continue to moni-
tor their condition, usually by engaging them in conversation. Exhaustion
and also hypothermia are often indicated by unusual quietness and a slur-
ring of speech.
By Helicopter
If the lost person is unable to walk out, evacuation will usually be-
come a much larger operation. A helicopter can prove very valuable here,
greatly reducing the time, effort and number of people needed. The ben-
efits of helicopter evacuation are; immediate retrieval (either by rescue
hoist or landing) allowing for urgent medical attention to be given at the
earliest opportunity. Obviously helicopters cannot be used in every situa-
tion due to varying factors such as; weather conditions, visibility, terrain
(cliffs, dense forested areas, high voltage transmission lines etc). An im-
portant factor to consider is the flight time that it may take for the helicop-
ter to attend the location and the time it can remain overhead due to
available fuel. As with all aircraft there is an element of danger but with
common sense, knowledge and awareness, the risks are minimal. Helicop-
ters can operate in very strong winds, providing the wind is steady. Power-
ful gusts may make flying near the ground unsafe.
If it is safe to do so, the helicopter will land in a clearing to take the
casualty on board. A searcher should be stationed in an upwind corner of
63
Evacuation from Baw Baw Plateau
the clearing with a jacket or groundsheet held firmly above the head to
indicate wind direction to the pilot. Keep all other people clear.
If the aircraft is unable to land it may be possible to rest it briefly on
one wheel or skid, but, failing that, winching will be necessary. A crew
member will first be lowered on the winch line, followed by a special
stretcher. The crew member will instruct the Group Leader on the require-
ments for the lift and will supervise the securing of the casualty in the
stretcher. It would not be possible to accommodate a bush stretcher in the
helicopter, nor safe to lift it. Refer also to the notes on operating with heli-
copters in Chapter 11.
Be aware of the dangers of falling debris caused by the rotor wash. A
helicopter hovering just above the trees can easily dislodge dead branches
onto the ground below. Keep all unnecessary people clear of the immedi-
ate area. Take care to protect the casualty. Pack away loose items that
could be blown away by the rotor wash.
By Stretcher
Failing the use of a helicopter to evacuate the missing person, the
sometimes long, hard grind of a carry will be necessary. Given the likeli-
hood of bad weather during a search, carrying may be regarded as the norm.
A number of stretcher types are typically used in bush evacuations.
Skeds are compact, lightweight versatile units owned by BSAR and Police
64
Search and Rescue, which can be used in the bush or towed as a sled. The
bush stretcher has the advantage of being able to be constructed on the
spot. Other types may be used, depending upon the resources at hand.
The first consideration when a carry is planned is the number of peo-
ple required. A carry of any length, especially in rough terrain, requires eight
stretcher bearers at any one time and two relief crews. Many newcomers to
search and rescue are inclined to regard this number of twenty four carriers
per casualty as excessive until they have first-hand experience of a long carry,
after which they will probably feel (along with all the others) that they did
most of the carrying personally.
After organising sufficient carriers, a stretcher will need to be assem-
bled. The addition of carrying poles to one of the BSARs Skeds (see Chap-
ter 11) could be considered as a quick solution, but only for a short carry
because of the lack of rigidity and the difficulties of carrying.
In spite of its crude and rustic appearance, it is difficult to improve on
the bush stretcher (see Chapter 11) for a long carry. It is reasonably rigid
for a comfortable ride, but not so rigid as to put a large stress on any part. It
can be quickly made from readily available material and so does not have
to be carried around in case it is needed. Most important of all, it allows
eight people to share the load. Its building does, however, require a suitable
cutting tool (a saw is most convenient, but see below) and a good supply of
cord and light rope.
Stretcher carrying benefits from a high level of organisation. There
must be one person in charge of the carry to synchronise lifting and lower-
ing, to organise relief teams and to generally conduct the carry.
Scouts should go ahead to pick the best route, marking it if necessary.
Next should come a group equipped with machete, cutting only as required
to allow the passage of the stretcher. Note that a saw, although the ideal
tool for building the stretcher, is useless for this job. The stretcher will be
carried by eight people on the bearers shoulders unless traversing, when it
is usually best to carry on shoulders on one side and hands on the other.
The casualty should always be comfortably but securely attached to
the stretcher, usually with rope over ample padding. One designated per-
son, with first aid skills, should monitor and record the casualtys condi-
tion. This typically includes arranging for toilet stops, checking their ther-
mal comfort and making sure that branches do not scratch the face. The
casualty can wear sunglasses, even at night, to protect the eyes from debris.
Motion sickness, which is generally worse when the casualty cannot
see the horizon, can be a problem during long carries or sled trips. Turning
65
the casualty on the side or tilt-
ing the head to see the horizon
can sometimes ease the prob-
lem.
If the bush is reasonably
open and not too steep, the
stretcher can be carried con-
tinuously at about two kilome-
tres per hour. If the going is hard
the pace will be much less.
When obstacles such as
rocks or large logs are encoun-
tered, it will usually be best to
position people over and beyond
them and to pass the stretcher
across hand to hand without the
carriers moving their positions. Stretcher on belay
This is usually faster and much
more secure than trying to clamber over with the stretcher.
When ascending or descending steep slopes, particularly if the ground
is loose or slippery, it is wise to belay the stretcher to a tree or rock. It may
then be possible for the carrying group to move down with the stretcher,
using the rope to check them if they slip. Moving directly up or down the
fall-line may be easier and safer than traversing.
By Sled
Casualty evacuation in snow country may have to be performed by
stretcher in exactly the way outlined above, but the use of sleds is usually
much easier if the terrain allows.
A ski sled (see Chapter 11) can be constructed as quickly as a stretcher
and is a perfectly practical arrangement, although a Sked or, preferably, a
more rigid sled, provides much better comfort for the casualty.
A sled is pulled and controlled by means of a rope attached to each
corner. In suitable terrain, the pulling may be done most quickly on skis. In
steeper country, rope climbers (see Chapter 11) should be attached to the
skis and in awkward, scrubby country snow-shoes are probably best, al-
though short Bushwhacker skis will be more versatile. Sleds have little lat-
eral stability (Skeds almost none) so they must be steered by the ropes. The
remarks above about belaying stretchers apply equally to sleds.
66
Chapter 11 - Additional Skills
A competent and experienced bushwalker already has the most impor-
tant skills required of a searcher. Search and rescue, however, sometimes
needs additional skills that are unlikely to be acquired in normal bush and
mountain recreation. Some of these specific skills are discussed in this chap-
ter.
First Aid
With the major exception of coping with hypothermia casualties, first
aid treatment has very seldom been essential to the survival of people lost in
Victoria. There are probably many reasons for this, including Victorias rela-
tively gentle terrain and rarity of dangerous animals, but the main reasons
have to do with the nature of search and rescue. The unavoidable delay
between an injury or illness occurring and the casualty being found means
that, if the injury or illness was critical, the person would probably have
died before help arrived. First aid training for searchers, nevertheless, is very
important and is encouraged (sometimes by way of subsidy) by the Search
and Rescue Committee. As a searcher, however, you are far more likely to
render first aid to another group member than to a lost person.
First aid is best learned by attending one of the many courses run by
the Red Cross, St John Ambulance Brigade or similarly accredited organisa-
tion. Sometimes a course can be found with an outdoor bias and this is
worth investigating. The problem with most basic courses, from the view-
point of the searcher, is that they assume that only a short time will elapse
between the injury or illness and access to professional care. (Make the
casualty comfortable, give reassurance and call the doctor.) They do, how-
ever, provide the important basic principles. For graduates of one of these
basic courses the Bushwalking and Mountaincraft Training Advisory Boards
book titled Bushwalking and Ski Touring Leadership has a very useful
section on bush first aid. This book is sold in most outdoor equipment
stores.
Hypothermia Management
It is important to understand the nature and treatment of hypother-
mia, because in severe conditions searchers as well as lost people will be at
67
risk. Hypothermia is a lowering of the bodys core temperature. It can result
in death and can occur as a result of:
Inadequate protection from a cold environment, especially when
combined with altitude, wind, wetness, lack of food and physical
exhaustion
Immobilisation and exposure to cold, especially in the unconscious,
the elderly, young children and the injured
Immersion in cold water.
Prevention
Adequate protection from cold, wind and wet
Regular intake of food and drink (NON- alcoholic)
Sound planning, training, and experienced leadership.
Recognition
The initial signs and symptoms may be vague, and the casualty will
refuse to recognise the danger of the situation. As body temperature falls,
mental and physical performance also fall. One or more of the following
signs should alert others to the onset of hypothermia:
stumbling
lagging behind
shivering
careless about protecting from cold
unusual or irrational behaviour
poor judgement
lack of coordination
apathy
exhaustion
slurred speech
confusion
loss of consciousness in whole or part
The person will feel cold to touch and usually look pale.
Treatment
Prevention of further body cooling, plus the basic principles of first
aid and resuscitation:
STOP immediately.
Protect the casualty from wind and water
Make or take shelter.
68
Put on extra clothing including waterproofs, cover the head.
Insulate from the cold ground, especially the head.
Place the casualty in large plastic rubbish bag or similar up to the
armpits - arms and face uncovered, mouth/nose/eyes visible. A
second bag can then be placed over the head and shoulders with
an opening for the face.
Cover the casualty with warm and waterproof material.
Huddle together, never leave the casualty alone.
Provided the casualty is conscious, offer easily digestible food and
drink, preferably warmed, but not hot.
Ensure all group members put on extra clothing for warmth.
Send for medical assistance if possible.
Treat the casualty very gently at all times.
The natural tendency to press on to shelter must be avoided.
Regrouping on the spot and immediate commencement of treatment is more
important than rapid evacuation from the area.
Important precautions:
No removal of wet clothing - leave it on and use plastic bag method.
No alcohol, cigarettes, hot drinks, strong coffee
No massaging or rubbing
No exercise
No fire nearby (no radiant heat)
It is important to avoid stimulating the casualtys peripheral blood
circulation. This can lower core temperature by allowing warm core blood
to flow through cold peripheral tissue.
In conditions where one group member succumbs to hypothermia, it
is likely that others are at risk too. All members should take precautions and
monitor each other while treating the casualty.
First Aid Kits

