Chapter 3

Functions
Our everyday lives are filled with situations in which we encounter relationships between two
sets. For example,
 To each automobile, there corresponds a license plate number
 To each circle, there corresponds a circumference
 To each number, there corresponds its square

In order to apply mathematics to a variety of disciplines, we must make the idea of a

“relationship” between two sets mathematically precise.
On completion of this chapter students will be able to:
 understand the notion of relation and function
 determine the domain and range of relations and functions
 find the inverse of a relation
 define polynomial and rational functions
 perform the fundamental operations on polynomials
 find the inverse of an invertible function
 apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
 apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
 sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
 define exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
 sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
 use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, hyperbolic and trigonometric functions
to solve physical problems

In this chapter, we first look at the definitions of relations and functions, and study real valued
functions and their properties, types of functions, polynomial functions, zeros of polynomial
functions, rational functions and their graphs, logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions and their graphs. Let’s begin with the review of relations and functions.

3.1. Review of relations and functions

After completing this section, the student should be able to:

 define Cartesian product of two sets
 understand the notion of relation and function
 know the difference between relation and function
 determine the domain and range of relations and functions
 find the inverse of a relation

68
The student is familiar with the phrase ordered pair. In the ordered pair (2,3),(−2,4) and (a,b) ;
2, −2 and a are the first coordinates while 3, 4 and b are the second coordinates.

 Cartesian Product

Given sets A={3 , 4} and B={2, 4, 5} . Then, the set {(3,2),(3,4),(3,5 ),(4,2),( 4,4 ), (4,5)} is the
Cartesian product of A and B , and it is denoted by A×B .

Definition 3.1: Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B , denoted by A×B , is the set
which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate is an element of A and second coordinate is an element
of B , i.e.
A × B =¿ ¿ and b∈B¿¿ .

Example 3.1: For A={2, 4 } and A={−1, 3} , we have

A×B={(2,−1),(2,3 ),( 4 ,−1),(4,3 )}
a) , and
B× A={(−1,2 ),(−1,4 ),(3,2),(3,4 )}
b) .

Example 3.2: Let A={1,2,3} and B={a , b , c} . Then,

A×B={(1,a),(1,b),(1,c ),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(3,a),(3,b),(3,c)} .
From example 3.1, we can see that A×B and B× A are not equal. Recall that two sets are equal
if one is a subset of the other and vice versa. To check equality of Cartesian products we need to
define equality of ordered pairs.

Definition 3.2: (Equality of ordered Pairs)

Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c ,d ) are equal if and only if a=c and b=d .

Definition 3.3: (Relation from A into B )

If A and B are sets, any subset of A×B is called a relation from A into B.

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R A×B and hence for each
(a,b)∈ A×B , we have either (a ,b )∈R or (a ,b )∉ R . If (a ,b )∈R , we say “ is R-related (or
a
simply related) to b”, and write aRb . If (a ,b)∉R , we say that “ is not related to b”.
a
In particular if R is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.

Example 3.3:

69
 A={1,3,5,7} B={6,8} R A B
1. Let and . Let be the relation “less than” from to . Then,
R={(1,6 ),(1,8),((3,6 ),(3,8),(5,6 ), (5,8 ),(7,8)}
.
A={1,2,3,4,5} B={a , b , c}
2. Let and .
A B
a) The following are relations from into ;
R1 ={(1, a )}
i)
R2 ={(2 ,b ),(3 , b),( 4 , c ),(5 , a)}
ii)
R3 ={(1 ,a ),((2 ,b ),(3 , c)}
iii)
B A
b) The following are relations from to ;
R4 ={( a ,3 ),(b , 1)}
i)
R5 ={(b,2),(c ,4),(a, 2),(b,3)}
ii)
R6 ={(b ,5)}
iii)

Definition 3.4: Let R be a relation from A into B . Then,

a) the domain of R , denoted by Dom( R) , is the set of first coordinates of the elements of
R , i.e
Dom( R)={a∈ A :(a , b )∈ R}
b) the range of R , denoted by Range( R) , is the set of second coordinates of elements of R ,
i.e
Range( R)={b ∈ B :(a , b)∈ R}

Remark: If R is a relation from the set A to the set B , then the set B is called the codomain of
the relation R . The range of relation is always a subset of the codomain.

Example 3.4:
R={( 4,7),(5,8 ),(6,10)} A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
1. The set is a relation from set to set
B={6,7,8,9 ,10} R {4,5,6} R {7,8,10}
. The domain of is , the range of is and the
R {6,7,8,9 , 10}
codomain of is .

70
 R={(8,2),(6,−3),(5,7),(5 ,−3 )}
2. The set of ordered pairs is a relation between the sets
{5,6,8} {2,−3,7} {5,6,7} {2,−3,7}
and , where is the domain and is the range.

Remark:
(a ,b )∈R R a b a
1. If for a relation , we say
is related to (or paired with) . Note that may
b b a
also be paired with an element different from . In any case, is called the image of
a b R
while is called the pre-image of under .
2. If the domain and/or range of a relation is infinite, we cannot list each element
assignment, so instead we use set builder notation to describe the relation. The situation
we will encounter most frequently is that of a relation defined by an equation or formula.
For example,
R={( x , y ): y=2 x −3 , x , y ∈ ℜ}
is a relation for which the range value is 3 less than twice the domain value. Hence,
(0, −3),(0.5, −2) and (−2,−7) are examples of ordered pairs that are of the assignment.

Example 3.5:
A={1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
1. Let
R A R=¿ ¿ b¿¿
Let be the relation on defined by is a factor of . Find the
R
domain and range of .

Solution: We have
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3 ),(1,4 ),(1,6 ),(2,2),(2,4 ),(2,6),(3,3 ),(3,6 ),(4,4 ),(6,6 )} .
Then, Dom( R)={1,2,3,4,6} and Range( R)={1,2,3,4,6} .
A={1,2,3,4,5} B={1, 2, 3, ⋯, 67}
2. Let and .
R=¿ ¿ is cube root of y } . Find a) R b) Dom( R) c) Range( R)
Let

3, 3 3 3 3
Solution: We have 1= √ 1 , 2=√ 8 , 3=√ 27 , 4= √ 64 , 5=√ 125 and 1, 8, 27 and 64 are in B
whereas 125 is not in B . Thus, R={(1,1 ),(2,8 ),(3,27),(4 ,64)} , Dom( R)={1,2,3,4 } and
R={1,8 ,27 ,64} .

Remark:

71
 R A
1. A relation on a set is called
R= A× A
i) a universal relation if
R={( a , a):a ∈ A}
ii) identity relation if
R=φ
iii) void or empty relation if
−1
R A B R R
2. If is a relation from into , then the inverse relation of , denoted by , is a
B A
relation from to and is given by:
R−1 ={( y , x ):( x , y )∈ R} .
Observe that Dom( R)=Range( R−1 ) and Range( R)=Dom( R−1 ) . For instance, if
−1
R={(1,4 ),(9,15),(10 , 2)} is a relation on a set A={1,2,3 ,⋯,20} , then R ={(4,1 ),(15, 9),(2,10)}

Example 3.6: Let R be a relation defined on IN by R={( a ,b ):a , b ∈ IN , a+2 b=11} .

−1
Find a) R b) Dom( R) c) Range( R) d) R

Solution: The smallest natural number is 1.

b=1 ⇒ a+2(1 )=11 ⇒ a=9
b=2 ⇒ a+2( 2 )=11 ⇒ a=7
b=3 ⇒ a+ 2( 3)=11 ⇒ a=5
b=4 ⇒ a+2( 4 )=11 ⇒ a=3
b=5 ⇒ a+ 2(5 )=11 ⇒ a=1
b=6 ⇒ a+2( 6 )=11 ⇒ a=−1∉ IN
Therefore, R={(9,1 ),(7,2),(5,3),(3,4),(1,5)} , Dom( R)={1,3,5,7,9} , Range( R)={1,2,3,4,5} and
R−1={(1,9),(2,7 ),(3,5 ),(4,3 ),(5,1 )} .

 Functions

Mathematically, it is important for us to distinguish among the relations that assign a unique
range element to each domain element and those that do not.

Definition 3.5: (Function)

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.

Example 3.7: Determine whether the following relations are functions.

72
 R={(5,−2),(3,5),(3,7 )} R
a) b) {(2,4),(3,4),(6,-4)}

Solution:
a) Since the domain element 3 is assigned to two different values in the range, 5 and 7, it is
not a function.
{2,3,6 }
b) Each element in the domain, , is assigned no more than one value in the range, 2 is
assigned only 4, 3 is assigned only 4, and 6 is assigned only – 4. Therefore, it is a
function.

Remark: Map or mapping, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word
function. If f is a function and ( x , y )∈ f , we say x is mapped to y by f.

Definition 3.6: A relation

f from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted by
f : A→ B or
A ⃗f B
if and only if

(i) Dom(f )= A
(ii) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e. if ( x, y )∈ f
and ( x, z)∈ f , then y=z .

Remark: 1. If to the element x of A corresponds y (∈ B) under the function f , then we write

f (x )= y and y is called the image of x under y and x is called a pre-image of y under f .

2. The symbol f (x ) is read as “ f of x” but not “ f times x”.

f
3. In order to show that a relation from A into B is a function, we first show that the
f f x= y
domain of is A and next we show that well defined or single-valued, i.e. if in
f (x )=f ( y ) x, y ∈ A
A, then in B for all .

Example 3.8:
A={1,2,3,4} B={1,6,8 ,11,15}
1. Let and . Which of the following are functions from A to
B
.

73
 f f (1 )=1 , f (2 )=6 , f (3)=8 , f ( 4 )=8
a) defined by
f f (1 )=1, f (2 )=6 , f (3)=15
b) defined by
f f (1 )=6 , f (2)=6 , f (3 )=6 , f (4 )=6
c) defined by
f f (1 )=1 , f (2 )=6 , f (2)=8 , f (3 )=8 , f (4 )=11
d) defined by
f f (1 )=1 , f (2 )=8 , f (3)=11, f (4 )=15
e) defined by

Solution:
a) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of
B.

b) f is not a function because there is no element of B which correspond to 4( ∈ A).

c) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B. In the given function, the images of all element of A are the same.
d) f is not a function because there are two elements of B which correspond to 2.
In other words, the image of 2 is not unique.
e) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B.

As with relations, we can describe a function with an equation. For example, y=2x+1 is a
function, since each x will produce only one y .
2
f ={( x , y ): y=x } f
2. Let . Then, maps:

1 to 1 -1 to 1
2 to 4 -2 to 4
3 to 9 -3 to 9

More generally any real number x is mapped to its square. As the square of a number is unique,
f maps every real number to a unique number. Thus, f is a function from ℜ into ℜ .
We will find it useful to use the following vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the
variable representing possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the

74
variable representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered pair notation ( x, y)
, x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

Q×Z
f= {( )p
q
, p : p , q ∈ Z , q≠0 }
3. Let f be the subset of defined by . Is f a function?

Solution: First we note that Dom(f )=Q . Then, f satisfies condition (i) in the
definition of a function. Now,
( 23 , 2 ) ∈ f ,
( 46 , 4 ) ∈ f and
2
3
4
=6
but
f ( 23 )= 2≠4= f ( 46 ) .
Thus f is not well defined. Hence, f is not a function from Q to Z.

f Z ×Z f ={(mn, m+n ):m , n ∈ Z} f

4. Let be the subset of defined by . Is a function?

Solution: First we show that f satisfies condition (i) in the definition. Let x be any
element of Z . Then, x=x⋅1 . Hence, ( x , x+1)=( x⋅1, x +1)∈ f . This implies that
x ∈ Dom (f ) . Thus, Z ⊆ Dom(f ) . However, Dom(f )⊆ Z and so Dom(f )=Z . Now,
and 4=4⋅1=2⋅2 . Thus, (4⋅1,4+1) and (2⋅2,2+2) are in f . Hence we find that
4⋅1=2⋅2 and f (4⋅1)=5≠4=f (2⋅2 ) . This implies that f is not well defined, i.e, f

does not satisfy condition (ii). Hence, f is not a function from Z to Z .