All searchers should carry a first aid kit capable of dealing with most
first aid problems. Your kit should be more comprehensive than you may
otherwise personally carry on a bushwalk. All items in the list below are
mandatory for all searchers.
69
Mandatory Personal Search and Rescue First Aid Kit
Item Quantity Use
Disposable gloves Two pair For casualty and self-

protection.
Triangular bandages Two, safety pins Use as a sling, broad or narrow

attached bandage to support injured
part or to retain a dressing.
Elasticised roller One 8 cm or 10 cm - Elasticised bandages for

bandage (heavy safety pin attached. support and/or to control
weight - pink) swelling of knee or ankle. With
folded triangular bandage as
a pad, used in treatment of
snake bite.
Crepe roller bandages One 2.5 cm and one Crepe bandages to retain
(lightweight - white) 5 cm, each with dressings, bandage and
safety pin support hand, arm or thumb.
Assorted adhesive eg 'Band-aids' and For minor lacerations (cut to

dressing strips and 'Handipore' size). Include some tape that is
tape hypoallergenic (ie does not
cause skin irritations).
Prepared wound One medium size Absorbent pad for large

dressing lacerations. Effectively controls
haemorrhage when applied
with an additional firm pad.
Semi permeable film One small packet Hypoallergenic, breathable,

dressing sterile membrane for wounds,
abrasions.
Non-stick sterile One 8x10 cm, eg Useful on burns or other areas

dressings 'Melolin' where skin is broken. Place the
shiny sur face towards the
wound.
Scissors One fine pointed, Cutting gauze, dead skin, etc

good quality, sharp,
small
Thermometer Used to monitor the condition

of the casualty.
70
Mandatory Personal Search and Rescue First Aid Kit
Item Quantity Use
Tweezers One fine pointed, For removing ticks, splinters,

good quality, small etc.
Needles, disposable, 2 x 18 gauge eg For pricking blisters, removing

sterile (hypodermic) 'Yale' splinters, etc. Use whole end or
cutting edge.
Disposable cloth towel One small ('Chux' or Use as washer and towel to
similar) clean around wound
(adhesive tape will not stick to
dirty or greasy skin). Washable.
Note-book and pencil To record items used and the

condition of the casualty.
Rubbish bin liner bag One large bag For use with hypothermic
casualties.
Iodine based One 25 ml container Bacteriocidal/fungicidal gel for

antiseptic e.g. 'Betadine' cuts, abrasions, Tinea. Use as a
gargle when diluted.
Eyewash - 'saline' 2 x 1 0 ml To clean a dirty wound or

sachets wash out small foreign bodies
trapped under eyelids e.g. grit
or insects. Single use ampoules.
Paracetamol tablets 24 foil packed eg One or two tablets dissolved in

Panadol soluble half a cup of water every
three to four hours for pain.
Maximum 8 tablets per 24
hours - casualty to self
administer with plenty of fluids.
Oral rehydration Five sachets eg For replacement of fluid and