 Domain, codomain and range of a function

For a function f : A→ B
f
(i) The set A is called the domain of

(ii) The set B is called the codomain of

{f ( x ): x ∈ A } f
(iii) The set of all image of elements of A is called the range of

Example 3.9:
A={1,2,3} B={1,2,3 ,⋯, 10} f : A→ B
1. Let and . Let be the correspondence which
A f (1)=1 , f (2 )=4 , f (3 )=9
assigns to each element in , its square. Thus, we have .

75
 f Dom(f )={1,2,3} Range(f )={1,4,9}
Therefore, is a function and , and codomain of
f {1,2,3 ,⋯,10}
is .

A={2,4,6,7,9}, B=IN x y A B
2. Let . Let and represent the elements in the sets and ,
f : A→ B f (x )=15 x+17 , x ∈ A
respectively. Let be a function defined by .

The variable x can take values 2, 4, 6, 7, 9. Thus, we have

f (2 )=15(2 )+17=47 , f ( 4 )=77 , f (6 )=107 , f (7 )=122, f (9 )=152 .
This implies that Dom(f )={2,4,6,7,9}, Range( f )={47 ,77 ,107 , 122 ,152} and codomain
of f is IN.

y x
3. Determine whether the following equations determine as a function of , if so, find
the domain of the function.
2x
y= 2
y=−3 x+5 3 x−5 y =x
a) b) c)

Solution:
y=−3 x+5 y x
a) To determine whether gives as a function of , we need to know
whether each x-value uniquely determines a y-value. Looking at the equation
y=−3 x+5 x
, we can see that once is chosen we multiply it by – 3 and then add 5.
y y=−3 x+5
Thus, for each x there is a unique . Therefore, is a function. It’s
domain is the set of all real numbers.
2x
y=
3 x−5
b) Looking at the equation carefully, we can see that each x-value uniquely
determines a y-value (one x-value can not produce two different y-values). Therefore,
2x
y=
3 x−5
is a function.

76
As for its domain, we ask ourselves. Are there any values of x that must be excluded? Since
2x
y=
3 x−5 is a fractional expression, we must exclude any value of x that makes the
denominator equal to zero. We must have
5
3 x−5≠0 ⇔ x≠
3
5 5
{x : x≠ }
Therefore, the domain consists of all real numbers except 3 . Thus, Dom(f )= 3 .
y 2 =x x=9 y 2 =9 y=±3
c) For the equation , if we choose we get , which gives . In
2
y− x=9 y =x
other words, there are two values associated with . Therefore, is not
a function.
y=√ 3 x−x 2
4. Find the domain of the function .

Solution: Since y is defined and is real when the expression under the radical is non-
negative, we need x to satisfy the inequality
3 x−x 2≥0 ⇔ x (3−x )≥0
This is a quadratic inequality, which can be solved by analyzing signs:

⃗
−− −| + + + |−− −

Sign of 3 x−x
2
0 3
2
Since we want 3 x−x =x (3−x ) to be non-negative, the sign analysis shows us that the domain
is
{x :0≤x ≤3} or [0,3] .

Exercise 3.1
A={1,2,3,4,5,6} R={( a ,b ):a+b≤9}
1. Let R be a relation on the set defined by .
R
i) List the elements of
−1
R=R
ii) Is
A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7} R=¿ ¿ a−b }
2. Let R be a relation on the set defined by divides .
R
i) List the elements of

77
 Dom( R) ∧ Range( R )
ii) Find
R−1
iii) Find the elements of
−1 −1
Dom( R ) ∧ Range (R )
iv) Find

A={1,2,3,4,5,6} A R={( x , y ): y=x+1}

3. Let . Define a relation on by . Write down the
−1
R R
domain, codomain and range of . Find .
{( x, y):|x|+ y≥2}
4. Find the domain and range of the relation .
A={1,2,3} B={3,5,6,8} A B
5. Let and . Which of the following are functions from to ?
f ={(1,3),(2,3 ),(3,3 )} f ={(1,8),(2,5 )}
a) c)
f ={(1,3),(2,5 ),(1,6 )} f ={(1,6),(2,5 ),(3,3)}
b) d)
6. Determine the domain and range of the following relations. Which relation a function?
1 1 1 1
{(−4,−3),(2,−5),(4,6 ),(2,0)} {(− 2 , 6 ),(−1,1 ),( 3 , 8 )}
a) d)
3
{(8 ,−2 ),(6 ,− 2 ),(−1,5)} {(0,5),(1,5),(2,5),(3,5),(4,5),(5,5)}
b) e)
{(− √3,3),(−1,1),(0,0),(1,1),( √3,3)}
c) f) {(5,0),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)}
7. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
f (x )=1+8 x−2 x2 f (x )=√ x2 −6 x +8
a) c)

f (x )= 2
1
x −5 x+ 6
f(x)=¿ {3 x+4,−1≤x<2¿¿¿¿
b) d)

f(x)=¿ {3 x−5, x<1¿¿¿¿

8. Given .
Find a) f (−3 ) b) f (1) c) f (6)

78
 3.2 Real Valued functions and their properties

After completing this section, the student should be able to:

 perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials

 compose functions to get a new function
 determine the domain of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions
 define equality of two functions

Let f be a function from set A to set B . If B is a subset of the set of real numbers ℜ , then f
is called a real valued function, and in particular if A is also a subset of ℜ , then f : A→ B is
called a real function.
2
Example 3.10: 1. The function f : ℜ→ℜ defined by f (x )=x +3 x+7 , x ∈ ℜ is a real
function.
2. The function f : ℜ→ℜ defined as f (x )=|x| is also a real valued function.

 Operations on functions

Functions are not numbers. But just as two numbers a and b can be added to produce a new
number a+b , so two functions f and g can be added to produce a new function f +g . This
is just one of the several operations on functions that we will describe in this section.
x −3
f (x )=
Consider functions f and g defined by 2 and g( x)= √ x . We can make a new
x−3
+√x
function f + g by having it assign to x the value 2 , that is,
x−3
( f +g )( x )=f ( x )+ g( x )= +√ x
2 .

79
 Definition 3.7: Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions

Let f (x ) and g( x) be two functions. We define the following four functions:

1. (f +g )( x )=f ( x )+g( x ) The sum of the two functions

2. (f −g)( x )=f ( x )−g( x ) The difference of the two functions
3. (f⋅g )( x )=f ( x ) g( x) The product of the two functions

4.
() f
g
( x )=
f ( x)
g( x ) The quotient of the two functions (provided g( x)≠0)

Since an x− value must be an input into both f (f +g )( x ) is the set of all x common to
and g , the domain of
the domain of f and g . This is usually written as Dom(f +g )=Dom (f )∩Dom( g) . Similar statements
hold for the domains of the difference and product of two functions. In the case of the quotient, we must impose the
additional restriction that all elements in the domain of g for which g( x)=0 are excluded.

Example 3.11:
2
f (x )=3 x +2 g( x )=5 x−4
1. Let and . Find each of the following and its domain

(f +g )( x ) (f −g)( x) (f .g )( x) ( gf )( x )
a) b) c) d)

Solution:
(f +g )( x )=f ( x )+g( x )=(3 x2 +2)+(5 x−4 )= 3 x2 +5 x−2
a)
2
(f −g)( x )=f ( x )−g( x )=(3 x +2)−(5 x −4 )= 3 x2 −5 x +6
b)
2
(f⋅g )( x )=(3 x +2)(5 x−4 )= 15 x3 −12 x 2 +10 x−8
c)

()
f
g
( x )=
f ( x ) 3 x 2 +2
=
g( x ) 5 x−4
d)

We have
Dom(f + g )=Dom (f −g )=Dom (fg)=Dom(f )∩Dom( g )=ℜ∩ℜ=ℜ
f
() 5
Dom = [ Dom (f )∩Dom( g) ] {x :g ( x )=0 ¿=ℜ¿ { ¿ }¿
g 4

80
 4
f (x )=√ x+1 g( x)= √9−x 2 [−1,∞) [−3,3]
2. Let and , with respective domains and .
f
f +g , f −g , f⋅g ,
g f3
Find formulas for and and give their domains.

Solution:
Formula Domain

(f +g )( x )=f ( x )+g( x )= √ x +1+ √ 9−x

4 2
[−1, 3]
(f −g)( x)=f ( x )−g( x )= √ x +1−√ 9−x 2
4
[−1, 3]
(f⋅g )( x )=f ( x )⋅g( x )=√ x+1⋅√ 9−x 2
4
[−1, 3]
4

( gf )( x )= fg(( xx)) = √√9−x

x +1
2
[−1, 3)
3
3
f 3 ( x )=( f ( x ) ) =( √ x +1 ) =( x +1 )
3 4 4
[−1,∞)

There is yet another way of producing a new function from two given functions.

Definition 3.8: (Composition of functions)

Given two functions f (x ) and g( x) , the composition of the two functions is denoted by f ∘ g and is defined
by:
(f ∘ g)( x )=f [ g( x )] .
(f ∘ g)( x ) is read as f} {¿ composed with g of x} {¿ . The domain of f ∘ g consists of those x ' s in the
domain of g whose range values are in the domain of f '
, i.e. those x s for which g( x) is in the domain of f .

Example 3.12:
f ={(2 , z),(3 , q )} g={( a,2),( b,3 ),(c ,5 )}
1. Suppose and . The function
(f ∘ g)( x )=f ( g( x )) g
is found by taking elements in the domain of and evaluating as
follows:
(f ∘ g)( a)=f ( g(a ))=f (2 )=z , (f ∘ g)(b )=f ( g(b ))=f (3 )=q

If we attempt to find f (g(c )) we get f (5) , but 5 is not in the domain of f (x ) and so we cannot
find (f ∘ g)(c ) . Hence, f ∘ g={( a , z ),(b ,q )} . The figure below illustrates this situation.

81
 g
f
2
a 3 z
Domain
b of f q
c
5

Domain of g Range of g Range of f

f (x )=5 x 2−3 x +2 g( x )=4 x +3

2. Given and , find
(f ∘ g)(−2) (g ∘ f )(2 ) (f ∘ g)( x ) (g ∘ f )( x )
a) b) c) d)

Solution:
(f ∘ g)(−2)=f ( g (−2 )) g(−2)=4(−2)+3=−5
a) …… First evaluate
=f (−5)
2
=5(−5 ) −3 (−5 )+2=142
(g ∘ f )(2 )=g( f (2)) f (2 )=5(2 )2−3 (2)+2=16
b) …….First evaluate
=g(16)
=4(16 )+3=67
(f ∘ g)( x )=f ( g( x )) g( x )=4 x +3
c) ……. But
=f (4 x+3 )
2
=5( 4 x +3) −3( 4 x+3)+2
2
=80 x +108 x +38
2
(g ∘ f )( x )=g (f ( x )) f (x )=5 x −3 x +2
d) ……. But
2
=g(5 x −3 x +2 )
2
=4(5 x −3 x +2 )+3
=20 x 2 −12 x +11
x 2
f (x )= g( x )=
x +1 x−1
3. Given and , find
(f ∘ g)( x ) (g ∘ f )( x )
a) and its domain b) and its domain

82
 2
( f ∘ g)( x )=f ( )
2
x−1
=
x −1
2
+1
=
2
x +1
Solution: a) x−1 . Thus, Dom(f ∘ g )={x : x≠±1} .
2
(g ∘ f )( x )=g (f ( x ))= =−2 x−2
x
−1
x +1 x f (x )
b) . Since must first be an input into
f Dom( g∘ f )={x : x≠−1}
and so must be in the domain of , we see that .
6x
f (x )= 2
x −9 g( x)= √3 x (f ∘ g)(12 ) (g ∘ f )( x )
4. Let and . Find and and its domain.
36 4
Solution: We have
(f ∘ g)(12 )=f ( g ( 12))=f ( √ 36 )=f ( 6 )= 27 = 3 .
6 √3 x 6 √3 x 2 √ 3 x
(f ∘ g)( x )=f ( g( x ))=f ( √ 3 x )= = =
( √ 3 x ) −9 3 x−9 x−3 .
2

The domain of f ∘ g is [0,3 )∪(3,∞) .

We now explore the meaning of equality of two functions. Let f : A→ B and g : A →B be two
functions. Then, f and g are subsets of A×B . Suppose f =g . Let x be any element of A .
Then, ( x , f (x ))∈ f =g and thus ( x, f (x ))∈ g . Since g is a function and ( x, f (x )),
( x, g( x))∈ g , we must have f (x )=g( x ). Conversely, assume that g( x )=f ( x ) for all x ∈ A .
Let ( x , y )∈ f . Then, y=f ( x )=g( x ) . Thus, ( x, y)∈ g , which implies that f ⊆ g . Similarly,
we can show that g ⊆f . It now follows that f =g . Thus two functions f : A→ B and
g : A →B are equal if and only if f (x )=g( x ) for all x ∈ A . In general we have the following
definition.

Definition 3.9: (Equality of functions)

Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
i) The functions have the same domain;
ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.

Example 3.13:
+ +
f : Z →Z ∪{0} g : Z →Z ∪{0} f ={(n , n2 ): n∈ Z }
1. Let and be defined by and
2 2 2
g={(n,|n| ):n∈Z} n∈Z f (n)=n =|n| =g( n) f =g
. Now, for all , . Thus, .

83
 2
x −25
f (x )= , x ∈ ℜ{5 ¿¿
x−5 g( x )=x +5 , x ∈ ℜ f g
2. Let , and . The function and are not
Dom(f )≠Dom( g ).
equal because

Exercise 3.2
2
2 g( x )=
f (x )=x +x x+3
1. For and , find each value:
2
(f −g)(2 ) g (3 ) (g ∘ f )(1 )
a) c) e)

()
f
g
(1)
(f ∘ g)(1 ) (g ∘ g )(3)
b) d) f)
2
3 g( x )=
f (x )=x +2 x−1
2. If and , find a formula for each of the following and state its
domain.

(f +g )( x ) ()g
f
(x)
a) c)
(f ∘ g)( x ) (g ∘ f )( x )
b) d)
f (x )=x 2 g( x)= √ x
3. Let and .
(f ∘ g)( x )
a) Find and its domain.
(g ∘ f )( x )
b) Find and its domain
(f ∘ g)( x ) (g ∘ f )( x )
c) Are and the same functions? Explain.
f (x )=5 x−3 g( x) (f ∘ g)( x )=2 x +7
4. Let . Find so that .
f (x )=2 x+1 . g( x) (f ∘ g)( x )=3 x −1
5. Let Find so that .
x −1 3 f ( x )+1
f (x )= f (2 x )=
f x+1 f (x )+ 3
6. If is a real function defined by . Show that .
f g h( x )=(f ∘ g )(x )
7. Find two functions and so that the given function , where

84
 1
3 h( x )= +6
h( x)=( x+3) x
a) c)
1
h( x )=
h( x)=√5 x−3 x +6
b) d)
1
f (x )=4 x−3 , g ( x )=
x h( x)=x2 −x
8. Let and . Find
f (5 x+7 ) f (g(h(3))) f (x +a )
a) c) e)
5 f ( x)+7 f (1 )⋅g(2)⋅h(3) f (x )+a
b) d) f)

3.3 Types of functions and inverse of a function

After completing this section, the student should be able to:

 define one to oneness and ontoness of a function

 check invertibility of a function
 find the inverse of an invertible function

In this section we shall study some important types of functions.

 One to One functions

Definition 3.10: A function f : A→ B is called one to one, often written 1 – 1, if and only if for all
x 1 , x 2 ∈ A , f (x 1 )=f ( x 2 ) implies
x 1=x 2 . In words, no two elements of A are mapped to one element
of B .

Example 3.14:
A={1,2,3 ,⋯, 6} B={7,a,b,c,d ,8,e} f =¿ ¿ (2,a),
1. If we consider the sets and and if
(3,b) (4 ,b),(5,c),(6,8)¿¿ g={(1,7 ),(2,a),(3 ,b),( 4 ,c),(5,8),(6 ,d )} f
, and , then both and
g A B f
are functions from into . Observe that is not a 1 – 1 function because
f (3 )=f (4 ) 3≠4 g
but . However, is a 1 – 1 function.

85
 A={1,2,3,4} B={1,4,7,8}
2. Let and . Consider the functions
f : A→ B f (1 )=1 , f (2 )=4 , f (3 )=4 , f (4 )=8
i) defined as
g : A →B f (1 )=4 , f (2)=7 , f (3)=1 , f (4)=8
ii) defined as

Then, f is not 1 – 1, but g is a 1 – 1 function.

 Onto functions

Definition 3.11: Let f be a function from a set A into a set B . Then f is called an onto function(or f
maps onto B) if every element of B is an image of some element in A , i.e, Range(f )=B .

Example 3.15:
A={1,2,3} B={1,4,5} f : A→ B f (1)=1 f (2 )=5
1. Let and . The function defined by , ,
f (3 )=1 A f
is not onto because there is no element in , whose image under is 4. The
g : A →B g={(1,4 ),(2,5),(3,1 )} B
function given by is onto because each element of is
A
an image of at least one element of .

Note that if A is a non-empty set, the function i A : A → A defined by i A ( x )=x for all
x ∈ A is a 1 – 1 function from A onto A . i A is called the identity map on A .

f Z Z f (n)=n2 n∈Z
2. Consider the relation from into defined by for all . Now,
2 ' 2
f Z n=n
'
n =(n ) f (n)=f ( n )
'
f
domain of is . Also, if , then , i.e. . Hence, is well
f (1 )=1=f (−1) 1≠−1 f
defined and is a function. However, and , which implies that
n ∈ Z f (n)
is not 1 – 1. For all , is a non-negative integer. This shows that a negative
f f {0,1,4,9,⋯}
integer has no preimage. Hence, is not onto. Note that is onto .

86
 f Z Z f (n)=2n n∈Z
3. Consider the relation from into defined by for all . As in the
f n,n ∈Z
'

previous example, we can show that is a function. Let and suppose that
'
f (n)=f (n ) 2 n=2 n'
n=n '
f n∈Z
. Then and thus . Hence, is 1 – 1. Since for all ,
f (n) f
is an even integer; we see that an odd integer has no preimage. Therefore, is not
onto.

 1 – 1 Correspondence

Definition 3.12: A function f : A→ B is said to be a 1 – 1 correspondence if f is both 1 –

1 and onto.

Example 3.16:
A={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B={0, 5, 10 , 15, 20, 25} f : A→ B
1. Let and . Suppose given by
f (x )=5 x x∈ A B
for all . One can easily see that every element of has a preimage in
A f f (x )=f ( y ) 5 x=5 y x= y f
and hence is onto. Moreover, if , then , i.e. . Hence,
f A B
is 1 – 1. Therefore, is a 1 – 1 correspondence between and .
A f : A→ A
2. Let be a finite set. If is onto, then it is one to one.

Solution: Let
A={a 1 , a2 ,⋯,a n } . Then Range(f )={f (a1 ), f (a2 ),⋯, f (an )} . Since f is onto
we have Range(f )= A .Thus, A={f (a1 ), f (a 2 ),⋯, f (an )} , which implies that f (a1 ) , f (a2 ) ,
⋯ , f (an ) are all distinct. Hence, i
a ≠a j implies f (ai )≠f (a j ) for all 1≤i , j≤n . Therefore,
f is 1 – 1.

 Inverse of a function

Since a function is a relation , the inverse of a function f is denoted by f −1 and is defined by:
−1
f ={( y , x ):( x , y )∈ f }
−1
For instance, if f ={(2,4 ),(3,6 ),(1,7 )} , then f ={( 4,2),(6,3),(7,1)} . Note that the inverse of a
function is not always a function. To see this consider the function f =¿ ¿ (5,4)¿¿ .
−1
Then, f ={( 4,2),(6,3),( 4,5)} , which is not a function.

87
As we have seen above not all functions have an inverse, so it is important to determine whether
or not a function has an inverse before we try to find the inverse. If the function does not have an
inverse, then we need to realize that it does not have an inverse so that we do not waste our time
trying to find something that does not exist.

A one to one function is special because only one to one functions have inverse. If a function is
one to one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps below:

x y y=f ( x )
1. Interchange and
in the equation
y
2. Solving the resulting equation for , we will obtaining the inverse function.

Note that the domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function and the range of
the inverse function is the domain of the original function.

Example 3.17:
3 −1
y=f ( x )=x f
1. Given . Find and its domain.

Solution: We begin by interchanging x and y , and we solve for y .

3
y=x Interchange x and y
3 Take the cube root of both sides
x= y
3 This is the inverse of the function
√ x= y
3 −1
Thus, f ( x )= √ x . The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
−1

x
y=f ( x )= −1
x+ 2 f ( x)
2. Let . Find .

Solution: Again we begin by interchanging x and y , and then we solve for y .

x
y=
x+2 Interchange x and y
y
x=
y+2 Solving for y
2x
x ( y+ 2)= y ⇔ xy +2 x= y ⇔ 2 x = y ( 1−x ) ⇔ y=
1−x
2x
f −1 ( x )=
Thus, 1−x .

88
Remark: Even though, in general, we use an exponent of −1 to indicate a reciprocal, inverse
−1
function notation is an exception to this rule. Please be aware that f ( x ) is not the reciprocal of
f . That is,
1
f −1 ( x )≠
f (x )
If we want to write the reciprocal of the function f (x ) by using a negative exponent, we must
write
1 −1
=[ f ( x) ]
f (x) .
Exercise 3.3

f ={( x , x 2 ): x ∈ S } S={−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3} Z f
1. Consider the function from into . Is one
to one? Is it onto?
A={1,2,3} A A
2. Let . List all one to one functions from onto .
¿ ¿
f : A→ B f f ={( y , x)∈ B× A :f (x )= y}
3. Let . Let be the inverse relation, i.e. .
¿
f
a) Show by an example that need not be a function.
¿
f Range(f ) A f
b) Show that is a function from into if and only if is 1 – 1.
¿
f B A f
c) Show that is a function from into if and only if is 1 – 1 and onto.
¿ −1
f B A f =f
¿

d) Show that if is a function from into , then .