solution 'Gastrolyte'. Use electrolytes in treatment of
according to sachet diarrhoea, bad burns or heat
directions stress. Diabetics should obtain
prior medical advice
regarding emergency use of
such products.
Table 11.1 Mandatory Personal Search and Rescue First Aid Kit
71
Bush Stretcher
The rustic bush stretcher
comes into its own when helicop-
ters are unable to fly and vehicles
unable to reach a remote location.
It can be built on the spot, pro-
vided saplings of suitable length are
found and an appropriate cutting
tool is available. Note that the sap-
lings need to be very long so as to
allow sufficient room for eight
stretcher-bearers to line up along
it for the arduous carry out.
Despite its appearance, the
bush stretcher provides a reason-
ably comfortable ride for the casu-
alty and is sufficiently rigid to en-
able it to be passed safely over ob-
stacles.
Please refer to Figure 11.1.
1. Obtain two firm, straight
saplings, 5 to 6 metres long when
trimmed and 8-10cm in diameter,
and four shorter pieces, approxi-
mately 4 cm diameter and 1.2 m
long. Assemble all available cord
and light rope in the group.
2. Place long saplings on the
ground, with their butts at oppo-
site ends and about 60 cm apart.
Lash cross-pieces as shown in Fig-
ure 11.1, using square lashings
(Figure 11.2) to the poles and a di-
agonal lashing (Figure 11.3) where
the cross-pieces intersect. All
cross-pieces must be placed on top
of the stretcher poles and sprung
Figure 11.1 Bush stretcher down into position as required.
72
3. Trim the ends of the cross-pieces as close as possible to the poles,
leaving no sharp edges. The bottom sides of stretcher poles must
be trimmed as clean and smooth as possible for comfort on bear-
ers shoulders.
4. Lace evenly, but loosely, across the stretcher with cords. Make sure
the cross lacings are not too far apart and secure each turn with a
half hitch. At least 15 metres of cord is required.
5. Carefully pad the stretcher with groundsheets, sleeping mat, spare
clothing etc., or, if unavailable, sheets of bark covered with bracken
make a very good substitute.
6. If the going is likely to be at all rough, secure the casualty to the
stretcher with more rope, placing spare clothing under the rope to
prevent chafing.
Assemble a team of at least eight bearers, plus two relief teams of eight
persons each. Note that in any group of people some will be too tall and
some too short to be fully effective as stretcher-bearers. Further people are
necessary for route marking, trail clearing and casualty monitoring.
Square Lashing
Square lashings are used to fasten cross-pieces to the poles. Begin by
forming a clove hitch around one of the pieces. The lashing is then bound
as shown in steps 2 to 4 completing at least four turns. Binding turns should
then be applied around the knot so as to tighten the lashing (step 5). Fin-
ish with a clove hitch or a round turn and two half hitches.
Figure 11.2 Square lashing
73
Diagonal Lashing
Use this lashing where the cross-pieces intersect. Begin with a timber
hitch around both pieces. Tighten it to draw the two pieces together. Three
or four binding turns are made around one fork, four more around the
other fork. The turns should be beside each other not on top of each other.
A number of binding turns should be made between the pieces to tighten
up the lashing. Finish with a clove hitch or a round turn and two half
hitches.
Figure 11.3 Diagonal lashing
Ski Sled
If no other type of oversnow transport or Sked type stretcher is avail-
able, making a ski sled is a practical alternative. It can be constructed from
group equipment, while generally still maintaining the ski capability of the
group as a whole.
There are limitations for the use of this type of stretcher. It is not
recommended for long distance hauling as it does not provide a very com-
fortable ride for the casualty. It is also not very stable when traversing
across steep slopes and becomes difficult to pull in very soft or deep snow.
However, for short distances across fairly flat terrain it serves the purpose
well enough.
74
Materials
One set of skis - use the largest and heaviest available.
Two sets of stocks.
Five or six pieces of wood, 3-5 cm diameter, 60 cm long for cross-
pieces (snow shovel handles could be used).
Large quantities of cord.
15-20 m of rope.
Method of Construction
Refer to Figure 11.4 as a guide to construction. Try to keep the lash-
ings at the ski tips as high as possible in order to keep the running surfaces
free of drag. It is difficult to achieve this whilst at the same time making
sure that the lashings are secure. Adhesive tape, if available, is useful here.
A pre-drilled hole in each ski tip, sealed with epoxy, solves this problem.
The third cross-piece should be lashed as tightly as possible to the toe
bindings on the skis. All the others should be lashed to the ski poles only -
if this is practicable - thus leaving the running surfaces of the skis free of
drag.
The front and rear ends of the skis are passed through the pole bas-
kets if these are large enough. If not, the rear (last) cross-piece at least will
need to be lashed to the skis as well as the poles. Note that the points of the
front poles may constitute a danger to the sled haulers and should be cov-
ered with cloth or tape.
Figure 11.4 Ski sled
75
The stretcher is pulled and controlled by ropes passing down the length
of both skis, threaded through the pole baskets, but not fixed to them. The
ropes are fixed at the toe-bindings so that the pulling load comes on these.
The advantage of this type of sled is that only one pair of skis is used,
thus none of the fit members of the group, if all are skiers, is left without
skis, although two would have only one ski pole each. This sled, if carefully
constructed, is light, strong and very easy to pull.
Sked Stretcher
BSAR owns three Skeds. A Sked is a lightweight, portable and versa-
tile stretcher that can also function as a sled. It consists of a semi-rigid
plastic sheet, which is rolled up and stored for transport in a cylindrical
pack. When unrolled and assembled, the sides and ends of the plastic slab
are curled up to form the stretcher configuration.
Various accessories enable the Sked to serve in a wide range of situa-
tions. These include towing harnesses, belay ropes, karabiners, vertical and
horizontal lifting slings and a pruning saw.
Summary of Instructions
Detailed instructions are provided in each Sked pack, and the Skeds
are available on practices for first hand experience.
1. Remove the rolled Sked from the pack. It will need to be re-rolled
from the outer side as the plastic has a memory. Then lay it out flat
on the ground making sure it is the correct way up.
2. Place, slide or roll the casualty, with appropriate padding and pro-
tection onto the Sked. The head end has the provision for the
chest strap.
3. Secure the spare strap around the casualtys chest and through the
appropriate grommets if the circumstances warrant.
4. Secure the four cross straps across the top of the casualty to the
buckles on the opposite side.
5. Secure the straps which curl up the head and foot of the Sked by
passing them through the appropriate grommets.
For Carrying Over Short Distances
Hand loops are provided along the sides of the Sked and some extra
ones are in the pack.
76
Sked and accessories
For Carrying Over Longer Distances

Long poles are easily attached to each side of the Sked similar to the
bush stretcher. But, unlike the bush stretcher, it is difficult for bearers to
operate next to the Sked as it hangs below the poles. Very long poles are
required.
For Horizontal Lift or Descent
Pass the two heavy-duty nylon slings through the slots in the body of
the Sked and secure with the large steel karabiner supplied.
For Vertical Lift
For hauling the Sked vertically (ie. the casualty is vertical), one length
of kernmantle rope is passed through all the grommets around the perim-
eter of the Sked, with a figure of eight knot forming an eye in the centre of
the rope at the head of the Sked. Refer to the instruction sheet in the Sked
pack.
For Operating as a Sled
Two lengths of kernmantle rope are supplied. These are passed through
several of the grommets around the Sked so that the four ends form a tow-
ing line at each corner. Note that the rope must pass through several grom-
mets in such a way that towing and belaying forces are well distributed. A
single grommet must not be used as a belay or tow point.
Four towing harnesses with plastic buckles are supplied. These are
for use on flat snow-covered terrain by skiers or walkers, where there is no
77
risk of the Sked breaking free. The buckles should never be used in steeper
terrain, where proper belaying equipment and techniques would be re-
quired. The towing belts are long enough to secure with a tape knot, which
may provide added security in some circumstances.
When being towed on snow the smooth base of the Sked gives it no
directional stability at all and a hauler at each corner is essential. It is virtu-
ally impossible to tow across a slope.
Packing up the Sked
This is just the reverse of the assembly procedure. The Sked needs to
be rolled very tightly to fit into the pack. The head or foot end straps are
used around the roll to secure it.
Care of the Sked
During and after use check that all the accessories are secured in the
Sked pack. A check list is supplied to help this. Please use it. Report any
damaged or missing items to the FO.
Ensure that all equipment is returned to the FO, who will ensure it is
cleaned, dried and returned to its nominated storage.
Rope Climbers
The rope climber and ski combination can often be used instead of
snowshoes, particularly in soft snow conditions. Rope climbers make skis
much more versatile and at the same time save carrying the added weight of
snowshoes. When heavily timbered areas are encountered or sled hauling is
required the rope climbers can be fitted and the skier is as effective as a
snowshoer.
Rope climbers are best made at home and adapted to properly fit your
skis. All that is required is suitable rope.
Construction Details
For each ski use approximately 2.5 m of 0.5 cm hawser laid rope.
Polypropylene rope is recommended.
Lay the mid-point of the rope over the front of the binding and spiral
both ends down the ski, making crossover points symetrically down the tail
section of the ski.
Be sure to keep clear of the point where the boot touches the ski. For
permanent crossovers, untwist a little of one rope at crossover point and
raise one strand, making an opening through which the other rope is passed.
78
Repeat the procedure with the ropes reversed. When the crossovers are
completed, pass the rope around the tail of the ski and fasten on the top
side, as indicated in the diagram. This makes diamonds on the ski base -
one under the foot, and two between the foot and the ski heel.
Alternatively, full-length rope climbers can be constructed, reaching
from tip to tail, with a small loop in the middle of the rope fitting over the
ski tip. Allow at least six metres of rope per ski.
The use of knots instead of the strand-through-strand technique
can cause problems when the knots tighten with use.
Figure 11.5 Rope climbers
Helicopters
Helicopters are ideal aircraft for use on searches. Their ability to fly
slowly or to hover allows them to conduct aerial searches, to carry search
coordinators wishing to reconnoitre areas, to ferry searchers and to evacu-
ate casualties.
79
Safety
Never approach a helicopter until the pilot or other crew member is
aware of your location and gives you a signal to approach - usually a thumbs
up signal, or a wave. Your approach should be made from the 9 or 3 oclock
postion, due to the height of the main rotor blades - they can dip signifi-
cantly towards the nose of the aircraft. Never approach the tail rotor sec-
tion as some rotors cannot be easily seen when spinning and some have the
potential to draw you into them like a jet intake.
Figure 11.6 Helicopter safety diagrams

First attract the pilots attention and approach when given an appro-
priate signal, usually a thumbs up. If the ground slopes, approach from
the lower side within the pilots arc of visibility to ensure maximum clear-
ance under the main rotor. When blades are rotating slowly they droop
downwards the most. High-speed rotors can be very difficult to see.
Remove or secure loose clothing and equipment, because the power-
ful air blast from the rotors can easily blow items like hats or caps away and
they could even be sucked into engine air intakes.
When working on the ground under a low-flying helicopter, bear in
the mind the potentially hazardous effects of the downdraft. It can easily
80
blow medium-sized limbs from trees, flatten tents and scatter fires. If the
air is cold hypothermia could well be aggravated in a poorly protected casu-
alty.
Even if a helicopter attends, it may not be safe to conduct a rescue,
and may be a danger to the helicopter crew or persons on the ground. In all
situations the crew of the helicopter will make a decision to conduct the
rescue or not, taking all factors into consideration including unnecessarily
placing themselves or others in danger.
Landing Requirements
The pilot will obviously make the decision on when and where it is
safe to land, but search groups can help with information. A level clearing at
least 40 metres in diameter will usually be ideal, but it may be possible to
make do with less if the air is still. A landing area where the aircraft can
descend while flying forwards into the wind is easier than one in which it is
necessary to hover and then descend vertically. Temperature, wind direc-
tion and speed and whether the wind is gusty are important factors for the
pilot and this information should be sent by radio if possible. If radio con-
tact with the pilot is not possible, a searcher should be stationed at the up-
wind end of the clearing, firmly holding up a brightly-coloured jacket to act
as a wind indicator.
Winching
When it is not possible to land, the winch can be used to raise or
lower a casualty or searchers. A crew member will be sent down first and
will instruct groups on what is required. Searchers should be prepared to
act quickly, because hovering uses a lot of fuel and requires great concen-
tration from the pilot. The crew member will always accompany a stretcher
and will probably be winched with a searcher if only one or two lifts or
descents are to be made. It is always preferable to conduct all winching of
personnel with a crew member. However, if the situation warrants, it may
be that a person is winched alone, in a single strop harness. This is risky in
that the person is not secure other than by his or her own body weight. A
firemans type harness is placed over the persons head and sits up under
the armpits. The arms are then lowered and kept in this position. During
lifting it is imperative that the arms remain down or you will simply slide
out and fall to the ground. Likewise, when at the helicopter, do not at-
tempt to climb in or assist the operator in any way as your arms may be-
come dislodged.
81
Directing a Helicopter
Situations may arise
during the course of a search
where you may be required to
provide directions to a heli-
copter over the radio. Where
possible, provide an accurate
grid reference. If you spot an
object in the distance and
wish to direct the helicopter
towards the object, provide
your grid reference, a bearing
and estimated distance. If you
are directing the helicopter in
close proximity then steer the
pilot using the time on a
clockface relative to the nose
of the aircraft - e.g. We are
at your 11 oclock, 500 me-
tres ahead.
Sometimes helicopters are

used to winch searchers
Communications
Radios form the principal means of electronic communications on a
search. The portable radios used on a search are provided by the Police and
operate on some of their radio channels. They are usually reliable and very
easy to operate.
Communications will be enhanced if the user has some understand-
ing of the equipment and its operation. All members should feel compe-
tent to operate a radio and be confident in its use. Search practices are
ideal times to learn.
Portable radios and spare batteries are usually issued to search groups
on a daily basis and are returned each night to enable the batteries to be
82
recharged or replaced. Before leaving the search base conduct a short test
transmission with the base radio to confirm your radio is operating cor-
rectly.
Radio Operation
Portable radios are designed to provide search groups with the secu-
rity of reliable communications and must be treated with great care. Police
radios are robust, but they should not be abused. A little jolting or a few
drops of rain will not hurt them, but harsh treatment or total immersion
may cause them to fail.
The controls are few and usually fairly obvious. If in doubt, ask the
person issuing the radio. Some radios come with a remote microphone/
speaker. A typical radio is shown below.
The key steps for transmitting a message are:
1. Prepare in advance what you want to say
2. Wait until the radio channel is clear of all other traffic
3. Press the transmit button (push-to-talk)
4. Speak the message clearly into the microphone
5. Release the transmit button
6. Listen for a reply
Figure 11.7 Typical radio
83
Keeping to this order of operation is important. It is surprising how
many users begin to speak before pressing the transmit button and lose the
start of the message or release the button before finishing and lose the end
of the message. The radio will perform best with the microphone about
5cm and slightly off to one side of your mouth.
An even more common fault is starting to transmit before thinking
what you will say. You should write down the key points of the message
before sending it. In fact, a small pad and pencil are essential equipment for
a radio operator. You should keep a simple radio log so that vital informa-
tion can be referred to later.
Keep messages short, accurate and to the point. This assists the efficiency
of the network and greatly extends radio battery life. Transmitting requires
many times the power needed for receiving. Note that all transmitters have
a timer that switches them off after one minute. Hence, if a long message
must be sent, break it into segments with an acknowledgment between each
segment. This will also allow time for the recipient to write down the mes-
sage.
Radio traffic is normally co-ordinated through a nominated base sta-
tion that can normally hear all radios on the channel. This ensures orderly
traffic with only one station transmitting at a time. If you need to speak to
another group ask the base operator to pass on the message for you. Some-
times the base operator may give permission to speak directly to another
radio or may authorise the two users to change to another channel. In this
latter case, be sure to return to the main network channel as soon as the
conversation is finished.
Do not attempt to transmit when another group is communicating
with the base station unless the call is urgent. The procedure then is to call
at the first available break in transmission and say Urgent Traffic fol-
lowed by your call sign.
Do not attempt to call immediately after a message has been trans-
mitted to another group as you may not be able to hear their reply. Allow
sufficient time for the other groups to acknowledge the message.
Code Words
There is little need for technical radio talk. Most information can
be exchanged in clear and concise English. In marginal conditions there
are advantages in using some standard, easily understood words and phrases.
84
Code Words
Over My transmission is finished and I am expecting a reply.