A={x ∈ ℜ:0≤x≤1} B={x ∈ ℜ:5≤x≤8} f : A→ B

4. Let and . Show that defined by
f (x )=5+( 8−5 )x A B
is a 1 – 1 function from onto .

5. Which of the following functions are one to one?

f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=4 , x∈ ℜ
a) defined by
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=6 x−1 , x∈ ℜ
b) defined by
2
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=x +7 , x ∈ ℜ
c) defined by

89
 3
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=x , x ∈ ℜ
d) defined by
2 x +1
f (x )= , x∈ ℜ{7 ¿¿
f : ℜ{7 ¿→ℜ ¿ x−7
e) defined by
6. Which of the following functions are onto?
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=115 x+49 , x ∈ ℜ
a) defined by
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=|x|, x∈ℜ
b) defined by
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=√ x2 , x ∈ ℜ
c) defined by
2
f : ℜ→ℜ f (x )=x +4 , x ∈ ℜ
d) defined by
f −1 ( x )
7. Find if
4−x
f (x )=
f (x )=7 x−6 3x f (x )==−( x+2)2 −1
a) d) g)
2 x−9 5 x +3 2x
f (x )= f (x )= f (x )=
4 1−2 x 1+x
b) e) h)
3
f (x )=1− 3
x f (x )=√ x+1
c) f)

3.4 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs

After completing this section, the student should be able to:

 define polynomial and rational functions

 apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
 use the division algorithm to find quotient and remainder
 apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
 sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions

The functions described in this section frequently occur as mathematical models of real-life
situations. For instance, in business the demand function gives the price per item, p , in terms of
the number of items sold, x . Suppose a company finds that the price p (in Birr) for its model

90
GC-5 calculator is related to the number of calculators sold, x (in millions), and is given by the
2
demand function p=80−x .
The manufacturer’s revenue is determined by multiplying the number of items sold ( x ) by the
price per item ( p ). Thus, the revenue function is

2 3
R=xp=x (80−x )=80 x −x

These demand and revenue functions are examples of polynomial functions. The major aim of
this section is to better understand the significance of applied functions (such as this demand
function). In order to do this, we need to analyze the domain, range, and behavior of such
functions.

 Polynomial functions

Definition 3.13: A polynomial function is a function of the form

y=an x n + an−1 x n−1 +⋯+a1 x +a 0 , a n≠0.
a
Each i is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer,
an is called the
leading coefficient. Such a polynomial is said to be of degree n.

Remark:
1. The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
2. (Types of polynomials)
- A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
- A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
- A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
p( x )=a3 x 3 +a 2 x 2 +a1 x +a 0 , a3 ≠0.
i.e

4
Example 3.18: p( x )=2 x +1 ,
2
q( x )=√ 3 x +2 x−π and f (x )=2 x3 are examples of
polynomial functions.

 Properties of polynomial functions

1. The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word smooth means that the
graph does not have any sharp corners as turning points.
2. If p is a polynomial of degree n , then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a quadratic
polynomial has at most 2 zeros.
3. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n−1 turning points.
Thus, the graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning points.

91
 4. The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as |x| gets very large,
|y| gets very large.

 Zeros of a polynomial

The zeros of a polynomial function provide valuable information that can be helpful in sketching
its graph. One can find the zeros by factorizing the polynomial. However, we have no general
method for factorizing polynomials of degree greater than 2. In this subsection, we turn our
attention to methods that will allow us to find zeros of higher degree polynomials. To do this, we
first need to discuss about the division algorithm. Recall that a number a is a zero of a
polynomial function p if p(a )=0 .

Division Algorithm
Let p( x) and d( x) be polynomials with d ( x)≠0 , and with the degree of d( x) less than or
equal to the degree of p( x) . Then there are polynomials q( x ) and R( x) such that

⏟
p( x ) =d⏟ ⏟x ) + R(
( x ) . q( ⏟ x)
dividend divisor quotient remainder , where either R( x)=0 or the degree of R( x) is less than degree
of d( x) .

x 4 −1
4
Example 3.19: Divide x +2 x .
Solution: Using long division we have
x 2 −2x+4
x 2 +2 x 4
|x +0 x 3 +0 x 2 +0 x+1
−( x 4+2 x 3 )
−2 x 3 +0 x 2
−(−2 x 3−4 x 2 )
4 x 2+0 x
−( 4 x 2 +8 x )
−8 x−1
x⏟
4 2 2
−1 =(⏟
x +2 x ) . (⏟ ⏟
x −2 x+ 4 ) +(−8 x−1 )
This long division means dividend divisor quotient remainder .

With the aid of the division algorithm, we can derive two important theorems that will allow us
to recognize the zeros of polynomials.
If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, d( x) , is linear (that is of the form x−r ),
we get

92
 p( x)=( x−r)q (x )+R

Note that since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder R , must be a constant. If we now
substitute x=r , into this equation, we get
P(r)=(r−r )q (r)+R=0⋅q (r)+R
Therefore, p(r)=R .

The result we just proved is called the remainder theorem.

The Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial p( x) of degree at least 1 is divided by x−r , then the remainder is p(r) .

3 2
Example 3.20: The remainder when P( x )=x −x +3 x−1 is divided by x−2 is p(2)=9 .
As a consequence of the remainder theorem, if x−r is a factor of p( x) , then the remainder must
be 0. Conversely, if the remainder is 0, then x−r , is a factor of p( x) . This is known as the
Factor Theorem.

The Factor Theorem

x−r is a factor of p( x) if and only if p(r)=0 .

The next theorem, called location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere
within an interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value.

Location theorem
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a< b . If f (a)f (b)<0 , then there is
at least one zero of f between a and b.

The Factor and Remainder theorems establish the intimate relationship between the factors of a
polynomial p( x) and its zeros. Recall that a polynomial of degree n can have at most n zeros.
Does every polynomial have a zero? Our answer depends on the number system in which we are
working. If we restrict ourselves to the set of real number system, then we are already familiar
2
with the fact that the polynomial p( x )=x +1 has no real zeros. However, this polynomial does
have two zeros in the complex number system. (The zeros are i and −i ). Carl Friedrich Gauss
(1777-1855), in his doctoral dissertation, proved that within the complex number system, every
polynomial of degree ¿ 1 has at least one zero. This fact is usually referred to as the
Fundamental theorem of Algebra.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

93
 If p( x) is a polynomial of degree n>0 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then p( x)
has at least one zero in the complex number system.

Note that since all real numbers are complex numbers, a polynomial with real coefficients also
satisfies the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. As an immediate consequence of the Fundamental
theorem of Algebra, we have

The linear Factorization Theorem

n n−1
a ≠0 , then
If p( x )=an x + an−1 x +⋯+a1 x +a 0 , where n≥1 and n
p( x )=an ( x−r 1 ) ( x−r 2 )⋯( x−r n ) , where the ri are complex numbers (possible real and not
necessarily distinct).

From the linear factorization theorem, it follows that every polynomial of degree n≥1 has
exactly n zeros in the complex number system, where a root of multiplicity k counted k times.

Example 3.21: Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear
Factorization Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.
a) p( x)=x 3 −6 x 2 −16 x
2
b) q( x )=3 x −10 x+8
4 3 2
c) f (x )=2 x +8 x +10 x
Solution:
a) We may factorize p( x) as follows:
p( x )=x 3 −6 x 2−16 x =x( x2 −6 x−16 )
=x ( x−8 )(x+2 )
=x ( x−8 )(x−(−2))
The zeros of p( x) are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.
b) We may factorize q( x ) as follows:
q( x )=3 x 2−10 x +8 =(3 x−4 ) ( x−2 )
4
=3( x− )( x−2)
3
4
Thus, the zeros of q( x ) are 3 and 2, each of multiplicity one.
c) We may factorize f (x ) as follows:
f ( x )=2 x 4 +8 x 3 + 10 x 2 =2 x2 ( x 2 + 4 x+5 )
=2 x 2 ( x−(−2+i ))( x−(−2−i ))

94
Thus, the zeros of f(x) are 0 with multiplicity two and −2+i and −2−i each with multiplicity
one.

Example 3.22:
1. Find a polynomial p( x) with exactly the following zeros and multiplicity.

zeros multiplicity
−1 3
2 4
5 2
Are there any other polynomials that give the same roots and multiplicity?
2. Find a polynomial f (x) having the zeros described in part (a) such that f(1) = 32.

Solution:
1. Based on the Factor Theorem, we may write the polynomial as:
3 4 2 3 4 2
p( x ) =( x−(−1)) ( x−2 ) ( x−5 ) =( x+1 ) ( x−2 ) ( x−5)
which gives the required roots and multiplicities.
Any polynomial of the form kp(x ) , where k is a non-zero constant will give the same
roots and multiplicities.
3 4 2
2. Based on part (1), we know that f (x ) =k (x +1 ) ( x−2 ) ( x−5) . Since we want
f (x )=32 , we have
f (1 )=k (1+1 )3 (1−2)4 (1−5 )2
32=k (8 )(1)(16 ) ⇒ k=14
1 3 4 2
Thus, f ( x ) = 4 ( x +1) ( x−2) ( x−5 ) .

Our experience in using the quadratic formula on quadratic equations with real coefficients has
shown us that complex roots always appear in conjugate pairs. For example, the roots of
2
x −2 x +5=0 are 1+2i and 1−2 i . In fact, this property extends to all polynomial equations
with real coefficients.

Conjugate Roots Theorem

Let p( x) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number a+bi (where a and b
are real numbers) is a zero of p( x) , then so is its conjugate a−bi .

4 3 2
Example 3.23: Let r ( x )=x +2 x −9 x +26 x−20 . Given that 1−√ 3 i is a zero, find the other
zero of r( x) .
Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1−√ 3 i is a zero, then its conjugate,
1+√ 3 i must also be a zero. Therefore, x−(1−√3 i ) and x−(1+ √ 3 i ) are both factors of

95
r( x) , and so their product must be a factor of r( x) . That is, [ x−(1−√ 3 i )] [ x−(1+ √3 i )]=
2 2
x −2 x +4 is a factor of r( x) . Dividing r( x) by x −2 x +4 , we obtain
r( x )=( x 2−2 x+4 )( x 2 +4 x−5 )=( x 2 −2 x +4 ) ( x+5 ) ( x−1).
Thus, the zeros of r( x) are 1−√ 3 i , 1+ √ 3 i , −5 and 1.
The theorems we have discussed so far are called existence theorems because they ensure the
existence of zeros and linear factors of polynomials. These theorems do not tell us how to find
the zeros or the linear factors. The Linear Factorization Theorem guarantees that we can factor a
polynomial of degree at least one into linear factors, but it does not tell us how.

We know from experience that if p( x) happens to be a quadratic function, then we may find the
2
zeros of p( x )= Ax +Bx +C by using the quadratic formula to obtain the zeros
−B±√ B 2−4 AC
x= .
2A
The rest of this subsection is devoted to developing some special methods for finding the zeros
of a polynomial function.

As we have seen, even though we have no general techniques for factorizing polynomials of
degree greater than 2, if we happen to know a root, say r , we can use long division to divide
p( x) by x−r and obtain a quotient polynomial of lower degree. If we can get the quotient
polynomial down to a quadratic, then we are able to determine all the roots. But how do we find
a root to start the process? The following theorem can be most helpful.

The Rational Root Theorem

Suppose that f (x )=a n x n +a n−1 x n−1 +⋯+ a1 x+ a0 , where n≥1 , an ≠0 is an nth degree
p
polynomial with integer coefficients. If q is a rational root of f (x )=0 , where p and q have
a
no common factor other than ±1 , then p is a factor of 0 and q is a factor of n .
a

3
To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose 2 is a root of
3 2
a3 x +a2 x + a1 x+ a0 =0 .

() () ()
3 2
3 3 3
a3 + a2 +a 1 +a 0 =0
Then, 2 2 2 which implies that
27 a3 9 a2 3 a1
+ + +a 0=0
8 4 2 multiplying both sides by 8

96
 27a3 +18a2 +12a 1=−8a0 ...................................................(1)

27a3 =−18a 2−12a 1−8 a0 ...................................................(2)

If we look at equation (1), the left hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right hand side
must also be divisible by 3. Since 8 is not divisible by 3,
a0 must be divisible by 3. From
equation (2),
a3 must be divisible by 2.

3 2
Example 3.24: Find all the zeros of the function p( x )=2 x +3 x −23 x−12 .
p
Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if q is a rational root of the given equation,
then p must be a factor of −12 and q must be a factor of 2. Thus, we have
possible values of p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4 , ±6, ±12
possible values of q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
±1, ± , ±2, ±3, ± , ±4 , ±6, ±12
possible rational roots q : 2 2
We may check these possible roots by substituting the value in p( x) . Now p(1)=−30 and
p(−1)=12 . Since p(1) is negative and p(−1) is positive, by location theorem, p( x) has a zero
between −1 and 1. Since ( 2 ) , then ( 2 ) is a factor of p( x) . Using long division, we
1 1
P − =0 x+
obtain
3 2 1 2
p( x )=2 x +3 x −23 x−12=( x + 2 )( 2 x + 2 x−24 )
=2( x + 12 )( x +4 )( x−3 )
1
Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are − 2 , −4 and 3.

 Rational Functions and their Graphs

A rational function is a function of the form where both n(x) and d(x) are
polynomials and d ( x )≠0 .
5 3
3 x−1
f (x )= 2
x +2 x −x +1
f (x )= f (x )=
Example 3.25: The functions x +5 , x −4 and x +5 x are
examples of rational function.

Note that the domain of the rational function is {x :d ( x )≠0 }

97
 3 x−5
f (x )= 2
Example 3.26: Find the domain and zeros of the function x −x−12 .
Solution: The values of x for which x −x−12=0 are excluded from the domain of f . Since
2

x 2−x−12=( x−4 )( x+3 ) , we have Dom(f )={x : x≠−3,4} . To find the zeros of f (x ) , we
solve the equation
n ( x)
=0 ⇔n (x )=0 ∧ q ( x )≠0
d( x)
5 5
x=
Therefore, to find the zeros of f (x ) , we solve 3 x−5=0 , giving 3 . Since 3 does not make
the denominator zero, it is the only zero of f (x ) .

The following terms and notations are useful in our next discussion.

Given a number a,
 x approaches a from the right means x takes any value near and near to a but x  a. This is
denoted by: xa+ (read: ‘x approaches a from the right’ ).
For instance, x 1+ means x can be 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001, 1.000001, etc.
 x approaches a from the left means x takes any value near and near to a but x  a.
This is denoted by: xa– (read: ‘x approaches a from the left’ ).
For instance, x1– means x can be 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.9999, etc.
 x (read: ‘x approaches or tends to infinity’) means the value of x gets indefinitely larger
and larger in magnitude (keep increasing without bound). For instance, x can be 106, 1010,
1012, etc.
 x – (read: ‘x approaches or tends to negative infinity’) means the value of x is negative
and gets indefinitely larger and larger negative in magnitude (keep decreasing without bound).
For instance, x can be –106, –1010, –1012, etc.
The same meanings apply also for the values of a function f if we wrote f(x) or f(x).
The following figure illustrates these notion and notations.

y y f(x),
f(x),
asxa
asx

x– xa– xa+ x y =f(x)

a x a

f(x) –,
y asx– f(x) –, asxa+

98
 Fig. 2.1. Graphical illustration of the idea of xa+, f(x), etc.

We may also write f(x)b (read: ‘f(x) approaches b’) to mean the function values, f(x),
becomes arbitrarily closer and closer to b (i.e., approximately b) but not exactly equal to b. For

instance, if , then f(x)0 as x; i.e., is approximately 0 when x is arbitrarily large.

The following steps are usually used to sketch (or draw) the graph of a rational function f(x).
1. Identify the domain and simplify it.
2. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible. Recall the following:
 y–intercept is the point on y-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the y-axis. At
this point x=0. Thus, y = f(0), or (0, f(0) ) is the y-intercept if 0Dom(f).
 x–intercept is the point on x-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the x-axis. At
this point y=0. Thus, x=a or (a, 0) is x-intercept if f(a)=0.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the graph. Here, remember the following.

 Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x=a is called a vertical asymptote(VA) of f(x) if
i) adom(f), i.e., f is not defined at x=a; and
ii) f(x) or f(x) – when xa+ or xa– . In this case, the graph of f is almost
vertically rising upward (if f(x)) or sinking downward (if f(x)) along with the
vertical line x=a when x approaches a either from the right or from the left.

Example 3.27: Consider where a  0 and n is a positive integer.

Obviously aDom(f). Next, we investigate the trend of the values of f(x) near a. To do this, we
consider two cases, when n is even or odd:
Suppose n is even: In this case (x – a)n  0 for all x\{a}; and since (x – a)n 0 as xa+ or

xa– . Hence, as xa+ or xa– . Therefore, x=a is a VA of f(x). Moreover,

y= 1/a or (0, 1/a ) is its y-intercept since f(0)=1/an. However, it has no x-intercept since f(x)
n n

0 for all x in its domain (See, Fig. 2.2 (A)).

Suppose n is odd: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all xa and 1/ (x – a)n  when xa+ as in the
above case. Thus, x=a is its VA. However, 1/(x–a)n – when xa– since (x – a)n< 0 for xa.
Moreover, y= –1/an or (0, –1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0) = –1/an. However, it has no x-
intercept also in this case. (See, Fig. 2.2 (B)).

Note that in both cases, as xor x –.

99
 y 1 y 1
y n
y n
( x  a) ( x  a)
1/an

a x a x
1/an
x=a x=a
VA VA

Fig. 2.2 (A) Fig. 2.2 (B)

Remark: Let be a rational function. Then,

1. if and , then x=a is a VA of f .

2. if , then x=a may or may not be a VA of f . In this case, simplify f(x) and look
for VA of the simplest form of f.
 Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y=b is called horizontal asymptote (HA) of f(x) if the
value of the function becomes closer and closer to b (i.e., f(x)b)as x or as x –.
In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a horizontal line along with (or near) the line y=b

as x and as x–. For instance, from the above example, the HA of is
y=0 (the x-axis) , for any positive integer n (See, Fig. 2.2).

Remark: A rational function has a HA only when degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)).

In this case, (i) If degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)), then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the HA of f.

(ii) If degree(n(x)) =degree(d(x))=n, i.e., ,

then is the HA of f.
 Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y=ax+b, a0, is called an oblique asymptote (OA) of f
if the value of the function, f(x), becomes closer and closer to ax+b(i.e., f(x) becomes
approximately ax+b) as either x or x –. In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a
straight line along with (or near) the oblique line y=ax+b as x and as x –.

Note: A rational function has an OA only when degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1. In

this case, using long division, if the quotient of n(x) ÷d(x) is ax +b, then y=ax+b is the OA of
f.

100
Example 3.28: Sketch the graphs of
Solution: (a) Since x1=0 at x=1, dom(f) = \{1}.
 Intercepts: y-intercept: x=0 y=f (0) = –2. Hence, (0, – 2) is y-intercept.
x-intercept: y=0 x+2=0 x= –2. Hence, (–2, 0) is x-intercept.
 Asymptotes:
 VA: Since x1=0 atx=1 and x+20 at x=1, x=1 is VA of f. In fact, if x1+ , then x+2
3 but the denominator x–1 is almost 0 (but positive).
Consequently, f(x) as x1+.
Moreover, f(x) – as x1– (since , if x1– then x–1 is almost 0 but negative ) .
(So, the graph of f rises up to + at the right side of x=1, and sink down to  at the left
side of x=1)
 HA: Note that if you divide x+2 by x–1, the quotient is 1 and remainder is 3. Thus,

. Thus, if x (or x –), then 0 so that f(x)1.

Hence, y=1 is the HA of f.
Using these information, you can sketch the graph of f as displayed below in Fig. 2.3 (A).

(b) Both the denominator and numerator are 0 at x=1. So, first factorize and simplify them:
x2+3x+2=(x+2)(x+1) and x2–1 = (x –1)( x+1) . Therefore,

, x –1

. (So, dom(g) = \{1, –1} )

This implies that only x=1 is VA.

Hence, the graph of is exactly the same as that of except

that g(x) is not defined at x= –1. Therefore, the graph of g and its VA are the same as that of f
except that there should be a ‘hole’ at the point corresponding to x= –1 on the graph of g as
shown on Fig. 2.3(B) below.

101
 x2 x2
y y , x  1
x 1 x 1

y=1 (HA) y=1

1
2 2
2 2
x=1 ‘hole’ x=1
VA atx=1

x  2 x2
f ( x)  y  , x  1
x 1 x 1

Exercise 3.4

1. Perform the requested divisions. Find the quotient and remainder and verify the
Remainder Theorem by computing p(a) .
2
a) Divide p( x )=x −5 x+8 by x +4
3 2
b) Divide p( x )=2 x −7 x + x+4 by x−4
4
c) Divide p( x )=1−x by x−1
5 2
d) Divide p( x )=x −2 x −3 by x +1
3 2
2. Given that , factor p( x )=2 x −11 x +10 x +8 as completely as possible.
3 2
3. Given that r ( x )=4 x −x −36 x +9 and ( 4 )
1
, find the remaining zeros of r( x) .
r =0
4 3 2
4. Given that 3 is a double zero of p( x )=x −3 x −19 x +87 x−90 , find all the zeros of
p( x) .
5. a) Write the general polynomial p( x) whose only zeros are 1, 2 and 3, with multiplicity
3, 2 and 1 respectively. What is its degree?
b) Find p( x) described in part (a) if p(0 )=6 .
3 2
6. If 2−3i is a root of p( x )=2 x −5 x +14 x+39 , find the remaining zeros of p(x).
7. Determine the rational zeros of the polynomials
3 2
a) p( x )=x −4 x −7 x +10
b) p( x )=2 x 3−5 x 2 −28 x+15
c) p( x )=6 x 3 + x2 −4 x+1

102
 8. Find the domain and the real zeros of the given function.
2
3 x−3 ( x−3 ) x 2 −16
f (x )= 2 g( x )= 2 f (x )= 3 f (x )= 2
a) x −25 b) x 4 x−12 c) x −3 x 2 +2 x d) x +4
9. Sketch the graph of
2 2
1−x x +1 1 x
f (x )= f (x )=
f (x )= +2 f (x )= 2
a) x −3
b) x c) x d) x −4
3
x −8 x−3
f (x )=
10. Determine the behavior of x−3 when x is near 3.
11. The graph of any rational function in which the degree of the numerator is exactly one
more than the degree of the denominator will have an oblique (or slant) asymptote.
a) Use long division to show that
2
x −x +6 8
y=f ( x )= =x+1+
x−2 x−2
b) Show that this means that the line y=x +1 is a slant asymptote for the graph and
sketch the graph of y=f ( x ) .

3.5Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric

and hyperbolic functions and their graphs

After completing this section, the student should be able to:

 define exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions

 understand the relationship of the exponential and logarithmic functions
 define the hyperbolic functions and be familiar with their properties
 sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
 use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, hyperbolic and trigonometric functions
to solve problems

 Exponents and radicals

n th
Definition 3.14: For a natural number n and a real number x , the power x , read “ the n power of x ” or “
x raised to n ”, is defined as follows:
x=
n
⏟
x⋅x⋅⋯⋅x
n factors each equal to x
n
In the symbol x , x is called the base and n is called the exponent.

5
For example, 2 =2×2×2×2×2=32 .

103
 n
Based of the definition of x , n must be a natural number. It does not make sense for n to be
negative or zero. However, we can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and negative
exponents.

Definition 3.15: (Zero and Negative Exponents)

Definition of zero Exponent Definition of Negative Exponent
1
0 x−n = ( x≠0 )
x =1 ( x≠0 ) xn
0
Note: 0 is undefined.