Affirmative Yes.
Negative No.
Received Your message was heard and understood.
Say again Please say again your last message.
Standby Please wait and continue listening until I get back to you.
Ou t Finished transmission. No further response expected.
Phonetic Alphabet
The phonetic alphabet is used when it is necessary to spell a word, or
group of letters. Any group of phonetics must be preceded by the code
words I Spell.
A Alpha J Juliet (JEW lee ETT) S Sierra
B Bravo (BRAHvo) K Kilo (KEElo) T Tango
C Charlie L Lima (LEEma) U Uniform
D Delta M Mike V Victor
E Echo N November W Whiskey
F Foxtrot O Oscar X X-ray
G Golf P Papa (pah PAH) Y Yankee
H Hotel (hoh TEL) Q Quebec (ke BECK) Z Zulu
I India R Romeo
As an example if transmission conditions are poor it may be neces-

sary to spell a word for clarification: We have found a HAT. I spell: Hotel
Alpha Tango.
85
Pronunciation of Numerals
The code word Figures is used to prefix the sending of figures.
0 ZE-RO 5 FI-YIV
1 WUN 6 SI X
2 T OO 7 SEV-en
3 THUH-ree 8 AI T
4 FOW-er 9 NIN-er
Remember time is indicated using the 24 hour clock.

Call Signs
The call sign identifies each unit or group on the radio network. The
call sign will usually be issued with the radio or at the initial briefing. Sim-
ple, easily remembered call signs are best. BSAR are often allocated Fed-
eration together with the Group number, for example Federation 2 for
Group 2.
Typical call signs that may be used on a search include:
Base for the search base
VKC if a large radio van is being used
SES 1, SES 2 etc for SES search groups
When calling another unit or group use their call sign first then the
words this is followed by your own call sign, for example: VKC this is
Federation 2.
Active Listening
Radios play an important part in keeping search groups aware of the
progress of a search. The individual in a search group responsible for han-
dling radio communications must maintain an active role in listening to
radio traffic.
The radio operator should take note of the progress of surrounding
search groups and any reports that relate to the missing party. Relate the
passage of nearby groups and significant findings to your location and con-
sider their impact on your groups task. Keep a notebook and pencil handy
to record important details, locations and times.
86
Radio Systems
A number of different types of radio systems and modes of operation
can be used on searches and practices depending on the search location
and what systems are available. Each has various strengths and weaknesses.
You are likely to encounter at least one of the following on a search:
Simplex Operation is the traditional method of communication.
Simplex uses a single frequency channel for both transmission and
reception. The signal travels directly from one radio to another.
Sometimes a simplex radio base station set up at the search base
is able to provide adequate communications with all search groups.
Figure 11.8 Simplex operation

Remote Base Operation is a simplex base station set up on a hill
or other high location that is radio linked on a separate channel
back to the search headquarters. Secondary remote bases are some-
times used to increase the range beyond the reach of a single re-
mote base.
A Radio Repeater is commonly used during searches. Commu-
nication is via a repeater base radio using a channel with different
transmit and receive frequencies. The repeater is normally located
on a nearby hill or other high point. It receives the transmissions
from all radios on one frequency and re-broadcasts them to other
radios on another frequency. Use of a repeater increases the ef-
fective coverage of all radios so long as they are in range of the
repeater.
Radio Trunking provides communication with a pool of chan-
nels at a series of base sites using a number of separate transmit
and receive frequencies. A channel from the pool is allocated by
the network system controller for the duration of the conversa-
tion and then returned to the pool to be available for other users.
87
Figure 11.9 Radio repeater
In the Victorian State Mobile Radio trunking system a large num-

ber of base sites are interconnected to provide coverage across
almost the entire state. Trunking provides one-to-one communi-
cation that is normally not heard by other users unless the broad-
cast facility is enabled. Each radio has a unique ID and can be
dialled in a manner similar to a mobile phone. Though not typi-
cally used on searches, trunked communications may be used
where a radio is outside the range of the repeater in use on the
search.
Victoria Police District Radio Networks are a series of Police
district-wide radio channels that are linked using the same infra-
structure as the State Mobile Radio trunking system. Each chan-
nel is controlled from the District Communication Centre and is
used for normal Police activities. Sometimes a search will also be
managed sharing one of these channels.
Portable and mobile radios can only be configured to operate in one
mode at any given time. The mode is set by the operator at the time of
issue and remains in place until another mode is selected. You may need to
Figure 11.10 Radio trunking
88
change modes where reception is difficult or when requested by the search
base.
Signal Propagation and Radio Relays
The signal propagation of very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high
frequency (UHF) channels used by Police radios is virtually line-of-sight as
shown on the simplex operation diagram. The signals will penetrate light
foliage but will not from one valley to another without the use of a suitably
located repeater. Signal strength may be affected by heavy rain, snow or
wet foliage. It can be an advantage to face the station you are calling as
this avoids the need for the signal to propagate through your head in the
desired direction.
If your group is experiencing radio communication problems attempt
to gain a line-of-sight path to the base station or repeater by moving up hill
or around obstacles. You may sometimes find that moving only a small
distance (10 - 50 cm) can make a difference. If you are out of base range
and using simplex operation you may be able to relay a message via a nearby
search group that still has communication with the search base.
Prior to leaving the search base always have an agreed search plan in
place in case your communications fail completely.
Using your map, you can anticipate when your radio reception may
become poor. Report your position and intentions before moving out of
range.
Radio briefing and distribution
89
Radio Safety
Radio frequency energy is radiated at a level equal to or higher than
a mobile phone. When transmitting do not hold the radio so that the an-
tenna is very close to or touching exposed parts of your body, especially your
eyes. Avoid unnecessary transmissions.
Portable Radio Batteries
Portable radio batteries have a limited life that is dependent on the
amount of radio traffic and your transmission time. A battery will normally
last most of the day. Carry a spare when available. A warm battery has a
greater capacity than a very cold battery so keep them warm.
Sound and Visual Signals

In the field the following signals will be made by any noise-making or
visual medium available, eg. gelignite, shotgun, horns, sirens, whistles, torch
etc.
Distress
Three calls together, regularly spaced.
Recall
Four calls close together, liable to be given any time but especially on
the hour.
Group Leaders should leave notes in prominent positions, especially
camp sites, creek junctions, drop-off points identifying the group and giving
the date and time. This is useful when follow-up searchers are in the area.
When search aircraft are about and appear to have any doubt as to
your identity, place your hands on your head. Do not wave or otherwise
attempt to attract the attention of aircraft without good reason. Do not
light smoky fires when aircraft are around.
90
Chapter 12 - Administration
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue Committee
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue is administered by a Committee com-
prising a Convenor endorsed by the Federation Council, at least ten Field
Organisers (FOs), six Police Liaison Officers (PLOs), Club Delegates from
clubs which provide searchers and representatives of the Police Search and
Rescue Squad.
Other roles on the Committee include Minutes Secretary, Member-
ship Secretary, Equipment Officer, Peer Support Coordinator and Behind
the Log Editor.
The Committee meets at least six times annually to:
regularly plan and conduct search practices
maintain the call-out system
maintain and distribute accurate call-out lists of the members
encourage recruitment of new individuals and clubs
appoint PLOs and FOs annually, by election if necessary
maintain the Peer Support Group
review each search and follow up any issues
develop and review the policies and procedures
liaise with the Police and other agencies
seek and manage funding
purchase and maintain specialist equipment
represent members on Federation Council
respond to requests for information and advice
compile and distribute the biannual newsletter Behind the Log
Members are kept informed of the activities of the Committee through
their Club Delegate and via Behind the Log. Interested persons from any club
are welcome to attend meetings as observers, but do not have voting rights.
Club Delegates
Role
Experience over many years has shown that those clubs who have made
significant contributions to search and rescue are those with an effective
Club Delegate. The Club Delegate has a key role to play in ensuring the
continued effective operation of the BSAR Committee.
91
Each member club of the Federation is entitled to appoint one Club
Delegate to the BSAR Committee. The Club Delegate should be a person
with appropriate experience and interest in search and rescue and the abil-
ity to manage the search and rescue contribution of that club.
The Club Delegates role is divided into two areas:
1. The BSAR Committee. Club Delegates from Melbourne-based
clubs are expected to attend the bimonthly meetings of the com-
mittee. Club Delegates from country clubs are always welcome to
attend meetings or need to keep in touch through the Convenor.
2. At the Club level. The Club Delegate is expected to maintain
and develop the search and rescue group within their club to:
ensure that the members are kept informed of developments
and changes in the procedures and practices of BSAR
organise the attendance of suitably experienced and interested
members at the practice days or weekends
encourage suitably experienced club members to apply to join
BSAR after approval by their club committee, and comple-
tion of the Membership Application Form
arrange reliable club members to perform the role of Club
Contacts, whose task is to call out members in the event of a
search
immediately inform the BSAR Membership Secretary of any
changes of Club Contact details
ensure that those Club Contacts are provided with accurate
and up-to-date listings of the details of members to call out
annually provide to the BSAR Membership Secretary accu-
rate and confirmed lists of members for call-outs and Club
Contacts
designate members with skills in skiing, first aid and snow and
ice climbing
designate members with appropriate experience and exper-
tise as Group Leaders
ensure that members listed for call-out continue to meet the
requirements for membership and delete from the lists those
who cease to do so
discuss each call-out with the Clubs Contacts and searchers
to ensure all went well, and identify and resolve any problems
highlight the participation of the Club in a search through
the Club newsletter and meetings
92
Police Liaison Officers
Role
When help from the BSAR is required, the Victoria Police (usually
the Search and Rescue Squad) telephone the PLOs in list order until con-
tact is made with a PLO who is available for the search. That individual
becomes the PLO and initiates the call-out.
The PLO will arrange an FO and a deputy PLO. A call-out of mem-
bers is then initiated by the PLO and deputy telephoning the Club Con-
tacts of the BSAR member Clubs. The Club Contacts telephone their in-
dividual members. Details of members responding to the call are fed back
to the PLO for the information of the FO and the Police.
The PLO also activates Peer Support by obtaining the services of a
Peer Support Team Leader and keeping them informed of events.
Throughout the search, the PLO remains the Melbourne contact for
the BSAR operation and monitors its progress. The PLO may be required
to call up additional searchers in the event of a further request from Police.
The PLO may initiate a call to members homes through the Club
Contacts if they feel that it is appropriate to pass on a message from the FO
concerning the searchers. Perhaps the most common reason for a message
would be to pass information about the searchers homecoming.
After the search, the PLO prepares a report, with any recommenda-
tions, for discussion at the next BSAR Committee meeting.
Qualifications and Appointment
PLOs are appointed and reviewed annually, by the BSAR Commit-
tee. People considered for appointment are expected to have:
1. An extensive background in both Search and Rescue operations
and the administration of the BSAR Committee over a period of
many years.
2. Been an FO, or have equivalent experience.
3. A very thorough knowledge, based on experience, of all bushwalking
areas in Victoria.
4. A good working knowledge of Police search operations.
5. A good working knowledge of BSAR member Clubs.
6. A demonstrated capacity to liaise effectively.
Once appointed, PLOs become officers of the BSAR Committee. They
are expected to be actively involved in the affairs of the Committee and to
93
maintain up-to-date lists of Club Contacts, FOs and BSAR members. They
will liaise with the other PLOs regarding periods of unavailability.
Further details about the duties of a PLO are documented in Field
Organiser and Police Liaison Officer Notes and Checklist.
Field Organisers
Role
When called by Police, the PLO telephones the FOs in list order
until contact is made with an FO who is available to attend the search.
That person becomes the FO for the search and as such is responsible for
the management of BSARs contribution, under the direction of the Po-
lice. The FO directs BSAR searchers throughout the search.
Qualifications and Appointment
FOs are appointed and reviewed annually by the BSAR Committee.
People considered for appointment are expected to:
1. Continue to satisfy the Entry Standard Guide-lines for Member-
ship.
2. Have about ten years experience in BSAR, including several as
an active Group Leader.
3. Have been a Club Delegate to the BSAR Committee or have
attended six committee meetings as an observer, acquiring a de-
tailed understanding of the operation of the organisation includ-
ing participation in debriefings after searches and practices.
4. Have acted as FO or Assistant FO on a search practice.
5. Have shown a high level of leadership, initiative and organisational
and management skills.
6. Have shown ability to interact well with other groups involved with
search operations.
Once appointed, FOs become officers of the BSAR Committee. They
are expected to be actively involved in the affairs of that Committee, includ-
ing the organisation and conduct of search practices.
Further details about the duties of an FO are documented in Field
Organiser and Police Liaison Officer Notes and Checklist.
94
Club Contacts
Each club involved in BSAR is required to maintain three telephone
contact people known as Club Contacts. They are the link between BSAR
PLOs and their club BSAR members during the call-out stage of a search.
Club Contacts are listed in order of call priority. During a call-out a
PLO will call a clubs number 1 Contact first. If no answer, the PLO will
call the number 2 Club Contact, and so on. If no Club Contacts answer
that club may miss the opportunity to participate in the search.
Once a search is in progress Club Contacts may be asked to call for
more volunteers from within their club BSAR group, or they may be asked
to relay information back to the families of members who are in the field
regarding search progress and return times.
People selected for this role should:
1. Not be searchers. If Club Contacts go into the field during a search
then their club cannot be contacted again for additional search-
ers or to relay messages. (Club Contacts are often former BSAR
members or spouses of current members.)
2. Have good telephone access and skills.
3. Be familiar with the operation of BSAR.
Once selected Club Contacts should:
1. Maintain regular liaison with the clubs designated BSAR Club
Delegate.
2. Have a copy of the BSAR manual and be familiar with its con-
tents.
3. Keep a current list of the clubs BSAR members by the phone at
home and at work together with a pen and paper.
Call-Out
When called by a PLO, the Club Contact should quickly note the
following:
a) Name and telephone number of PLO.
b) If any specialists are required (ie XC Skiers).
c) General search area (if known).
d) Any details of missing person(s) (usually very sketchy at this stage).
e) Departure points and times for searchers.
f) When to call the PLO to inform names of searchers obtained,
and their departure points. Club Contacts should not ask search-
ers to contact the PLO directly to indicate availability.
95
A standard form is available from your Club Delegate to assist in
making this task easier.
After noting the above information, the Club Contact should then
quickly and efficiently:
a) Call all the clubs listed BSAR members, except where specialists
are required. Member lists are provided to Club Contacts by the
clubs BSAR Club Delegate, and must be kept up to date at all
times. The distance from the pick up point a member lives may
influence call sequence to give members maximum time to pre-
pare and reach the pick up point.
b) Give the member a summary of the situation, and determine their
availability. Note that participation in a search is totally voluntary,
and a member is free to decline a call-out for any reason.
c) Remind the member that the commitment is for a two-day pe-
riod, and that they are required to report with adequate food and
equipment for three days searching if required in an emergency.
Refer to Chapter 7.
d) Continue to make repeated attempts to contact every listed mem-
ber up until the time nominated by the PLO.
If a member is available ensure they clearly understand the departure
point and time.
Once all eligible members have been contacted (noting that in the
short time available it is likely that some members may be unable to be
reached), the Club Contact then calls the PLO at the pre-arranged time and
informs the PLO of names obtained and their departure points.
Some members may not be available immediately, but may be avail-
able for a second call-out (usually once a search has been in progress for at
least one day). This information should be noted, as it can speed up a sec-
ond call-out.
The Police provide transport to search areas. For metropolitan mem-
bers, the BSAR Committee and the Police do not allow members to use
private transport to reach search HQ. The location of search HQ can change
during the transit period, and BSAR organisation tasks occur on the bus.
For Melbourne metropolitan members, the departure points are as
follows:
1. Dawson Street Police Complex, Dawson Street, Brunswick (imme-
diately West of the Upfield railway line level crossing on Dawson
Street). This is the Victoria Police Transport Depot, and is the
96
starting point for nearly all Melbourne based searches. Off-street
car parking is available at Dawson Street. Remind the member to
check with the duty officer first.
2. A nominated 24-hour manned Police station en-route to the
search area. Arranged by the PLO, this may not occur depending
upon the locale of the search. Usually applies when the bus can
pass through the eastern suburbs on its way to the search (ie Mt.
Buller, Baw Baws, etc.).
3. Country members may make arrangements to meet the bus on its
journey at a pre-arranged point (ie. Violet Town, Myrtleford etc).
This information will need to be passed back to the PLO immedi-
ately via the Club Contact.
Once a search is in progress, the Club Contact should:
1. Inform the other Club Contacts about who has gone on the search,
and who is available for a second call-out.
2. If the Club Contact will be out of touch for a significant time,
inform the PLO which other Club Contact to call if more search-
ers are required or if information regarding the search has to be
passed back to relatives or employers.
3. Enquiries about the search from searchers family members should
be directed to the PLO via the Club Contact.
At the end of a search it can often take up to a day for search groups
to return to search HQ, and then be transported back to Melbourne. This
needs to be kept in mind when hearing media reports about the end of a
search. Where possible, the PLO will keep Club Contacts informed, but
communications between search HQ and PLOs can be limited, so Club
Contacts need to be patient.
After all searchers have returned, Club Contacts should discuss with
their clubs BSAR Club Delegate any problems they may have had, such as
incorrect telephone numbers, etc.
Club Committees
Club committees play an important role in encouraging and support-
ing their club members involvement in BSAR. They confirm that appli-
cants meet the entry requirements described in Chapter 4 and approve
applications. The Club Committee is required to appoint a Club Delegate
to manage the Clubs BSAR members and Club Contacts and give the club
a voice in the running of BSAR.
97
Peer Support Coordination
Details of the Peer Support program are outlined in Chapter 8. A
formal structure is in place to ensure that a number of Peer Support per-
sonnel are available to contact members after a search.
Peer Supporters are in contact with the nominated Peer Support Team
Leader for a search who in turn liaise with a Peer Support Coordinator. This
provides a mechanism for general issues to be brought to the BSAR Com-
mittee through the Peer Support Coordinator.
Funding
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue receives funding from various sources,
including government grants and private donations, which are used to cover
its administration, training, equipment and operational expenses. As mem-
bers provide their own bushwalking equipment, equipment purchases are
mainly for specialist items, such as stretchers, highly visible pack covers,
Bushwhacker skis and, most recently, GPS units.
The majority of funds come from the Victorian Government depart-
ment, Sport and Recreation Victoria (SRV), in the form of an annual grant
to the Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs. Special purpose grants are
also received from SRV from time to time for items, such as the publication
of BSAR manuals. In 2001, a grant from the Federal Government to ac-
knowledge the role of volunteers enabled the purchase of 12 GPS units.
The families, friends and colleagues of missing persons for whom we
have helped search, have from time to time made very generous and unsolic-
ited donations. Corporate donations have also been received. These dona-
tions have been used for the purchase of specialist equipment, such as pack
covers and Skeds.
BSAR is grateful
to the individuals and
organisations that have
made donations.
Bushwhacker skis and