1
−n
=x n
As a result of the above definition, we have x . We have the following rules of exponents
for integer exponents:

Rules for Integer Exponents

n m n+m n n n
1. x ⋅x =x 4. ( xy ) =x y
xn n−m
n m nm =x
2. ( x ) =x
m
5. x

3.
()
x n xn
y
= n ( y≠0 )
y

Next we extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational number exponents.
To do this, we assume that we want the rules for integer exponents also to apply to rational
exponents and then use the rules to show us to define a rational exponent. For example, how do
1 1

we define a ? Consider 9 .
2 2

(9 ) =9
1 1 2 1 1

If we apply rule 2 and square 9 , we get

2 =9 . Thus, 9 2 is a number that, when
2 2

squared, yields 9. There are two possible answers: 3 and – 3, since squaring either number will
1

yield 9. To avoid ambiguity, we define a (called the principal square root of a ) as the non-
2

negative quantity that, when squared, yield a . Thus, 9 =3 .

2

1 1

We will arrive at the definition of a in the same way as we did for a . For example, if we cube
3 2

( 8 ) =8 =8 . Thus,
1
1 3 3 1
3
8 3 is the number that, when cubed, yields 8. Since 2 =8 we
3 3
8 , we get
3

1 1

. Similarly, (−27 ) =−3 . Thus, we define a (called the cube root of a ) as the
3 3
have
quantity that, when cubed yields a .
1

Definition 3.16: (Rational Exponent a )

n

104
 1
n
If n is an odd positive integer, then a =b if and only if
n
b =a
1

If n is an even positive integer and a≥0 , then a n =|b| if and only if bn =a

1 1
th
We call a the principal n root of a . Hence, a is the real number (nonnegative when n is
n n

th
even) that, when raised to the n power, yields a . Therefore,
1

( 16 ) 2 =4 since 4 2 =16
1
3
(−125 ) 3 =−5 since (−5 ) =−125

( )
1

()
4
1 4 1 1 1
= =
81 3 since 3 81
1
3
27 3 =3 since 3 =27
1

(−16 ) 4 is not a real number

Thus far, we have defined a , where n is a natural number. With the help of the second rule for
n

m m
exponent, we can define the expression a , where m and n are natural numbers and
n
n is
reduced to lowest terms.
m

Definition 3.17: (Rational Exponent a )

n

( )
1 m 1 m
th th
If a is a real number, then a = a n m
n n n
(i.e. the root of a raised to the power)

We can also define negative rational exponents:

m
−n 1
a = m
( a≠0 )
a n

Example 3.29: Evaluate the following

3
2
−2
1 −5
27 3 36 (−32 )
a) b) c)

Solution: We have
( )
2 1 2

27 3 = 27 3 =32 =9
a)

105
 1
− 1 1
36 2 = =
1
6
36 2

b)
3
− 1 1 1 1
(−32 ) 5 = = = =−
3 3
8
((−32) )
3 1
(−2 )
(−32 ) 5 5

c)

Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents. We

th
define for real number a , the n root of a as follows:
1
n
Definition 3.18 ( n
th
root of a ): √a = a n , where n is a positive integer.

n
The number √a th
is also called the principal n root of a . If the n root of a exists, we have:
th

For a a real number and n a positive integer,

n n
√a =¿ {|a|, if n is even¿¿¿¿ For example,
3
√ 53 =5 and √(−3)4=3 .
4

 Exponential Functions
n
In the previous sections we examined functions of the form f (x )=x , where n is a constant.
x
How is this function different from f (x )=n .

x
Definition 3.19: A function of the form y=f ( x )=b , where b>0 and b≠1 , is called an exponential
function.

()
x
1
x x h( x)=
Example 3.30: The functions f (x )=2 , g( x )=3 are examples of and 2
exponential functions.
As usual the first question raised when we encounter a new function is its domain. Since rational
exponents are well defined, we know that any rational number will be in the domain of an
x
exponential function. For example, let f (x )=3 . Then as x takes on the rational values x=4 ,
1 4
–2, 2 and 5 , we have

1
f (4 )=3 4 =3⋅3⋅3⋅3=81
1
f (−2 )=3−2 = =
32 9
1 4

f ( 5 )=3 5 =√ 3 =√ 81
1 4 5 5
f ( 2 )=3 2 = √ 3
4

106
Note that even though we do not know the exact values of √3 and
5
√ 81 , we do know exactly
what they mean. However, what about f (x ) for irrational values of x ? For instance,
f ( 2 )=3√ 2=?
√
We have not defined the meaning of irrational exponents. In fact, a precise formal definition of
b where x is irrational requires the ideas of calculus. However, we can get an idea of what 3√
x 2

should be by using successive rational approximations to √ 2 . For example, we have

1. 414 < √ 2<1. 415

Thus, it would seem reasonable to expect that 3

1. 414
<3√ 2 <31 . 415 . Since 1.414 and 1.415 are
1.414 1.415
rational numbers, 3 and 3 are well defined, even though we cannot compute their values
by hand. Using a calculator, we get 4 . 7276950<3 √2 <4 . 7328918 . If we use better
approximations to √ 2 , we get 3
1. 4142
<3√ 2 <3 1. 4143 . Using a calculator again, we get
4 . 7287339<3 √2 <4 .7292535 . Computing 3√ 2 directly on a calculator gives 3√ 2≈4 . 7288044 .
This numerical evidence suggests that as x approaches √ 2 , the values of x
3 approach a unique
√2
real number that we designate by 3 , and so we will accept without proof, the fact that the
domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers.

x
The exponential function y=b , where b>0 and b≠1 , is defined for all real values of x . In addition all
the rules for rational exponents hold for real number exponents as well.

Before we state some general facts about exponential functions , let’s see if we can determine
what the graph of an exponential function will look like.

Example 3.31:
y=2 x
1. Sketch the graph of the function and identify its domain and range.

Solution: To aid in our analysis, we set up a short table of values to give us a frame of
reference.

x y
−3 −3
2 =8
1

−2 2−2 = 4
1

−1 2−1 = 2
1

0 20 =1
1 1
2 =2 107
2 2
2 =4
3 3
2 =8
 y
y = 2x

2 (1,2)
1

O 1 x

With these points in hand, we draw a smooth curve through the points obtaining the graph
x
appearing above. Observe that the domain of y=2 is IR , the graph has no x− intercepts, as
x →+∞ , the y values are increasing very rapidly, whereas as x →−∞ , the y values are getting
closer and closer to 0. Thus, x−axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y− intercept is 1 and the
x
range of y=2 is the set of positive real numbers.

()
x
1
y=f ( x )=
2
2. Sketch the graph of .

Solution: It would be instructive to compute a table of values as we did in example 1 above (you
are urged to do so). However, we will take a different approach. We note that

()
x
1 1
y=f ( x )= = x =2−x x −x
2 2 f (x )=2 f (−x )=2
. If , then . Thus by the graphing principle for
−x x
f (−x) y=2 y=2 y−axis
, we can obtain the graph of by reflecting the graph of about the .

y 12 x
(1,2) 2
1

1 O 1 x

Here again the x−axis is a horizontal asymptote, there is no x− intercept, 1 is y− intercept and
the range is the set of positive real numbers. However, the graph is now decreasing rather than
increasing.

The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential functions and their graphs.

108
 x
The Exponential function y=f ( x )=b
1. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
2. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
x
3. The graph of y=b exhibits exponential growth if b>1 or exponential decay if
0<b <1 .
4. The y− intercept is 1.
5. The x− intercept is a horizontal asymptote
x y
6. The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if b =b , then x= y

Example 3.32: Sketch the graph of each of the following. Find the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
x x+1 −x
y=3 +1 y=3 y=−9 +3
a) b) c)

Solution:
x x
y=3 +1 y=3
a) To get the graph of . We start with the graph of , which is the basic
exponential growth graph, and shift it up 1 unit.

From the graph we see that

y=3x+1
10 - Dom(f )=ℜ
- Range(f )=(1, ∞ )
- The y− intercept is 2
2
y=1 - The line y=1 is a horizontal
1
asymptote
1 2

x+1 x
y=3 y=3
b) To get the graph of , we start with the graph of , and shift 1 unit to the left.

109
 From the graph we see that
y=3x+1
- Dom(f )=ℜ
9
- Range(f )=(0 ,∞ )
- The y− intercept is 3
- The line y=0 is a horizontal
asymptote
1

y=−9− x +3 y=9−x
c) To get the graph of , we start with the basic exponential decay . We
−x
x−axis y=−9
then reflect it with respect to the , which gives the graph of . Finally,
−x
y=−9 +3
we shift this graph up 3 units to get the required graph of .

y y
y

(1,9) 9 1 3
1 y=3
1 x

1 2 y = 9 x +3
y=9x 1
1 y=9x 1
x
1 O 1 x (1,9) 9

−x
From the graph of y=−9 +3 , we can see that Dom(h )=ℜ , Range(h )=(−∞, 3) , the line
1
y=3 is a horizontal asymptote, 2 is the y− intercept and x=− 2 is the x− intercept.
x
Remark: When the base b of the exponential function f (x )=b equals to the number e ,
where e=2 .7182⋯ , we call the exponential function the natural exponential function.

 Logarithmic Functions
x
In the previous subsection we noted that the exponential function f (x )=b (where b>0 and
b≠1 ) is one to one. Thus, the exponential function has an inverse function. What is the inverse
x
of f (x )=b ?

110
 x
To find the inverse of f (x )=b , let’s review the process for finding an inverse function by
3 x
comparing the process for the polynomial function y=x and the exponential function y=3 .
Keep in mind that x is our independent variable and y is the dependent variable and so
whenever possible we want a function solved explicitly for y .

To find the inverse of y=x 3 To find the inverse of y=3 x

y=x 3 Interchange x and y y=3 x Interchange x and y
3 y
x= y solve for y x=3 solve for y
3
y=√ x y=??

y
There is no algebraic procedure we can use to solve x=3 for y . By introducing radical
3 3
notations we could express the inverse of y=x explicitly in the form y=√ x . In words,
3 3
y =x and y=√ x both mean exactly the same thing: y is the number whose cube is x.
y
Similarly, if we want to express x=3 explicitly as a function of x , we need to invent a special
y
notation for this. The key idea is to take the equation x=3 and express it verbally.

x=3 y means
y is the exponent to which 3 must be raised to yield x

We introduce the following notation, which expresses this idea in a much more compact form.

y  log b x y is the exponent to which b must be

Definition 3.20: For b  0 and b  1 , we write to mean
raised to yield x . In other words,
x  b y  y  log b x

y  log b x
We read as “ y equals the logarithm of x to the base b ”.

y  log b x is an alternative way of writing x  b y

REMEMBER:

y
When an expression is written in the form x  b , it is said to be in exponential form. When an
expression is written in the form y  log b x , it is said to be in logarithmic form. The table below
illustrates the equivalence of the exponential and logarithmic forms.

Exponential form Logarithmic form

2
4  16 log 4 16  2
2 4  16 log 2 16  4

111
 5 3  125
1 log 5 125
1
 3
log 6 6 
1 1
62  6 2

70  1 log 7 1  0

Example 3.33:
1. Write each of the following in exponential form.
1
log 3 9  2 log 16 2  1
4
a) b)
1
3 2 
log 3 9  2
1
1
log 16 2  1
means 16  2
4
Solution: We have a) means 9 and b) 4

2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.