Skeds were purchased
through a generous
donation from BP
Australia
98
Information for Employers
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue is part of the Federation of Victorian
Walking Clubs and is set up to provide a pool of experienced bushwalkers
and cross-country skiers for use in searches for lost people in the bush areas
and snow-fields of Victoria.
Our objective is to make available to the Victoria Police those mem-
bers of walking clubs who have the experience, fitness and personal equip-
ment to safely participate in prolonged searching in adverse conditions.
Members are called out to a search only in response to an official
request for assistance from the Victoria Police, as a part of DISPLAN (the
State Disaster Plan). Our members work under Police direction at all times,
and are registered as emergency workers as required by the Emergency Man-
agement Act 1986.
Members responding to a call-out are instructed to attend for two
days. Return transport to Melbourne in under two days is not assured un-
less the search is called off.
A member is free to decline any particular call-out for any reason.
Employers are encouraged to give members special paid leave to cover
attendance on searches. Bushwalkers Search and Rescue has been in opera-
tion since 1949 and such leave has routinely been provided by many govern-
ment and private employers during that time. However, any employer should
feel free to ask a member to decline call-outs if absences are excessive or
work requirements make it undesirable. It should be noted that most call-
outs occur in the evening or early hours of the morning and it is rarely
practical for a member to contact their employer when a call-out is received.
It is the members responsibility to ensure that their employer is fully
aware of the implications of being listed for call-out to attend searches.
Victorian Public Service regulations specifically allow for attendance
by employees at emergencies and Commonwealth Public Service employ-
ees have been granted paid leave for many years.
A Certificate of Attendance will be issued to members responding to a
call-out confirming the dates and nature of the emergency.
99
Further Reading
First Aid Manual, Australian Red Cross Society (1998). The Australian Red Cross
Society: Melbourne Victoria.
First Aid in the Bush, B. Wilson, 2nd ed (1992).
Bushwalking and Ski Touring Leadership, Bushwalking and Mountaincraft Training
Advisory Board (2001). BMTAB Inc.: Melbourne Victoria.
Outdoor First Aid, Coleman, J. Heine, A. Taylor, I. Webb, S. (1990). (Mountain
Safety Manual No. 14), New Zealand Mountain Safety Council: Wellington, New
Zealand.
Venomous Creatures in Australia, Dr. S. K. Sutherland (1996).
The Alpine Rescue Manual, Head, Rik (ed) (1996). Australian Ski Patrol Association:
Melbourne Victoria.
Safety in the Bush, Hobart Walking Club, 5th ed (1973). Hobart Walking Club:
Tasmania.
Mountain Search and Rescue Techniques, May, W. G (1972). Rocky Mountain Rescue
Group: Boulder Colorado.
Mountain Rescue, Ministry of Defence (1972). HMSO: London Great Britain.
Australian Emergency Manual, Natural Disasters Organisation (1990). Land Search
Operations, Natural Disasters Organisation: Canberra ACT
Australian First Aid, St John Ambulance Australia 3rd ed (1998). St John Ambu-
lance: ACT.
The Pocket Doctor, The Mountaineers (1988). Seattle, Washington.
Mountaineering First Aid, The Mountaineers 3rd ed (1991). Seattle, Washington
Medicine for Mountaineering, The Mountaineers 5th ed (2001). Seattle, Washington.
The Scroggin Eaters, Wheeler, Graeme (1991). Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs:
Melbourne Victoria.
Leaders Wilderness First Aid Course Manual, Wilderness First Aid Consultants
(1996). Wilderness First Aid Consultants: Leura NSW.
Medicine for Mountaineering and other wilderness activities, Wilkerson, J. (ed) (1993).
4th edition, Wilderness Publications: Blackburn Victoria.
BSAR other documents and publications
Field Organiser and Police Liaison Officer Notes and Checklist. Booklet, Issue 4, 1994.
Bushwalkers Search and Rescue, Serving the Outdoors for 50 Years. Poster, 1997.
Information on the Search and Rescue Section. Brochure, 1997.
BSaR Peer Support Program. Brochure, 2000.
Employer Certificate of Appreciation, 2002.
Information on Bushwalkers Search and Rescue. Brochure, 2003.
BSAR Web Site : www.bsar.org
100
Entry Requirements 12
Index EPIRBs 59
Equipment 23
Symbols Evacuation 63
24-hour time 58 F
A Family 16
Feature Search 53
Altimeter 59
Field Organiser 8, 33, 94
Application for Membership 11
Finding the Lost Person 61
Arm Band 29
First Aid 67
ASPA 13
First Aid Kits 69
B First Aiders 43
Behind the Log 16, 91 Food 23, 31
BMLC 13 G
Briefing 43
GPS Units 59
BSAR Committee 91
Group Leader 34, 61
Bush Stretcher 65, 72
Bushwhacker 26 H
C Helicopters 63, 79
Hypothermia 67
Call Signs 86
Call-Off 21 J
Call-Out 8, 19
Joining 11
Certificate of Attendance 99
Club Committees 97 L
Club Contacts 8, 95 Line Search 53
Club Delegates 91 Local Call-Out 21
Code Words 84, 85
Communications 82 M
Compensation 18 Maps 26
Composite Search Groups 43 Media 45
Country Members 21 Mobile Phones 60
Cross Country Skis 26
N
D
News 45
Day Searching 28, 56
Dead Person Found 62 P
DISPLAN 99 Peer Support 46, 98
Distress 90 Phonetic Alphabet 85
District Radio Networks 88 Police 45
Dogs 58 Police Liaison Officers 8, 93
Portable Radio Batteries 90
E
Practices 11
Emergency Management Act Private Vehicles 22
18, 21, 99 Probe Search 55
Employer 11, 16, 99
R Searcher Responsibilities 40
Searching in Snow 57
Radio Beacons 59
SES 22
Radio Relays 89
Shoe Shoes 26
Radio Repeater 87
Signal Propagation 89
Radio Systems 87
Simplex Operation 87
Radio Trunking 87
Sked 65, 76
Radios 82
Ski Sled 74
Recall 90
Sled 66
Reconnaissance Search 53
State Disaster Plan 99
Remote Base Operation 87
STLC 13
Reserve Group 43
Stretcher 64, 72
Rope Climbers 78
S T
Training 17
Safety Straps 26
Transport 21
Scroggin Eaters 3
Search Group Leader 34 V
Search Skills 47
Visual Signals 90
Search Techniques 50
Loading the bus for the trip home. Police Transport Branch
provide transport for searches and practices

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Bushwalkers

Search and Rescue

Front Cover B&W: Search at Lake Mountain, courtesy The Age

Search and Rescue

Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs Inc.

FIRST PUBLISHED 1993

National Library of Australia card number and ISBN

© Copyright Federation of Victorian Bushwalking Clubs Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Table 7.1 Personal equipment to take on a search....................................... 24-26

Bushwalkers Search and Rescue wishes to

Searchers on the 1952 Marysville search

John Retchford with the then Minister for

Searchers gathered for a briefing by Police Search & Rescue Squad at

Figure 3.1 Call-out system

Country members joined search at Tawonga Gap 2001

Figure 3.2 Field structure

Workshop session in progress Mt Stirling practice 2001

Intermediate skier Advanced skier

• overnight snow camping experience In addition to all skills for Intermediate

Ice Climbing Experience

Snow searches involve

Scrub and steep

Behind the Log

Police and BSAR members at the Mt Stirling practice 2001

Search base, Tawonga Gap 2001

Reimbursement for use of private vehicles is not generally available.

Equipment Lists and Details

A break for lunch, Baw Baw National Park practice 1999

Tent Do not plan to share a tent with a friend. You may

Sleeping mat, closed Self-inflating mats may puncture during casualty

Towel & soap Optional. Useful where base accommodation is

Water Minimum two litres in sturdy container(s). Fill at home.

First aid kit & medication Refer to Chapter 11.

Weatherproof clothing Gore-Tex® or equivalent material hooded jacket and

Long trousers, heavy Required for prolonged periods of thick scrub

Gloves, leather Leather garden gloves or leather riggers gloves.

Cordage, 10 - 12 metres Venetian blind cord or 5 mm sisal recommended.

Cutting implement For fabricating a bush stretcher, clearing evacuation

Coloured toilet paper, For marking boundaries of areas searched, clues,

Compass, whistle & map

Note pad and pen Store in waterproof plastic bag.

Map of area (if known) Optional. In most cases, photocopies of areas to be

GPS unit Optional. Confirm grid datum in use before leaving

Rope, 30 metres 8 mm Optional. Personal support on steep terrain or

Karabiner, screw gate Optional. Stretcher escort, personal support, pack

Applies only to members Safety straps.

BSAR Bushwhacker skis may be issued at base. These

Mobile telephone Optional

Table 7.1 Personal equipment to take on a search

Snow conditions require cross-country skis or snow-shoes. Skis must

Day Searching - Personal Equipment

Large day pack (min 40 litres) or A normal weekend size pack is

Weatherproof clothing Gore-Tex® or equivalent material

First aid kit & medication Refer to Chapter 11.

Sunscreen, sunglasses, hat

Fire lighting items

Coloured toilet paper, one roll For marking a search boundary.

Large plastic bags

Food, scroggin For personal needs. Include more than