2
10 3  0.001 27 3  9
a) b)

Solution: We have  0.001 means log 10 0.001  3

a) 10
3

b) 27  9 means log 27 9  3
3
2

3. Evaluate each of the following.

log 3 81 log 8 641
a) b)

Solution:
log 3 81 t  log 3 81
a) To evaluate , we let , and then rewrite the equation in exponential
t
3  81
form, . Now, if we can express both sides in terms of the same base, we can
solve the resulting exponential equation, as follows:
t  log 3 81
Let Rewrite in exponential form
t
3  81 Express both sides in terms of the same base
3t  3 4 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t4
log 3 81  4
Therefore, .
b) We apply the same procedure as in part (a).
t  log 8 641
Let Rewrite in exponential form
8t  1
64 Express both sides in terms of the same base
t 2
8 8 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t  2
log 8 641  2
Therefore, .

112
As was pointed out at the beginning of this subsection, logarithm notation was invented to
log b x
express the inverse of the exponential function. Thus, is a function of x . We usually
write f ( x )  log b x rather than writing f ( x )  log b ( x ) and use parenthesis only when needed to
clarify the input to the log function. For example,

f ( x )  log 5 ( 4  x ) f ( 1)  log 5 ( 4  ( 1))  log 5 5  1 f ( x )  4  log 5 x

If , then , whereas if ,
then f ( 1)  4  log 5 ( 1) , which is undefined.

f ( x )  log 5 x
Example 3.34: Given , find
f ( 25) f ( 25 )
1
f ( 0) f (125)
a) b) c) d)

Solution:
f ( 25)  log 5 25  2 52  25
a) (since )
2
f ( 25 )  log 5 25  2
1 1
5  251

b) (since )
f (0)  log 5 0
c) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield 0?). We say that 0 is not in the
f
domain of .
f ( 125)  log 5 ( 125)
d) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield -125?). We say that -
f
125 is not in the domain of .

Acknowledging that the logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses, we can derive a
great deal of information about the logarithmic function and its graph from the exponential
function and its graph.

Example 3.35: Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain and range of each.
y  log x y  log 1 x
3 2

a) b)

Solution: a) Since y  log 3 x is the inverse of y  3 , we can obtain the graph of y  log 3 x by
x

x
reflecting the graph of y  3 about the line y  x , as shown below.

y
y = 3x
y=x

113y = log3x
1

1 x
 y  log 1 x y  12 
x
yx
2

b) To get the graph of , we reflect the graph of about the line as

shown below. y

y 12 x y=x

1 x

y  log 1 x
2

Taking note of the features of the two graphs we have the following important informations
about the graph of the log function:

y  log b x
The Logarithmic Function
1. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers
2. Its range is the set of real numbers.
3. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b  1 and logarithmic decay if 0  b  1 .
4. The x  intercept is 1. There is no y  intercept.
5. The y  axis is a vertical asymptote.

Example 3.36:
f ( x )  1  log 3 ( x  2)
1. Sketch the graph of . Find the domain, range, asymptote and
intercepts.

114
 y  1  log 3 ( x  2)
Solution: We can obtain the graph of by applying the graphing
principle to shift the basic logarithmic growth graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit up.

y
x= 2

y = 1+ log3(x2)
1

1 2 3 x

We have Dom( f )  {x : x  2} , Range( f )   and the graph has the line x  2 as a

vertical asymptote. To find the intercept, we set y  0 and solve for x . Setting y  0
x3 7 7
and solving for x , we will obtain . Thus, the x  intercept is 3 .
2. Find the inverse function for
y  f ( x)  3x  4 y  g ( x )  log 3 ( x  2)
a) b)

Solution: Following the procedure for finding an inverse function, we have

y  3x  4 y y  log 3 ( x  2) y
(a) Interchange x and (b) Interchange x and
x  3y  4 solve explicitly for
y x  log 3 ( y  2) Write in logarithmic form
x  4  3y Write in logarithmic form y  2  3x y
solve explicitly for
y  log 3 ( x  4) y  3x  2
f 1 ( x )  log 3 ( x  4) g 1 ( x )  3 x  2
Thus, Thus,

The following table contains the basic properties of logarithm:

Properties of logarithm

Assume that
b, u and v are positive and b  1 . Then

1. log b (uv )  log b u  log b v

In words, logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logs of the factors.
log b ( uv )  log b u  log b v
2.
In words, the log of a quotient is the log of the numerator minus the log of the
denominator.
3.
 
log b u r  r log b u

115
 In words, the log of a power is the exponent times the log.
log b (b x )  x log b b  x
4.
logb x
5. b x
log c
log b c= a
6. log a b if a is positive and a≠1 .

Example 3.37:
1. Express in terms of simpler logarithms.
log b ( x 3 y ) log b ( x 3  y ) log b  
xy
z3
a) b) c)

Solution:
log b ( x 3 y )  log b x 3  log b y  3 log b x  log b y
a)
b) Examining the properties of logarithms, we can see that they deal with log of a
log 3 ( x 3  y )
product, quotient and power. Thus, which is the log of a sum cannot be
simplified using log properties.
c) We have
1
 
log b zxy3  log b xy  log b ( z 3 ) log b xy   3 log b z  2 (log b x  log b y )  3 log b z
1
2

= .

2. Show that log b 2   log b 2 .

1

Solution: We have log b 2  log b 1  log b 2  0  log b 2   log b 2 .

1

The logarithmic function was introduced without stressing the particular base chosen. However,
there are two bases of special importance in science and mathematics, namely, b  10 and b  e .

Definition 3.21: (Common Logarithm)

f ( x )  log 10 x log 10 x  log x
is called the common logarithm function. We write .

The inverse of the natural exponential function is called the natural logarithmic function and has
its own special notation.

Definition 3.22: (Natural Logarithm)

f ( x )  log e x is called the natural logarithmic function. We write log e x  ln x .

Example 3.38:

116
 log 1000
1. Evaluate
a  log 10 1000  log 10 (10 3 )  3
Solution: Let a  log 1000 . Then, .
x
f ( x)  e  1
2. Find the inverse function of .
x
Solution: Let y  e 1 Interchange x and y
x  ey 1 Solve for y
x 1  e y Rewrite in logarithmic form
y  ln( x  1)
1
Thus, f ( x )  ln( x  1) .

 Trigonometric functions and their graphs

For the functions we have encountered so far, namely polynomial, rational and exponential
functions, as the independent variable goes to infinity the graph of each of these three functions
either goes to infinity(very quickly) for exponential functions or approaches a finite horizontal
asymptote. None of these functions can model the regular periodic patterns that play an
important role in the social, biological, and physical sciences: business cycles, agricultural
seasons, heart rhythms, and hormone level fluctuations, and tides and planetary motions. The
basic functions for studying regular periodic behaviour are the trigonometric functions. The
domain of the trigonometric functions is more naturally the set of all geometric angles.

Angle Measurement

An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end point. The common
end point is called the vertex of the angle.

In forming the angle, one side remains fixed and the other side rotates. The fixed side is called
the initial side and the side that rotates is called the terminal side. If the terminal side rotates in a
counter clockwise direction, we call the angle positive angle, and if the terminal side rotates in a
clockwise direction, we call the angle negative angle.

B
B
What attribute of an angle are we trying to measure when we measure the size of an angle? A
moment of thought will lead us to the conclusion that when we measure an angle we are trying to
answer the question: Through what part of a complete rotation has the terminal side rotated?

117
We will use degree () as the unit of measurement for angles. Recall that the measure of a full
round angle (full circle) is 360, straight angle is 180, and right angle is 90.

An alternative unit of measure for angles which will indicate their size is the radian measure. To
see the connection between the degree measure and radian measure of an angle, let us consider
an angle  and draw a circle of radius r with the vertex of  at its center O . Let s represent
the length of the arc of the circle intercepted by  (as shown below).

O

r

Basic geometry tells us that the central angle  will be the same fractional part of one complete
1
rotation as s will be of the circumference of the circle. For example, if  is 10 of a complete
1
rotation, then s will be 10 of the circumference of the circle. In other words, we can set up the
following proportion:

 s s
 
1 complete rotation circumfere nce of circle 2r

Thus, we have the following conversion formula:

 in deg rees  in radians


180 

Example 3.39:
1. Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees.
 3
6 5
a) b)

 
 6

, which implies that   30 .

Solution: a) By the conversion formula, we have 180 
 3
5

180 
   108
b) Again using the conversion formula, we get , which implies that .

2. Convert to radian measures

118
 90 b) 270

a)


Solution: a) Let  represent the radian measure of 90 . Using the conversion formula, we
 90  
 

obtain:  180 , which implies that 2.
 
b) Rather than using the conversion formula, we notice that 270  3(90 ) . In part (a) we found
 3
90   270  
that 2 , and so we have 2 .

To define the trigonometric functions, we will view all angles in the context of a Cartesian
coordinate system: that is, given an angle  , we begin by putting  in standard position,
meaning that the vertex of  is placed at the origin and initial side of  is placed along the
positive x  axis . Thus the location of the terminal side of  will, of course, depend on the size
of  .
Y
Y P(x,y)

r
ϴ
X
X

We then locate a point( other than the origin) on the terminal side of  and identify its
coordinates ( x, y ) and its distance to the origin, dented by r . Then, r is positive.
With  in standard position, we define the six trigonometric functions of  as follows:

Definition 3.23
Name of function Abbreviation Definition
y
sin  
Sine  sin  r
x
cos  
Cosine  cos  r
y
tan  
Tangent  tan  x
r
csc  
Cosecant  csc  y
r
sec  
Secant  sec  x

119
 x
cot  
Cotangent  cot  y
s

Recall that the radian measure of an angle is defined as r , where  is angle in radians
s is the length of the arc intercepted by  and r is the length of the radius. Since s and r are
s
both lengths, the quotient r is a pure number without any units attached. Thus, any angle can be
interpreted as a real number. Conversely, any real number can be interpreted as an angle. Thus,
we can describe the domains of the trigonometric functions in the frame work of the real number
systems. If we let f ( )  sin  , the domain consists of all real numbers  for which sin  is
y
sin  
defined. Since r and r is never equal to zero, the domain for sin  is the set of all real
x
f ( )  cos  
numbers. Similarly, the domain of r is also the set of all real numbers.

y  sin 
 The graph of

To analyze f ( )  sin  , we keep in mind that once we choose a real number  , we draw the
angle, in standard position, that corresponds to  . To simplify our analysis, we choose the point
( x, y ) on the terminal side so that r  1 . That is, ( x, y ) is a point on the unit circle x 2  y 2  1 .
y
sin   y (0,1)
Note that 1 . (x,y)

θ
(-1,0) (1,0)

(0,-1)

As the terminal side of  moves through the first quadrant, y increases from 0 (when   0 ) to
1(when
  2 ). Thus, as increases from 0 to 2 , y  sin  steadily increases from 0 to 1.



As  increases from 2 to  , y  sin  decreases form 1 to 0. A similar analysis reveals that as
3 3
 increases from  to 2 , sin  decreases from 0 to – 1; and as  increases from 2 to 2 ,
sin  increases from – 1 to 0.

120
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( )  sin  in the interval [0,2 ] as show below.

y = sin x

Since the values of f ( )  sin  depend only

on the position of the terminal side, adding or
subtracting multiples of 2 to  will leave the
value of f ( )  sin  unchanged. Thus, the
values of f ( )  sin  will repeat every 2 units. The complete graph of f ( )  sin  appears
below.

The graph of
y  sin x , which is called the basic sine curve.

y  cos 
 The graph of

Applying the same type of analysis to f ( )  cos , we will able to get a good idea of what its
graph looks like. The figure below shows the angle corresponding to  as it increases through
quadrant I, II, III and IV.

x
cos   x
Keeping in mind that 1 , we have the following:


 2 x  cos 
1. As increases from 0 to , decreases from 1 to 0.

 2  x  cos
2. As increases from to , decreases from 0 to – 1.
3
  2 x  cos
3. As increases from to , increases from – 1 to 0.
3
 2 2 x  cos
4. As increases from to , increases from 0 to 1.

Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( )  cos as shown below:

121
 y  tan 
 The graph of

y
tan  
Since x is undefined whenever x  0 , tan  is undefined whenever the terminal side of
the angle corresponding to  falls on the y  axis . This happens for
  2 , to which we can add
or subtract any multiple of  that will again bring the terminal side back to the y  axis . Thus,
{ :   2  n }
domain of tan  is , where n is an integer.


 2 x y
1. As increases from 0 to , decreases from 1 to 0 and increases from 0 to 1;
tan   xy 
therefore, increases from 0 to .

 2  x y
2. As increases from to , decreases from 0 to – 1 and decreases from 1 to 0;
y
tan   x 
therefore, increases from to 0.
3
  2 x y
3. As increases from to , increases from – 1 to 0 and decreases from 0 to – 1;
tan   xy 
therefore, increases from 0 to .
3
 2 2 x 0 y
4. As increases from to , increases from to 1 and increases from – 1 to 0;
y
tan   x 
therefore, increases from to 0.

You may want to add some more specific values to this analysis. In any case, we get the
following as the graph of the tangent function.

122
 Definition 3.24: (Periodic Function)

A function y=f ( x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that f (x + p )=f (x ) for all x in
the domain of f . The smallest such number p iscalled the period of the function

A periodic function keeps repeating the same set of y  values over and over again. The graph of
a periodic function shows the same basic segment of its graph being repeated. In the case of sine
and cosine functions, the period is 2 . The period of the tangent function is  .

Definition 3.25: (Amplitude of a periodic function)

The amplitude of a periodic function

f (x ) is
1
A [
2 maximum value of f (x )  minimum value of f (x )]

Thus, the amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.

The portion of the graph of a sine or cosine function over one period is called a complete cycle
of the graph. In other words, the minimal portion of a sine or cosine graph that keeps repeating
itself is called a complete cycle of the graph.

Definition 3.26: (Frequency of a periodic function)

The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of length equal to 2 is called its
frequency.

The frequency of the basic sine curve y  sin x and the basic cosine curve y  cos x is 1,
because each graph makes 1 complete cycle in the interval [0,2 ] .

If a sine function has period of (see the figure below), then the number of complete cycles its
2

2
4

graph will make in an interval of length 2 is 2 .
Y

7π
4 X

123
 π
A sine graph of period 2 and frequency 4


Thus if a sine function has a period of 2 , its frequency is 4 and its graph will make 4 complete
cycles in an interval of length 2 .

Example 3.40: Sketch the graph of y  sin 2 x and find its amplitude, period and frequency.

Solution: We can obtain this graph by applying our knowledge of the basic sine graph. For the
basic curve, we have

sin 0  0 sin 2  1 sin   0 sin 32  1 sin 2  0

These quadrantal values serve as guide points, which help us draw the graph. To obtain similar
guide points for y  sin 2 x , we ask for what values of x is
2x  0 2 x  2 2x   2x  3
2 2 x  2
and we get
x0 x  4 x  2 x  32 x 
Thus, y  sin 2 x will have the values 0, 1, 0,  1 , 0 at
x  0, 4 , 2 , 4 , and  , respectively. The
  3

graph of y  sin 2 x will thus complete one cycle in the interval [0,  ] , and will repeat the same
values in the interval [ ,2 ] .

From this graph we see that y  sin 2 x has an amplitude of 1, a period  , and a frequency of 2.

For convenience we summarize our discussion on the domains of the trigonometric functions in
the table.

1. f ( x )  sin x Domain = All real numbers

Domain = All real numbers
2. f ( x )  cos x {x : x  2  n }
Domain =

124
 f ( x )  tan x Domain = { x : x  n }
3.
f ( x )  csc x Domain =
{x : x  2  n }
4.
f ( x )  sec x Domain =
{ x : x  n }
5.
f ( x )  cot x where n is an integer
6.

In the course of our discussion of the trigonometric functions, we have discussed two types of
trigonometric relationships: the reciprocal and quotient relationships. These relationships are
examples of trigonometric identities. In the table below we list identities that are satisfied by the
trigonometric functions.

1
csc x=
The reciprocal Identities 1. sin x
1
sec x=
2. cos x
1
cot x=
3. tan x
sin x
tan x=
The quotient Identities 4. cos x
cos x
cot x=
5. sin x
The Pythagorean Identities 6. sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1
2
7. tan x  1  sce 2 x
2
8. 1  cot x  csc 2 x

The addition formula 9. (a) sin( x + y )=sin x cos y +cos x sin y

(b) sin( x− y )=sin x cos y−cos x sin y
10. (a) cos( x + y )=cos x cos y−sin x sin y
(b) cos( x− y )=cos x cos y +sin x sin y
tan x +tan y
tan (x+ y )=
11. (a) 1−tan x tan y
tan x−tan y
tan (x− y )=
(b) 1+tan x tan y

The double angle formula 12. sin 2 x=2sin x cos x

2 2 2 2
13. cos 2 x=cos x−sin x=1−2sin x =2cos x−1
2 tan x
tan 2 x=
14. 1−tan 2 x

125
 The half-angle formula 15.
x
sin =±
2 √ 1−cos x
2

16.
x
cos =±
2 √ 1+cos x
2

17.
x
tan =±
2 √ 1−cos x
1+cos x

 Hyperbolic functions and their graphs

The hyperbolic functions are certain combinations of exponential functions, that occur in various
applications, with properties similar to those of the trigonometric functions. Among many other
applications they are used to describe the formation of satellite rings around the planets, to
describe the shape of a rope hanging from two points, and have application in relativity theory.
The two basic hyperbolic functions are the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions. They
are defined as follows:

Definition 3.27:
1. The hyperbolic sine function is 2. The hyperbolic cosine function is
defined by: defined by:
e x  ex e x  ex
sinh x  cosh x 
2 2
The domain of sinh x is  . The domain of cosh x is also .

Remark:
1. cosh x is pronounced " kosh" x and sinh x is pronounced as " cinch" x .
x
2. Since e  0 for all x   , we see that cosh x  sinh x for every x   .
e x  ex ex  e x e x  ex
f ( x)  f ( x)    f ( x)
3. If 2 , then 2 2 . Thus, cosh x is an even
function.
4. Sinhx is an odd function.
3. In contrast to sine and cosine, the hyperbolic functions are not periodic.

Example 3.28: Using the above definitions, show that

cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
1.
sinh( x + y )=cosh x sinh y+sinh x cosh y
2.
sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
3.

Solution:

126
 1. We have
2 2
 e x  ex  e x  e  x   e 2 x  2  e 2 x   e 2 x  2  e 2 x 
            1
 2   2   4   4 
e x  y  e  x  y e x e y  e  x e  y 2e x e y  2e  x e  y
sinh( x  y )   
2 2 4
2.

e x e y  e x e  y  e  x e y  e  x e  y e x e y  e x e  y  e  x e y  e  x y
 
4 4
x x y y x x y y
 e  e  e  e   e  e  e  e 
       
 2  2   2  2 
 cosh x sinh y  sinh x cosh y
3. Left as an exercise.

y  cosh x
 The graph of

Since cosh x is an even function, its graph is symmetric about the y  axis . Its y 
e x ex
cosh x  
intercept is (0,1) , because cosh( 0)  1 . As x tends to infinity, 2 2 tends to
ex ex
infinity because 2 goes to infinity and 2 approaches to 0. When x is a large
ex ex
negative number cosh x acts like 2 , because 2 gets close to 0. Thus the graph of
y  cosh x looks like:

x x
This graph can also be obtained by geometrically adding the two curves y  e and y  e ,
and taking half of each resulting y  value . Observe that range of cosh x is [1,  ) .

127
 y  sinh x
 The graph of

Since sinh x is an odd function, its graph is symmetric about the origin. The graph passes
ex
through the origin because sinh( 0)  0 . As x gets large sinh x acts like 2 and when x is a
ex

large negative number, sinh x acts like 2 . Thus, the graph of y  sinh x looks like:

The remaining four hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of cosh x and sinh x by
analogy with trigonometry.

sinh x e x  e  x
tanh x  
cosh x e x  e  x (The domain of tanh x is
) .
cosh x e x  e  x
coth x  
sinh x e x  e  x (The domain of coth x is
 \ {0} )
1 2
sec h x   x
cosh x e  e  x (The domain of sec hx is  )
1 2
csc h x   x
sinh x e  e  x (The domain of
csc h x is  \ {0} )

You may sketch the graphs of these four hyperbolic functions (see exercise 19).

The trigonometric terminology and notation for the hyperbolic functions stem from the fact that
they satisfy a list of identities that much resemble the familiar trigonometric identities, apart
from an occasional difference of sign.

128
 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 (1)
1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x (2)
2 2
coth x  1  csc h x (3)
sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y (4)
cosh( x  y )  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y (5)

The trigonometric functions are sometimes called circular functions because the point
(cos  , sin  ) lies on the circle x 2  y 2  1 for all  . Similarly, identity (1) tells us that the point
2 2
(cosh  , sinh  ) lies on the hyperbola x − y =1 , and this is the reason for the name hyperbolic
functions.

Exercise 3.5

1. Find the domain of the given function.

1 1
f ( x)  x x x f ( x)  3x
6 g ( x )  3  1 h ( x )  2  8 2 2
a) b) c) d)
2. Sketch the graph of the given function. Identify the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
y  5 x y  9  3x y  1  ex y  e x 2
a) b) c) d)
3. Solve the given exponential equation.
2 x 1  8 32 x  243 8x  2 16 3a 2  14
a) b) c) d)
x
f ( x)  2 f ( x  3)  8 f ( x )
4. Let . Show that .
1
x g ( x  2)  g ( x)
g ( x)  5 25
5. Let . Show that .
f ( x  2)  f ( 2)
x  4(3 x )
f ( x)  3 2
6. Let . Show that .

7. Evaluate the given logarithmic expression (where it is defined).

log 2 32 log 3 ( 9) log 5 (log 3 243)
a) c) e)
log 1 9 log 6 16
3 2 log2 5
b) d) f)

129
 f ( x )  log 2 ( x 2  4) f ( 6) f
8. If , find and the domain of .
2
g ( x )  log 3 ( x  4 x  3) f ( 4) g
9. If , find and the domain of .
log 1 x   log 6 x
6

10. Show that

11. Sketch the graph of the given function and identify the domain, range, intercepts and
asymptotes.
f ( x )  log 2 ( x  3) f ( x )  3  log 2 x f ( x )   log 3 (  x ) f ( x )  3 log 5 x
a) b) c) d)
( 3 x 1)
f ( x)  e
12. Find the inverse of .
x
f ( x)  e ( f  g )( x )  ( g  f )( x )  x
13. Let . Find a function so that .
14. Convert the given angle from radians to degrees

3  52  43
a) b) c)
15. Convert the given angle from degrees to radians
315  40  330 
a) b) c)
16. Sketch the graph of
f ( )  sec  f ( )  csc  f ( )  cot 
a) c) e)
f ( x )  1  cos x f ( x )  sin( x  2 )

f ( x )  tan 2 x
b) d) f)
17. Verify the following identities:
(sin x  cos x )(csc x  sec x )  tan x  cot x
a)
sec 2 x  csc 2 x  tan 2 x  cot 2 x
b)
tan   12 sin   0 cos 
18. Given and , find .
19. Sketch the graphs of
f (x )=tanh x f (x )=csc hx
a) c)
f (x )=sec hx f (x )=coth x
b) d)
20. Prove the identities (2) and (3).
21. Find the exact numerical value of

130
 sinh(ln 2) cosh( ln 3) tanh( 2 ln 3)
a) b) c)
22. Prove the following identities:
sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
a)
cosh y ( x  y )  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y
b)

131