odiversity and the Healthy Society NY it 4 S ‘ At the end of this chapter, the students must able i to: l l l 1.) Determine the interrelatedness of society, the ! environment, and health I 2.) Explain the process of genetic engineering. I l .) Discuss the ethics of, implications and potential ! future impacts of GMOs. 1 4' oye kinds of living things in any areas, and they ist in different places on land/and water. Match the following organisms in their aera ie ate} Cia ae ostrich . fy es (African) “SS rattlesnake 8). humpback whale gray squirrel monkey eheri Amselilosophers of nature tried things as coming from, ie elements of fire, water, air or 5 Sougyp for the common characteristic, a unifying element, re’s phenomena. There was a growing awareness of how are related to each other, an idea called biodiversity. nisms, plants and animals and the intricate ecosystem they le term was coined by Walter G. Rosen of the National defined as richness in variety and variability of species of all living organisms in i. habitat. This recognition started when naturalists began to classify organisms in the natural world using taxonomy. Taxonomy is the branch of biology |that groups and names organisms based on their different characteristics including their evolutionary history. The following are the scientist who developed classification: 1.) Aristotle he classified organisms based on two major groups; (a) plants: herbs, shrubs and trees (b) animals: according to here they lived (aquatic, terrestrial or2.) Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) +A Swedish physician and botanist who invented the binomial nomenclature (a system to identify species which is still used today). He classifies organisms based on selected physical characteristics based on close relationships of organisms such as for plants (based on reproductive structures) and animals (based on their evolutionary traits). a-— * Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) -A German scientist who proposed the third kingdom (Protista) which includes unicellular microscopic organisms. T 4.) Herbert Copeland (1902-1968) -An American biologist wi contributed to the theory of biological kingdo! and proposed the fourth kingdom systel (Monera). 5.) Robert H. Whittaker (1920-1980) -He proposed the fifth kingdom system (Fungi), these organisms ecrete digestive enzymes around their food, breaking it down before absorbing it into their cellsj ~~, Polar and high-mountain ice [ll] Temperate deciduous forest a Chopareat [2 Coniteroue toreat 2013 3 Deven WORSEN Yrassiahd SS ‘Tundra (arctic and alpine) conpr@rametsen we. ostomnMajorecosystem of the World ‘Temperate Deciduous Savanna Coniferous ForestClosed Canopy forest growing within 28 Cee Mme ame mer tomes eee ot Re tere oy eee Seu neueo Rn econ) eae a Ruins TRCN Ree eee GOR RPA UC emcee cs Pee Cees tae Steen name ie car to 30C DOSS ee CSU Cuca Ca De Cn ec ir lll aCe le eM Rae RA CECA Cent’Vv; ni Global Distribution Located in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Australia, India and most popular in Africa. Also known as Tropical grassland ax une amteaeccics Located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes. Hot temperatures for the majority of year. Ranges from 68 to 86-degree Fahrenheit (20-306) ¥ Rainfall at 25 inches per month during wet season (May-November). Dry season between October-March with four inches of rain. Vegetation includes tall grasses and occasional trees. Animals are diverse from large grazers to small insects.Located in Coast of Chile and Peru, Southern Argentina, Southwest Africa, Arabia and Iran, Pakistan, Western India, California and Interior of Mexico. An ecosystem that gets very little rain. Days are hot and nights are cool, sometimes even cold. z b Annual precipitation usually less than 250 mm. The average daytime temperature is 100F and 25F at night. Plants and animals require harsh adaptations to survive the climate. Plants are drought and salt tolerant. Soils that form in arid climates are predominantly mineral soils with low organic content. Global Distribution Animal and Plants SpeciesEe Polar and PETERS Global Distribution | Predominant in Antarctica, Greenland, extreme northeast of ! Scandinavia, Norther Siberia and ! Iceland l ! Atmosphere consist of t ! glaciers and ice sheets. Its | I climate ranges from an | * | average of -30C in winter. Its j | atmosphere is covered by a I 1 permanent sheet of ice. i y Annual average precipitation t ) ‘anges from 10-65 mm. I | the following: They are in large size to retain heat, short stiff tail to maintain balance, thicker and denser plumage or fur, they burrow in crevices or soft ‘snow for insulation. iy.Global Distribution ! Located mainly in Mediterranean | | region of Europe, western sections | | of United States and Australia. I Fe % , Has various landscapes such as hills, mountain slopes, scrublands and forests. Can be classified as desert or grassland. Fire plays as major role since it helps in the germination of seeds allowing them to grow. Average annual rainfall is around 10-17 inches per year. i Drought often causes. large forest fires. ealTemperate grasslands are open grassy plains that are sparsely populated with trees. It can be found in various regions in north and south of the equator including Argentina, Australia and Central North America. Temperate grassland is characterized by a rich mix of grasses and underlaid by fertile soil. Periodic fires and heavy @ grazing by large herbivores maintain the characteristic plant community. = Absence of large trees =e 4 a Summer temperature can be well over 38 degrees Celsius and winter temperature can be as low as -40 degrees Celsius. Average annual rainfall is around 25-75 cm.Located in North America, East Asia, Central and Western Europe (except Brittany, Cornwall, Wales, Ireland and Western Scotland), Denmark, Southern Sweden and Norway, New Zealand. rk : Temperate Deciduous Forest are known for its seasonal change (four seasons; winter, spring, summer and fall). Trees lose their leaves during fall. The. forest is less dense compared to tropical rainforest. De LT Animals have to adapt to the changing seasons through migrations and adaptations. Pin Average temperature is 10 degrees Celsius. TATA Annual rainfall ranges from 30-60 inches per year. Se Soil is nutrient rich due to leaf litter. These forests are found in cool, rainy areas. They contain trees that lose their leaves in fall and Te-grow them in spring Dee TTF Animal and Plants SpeciesGlobal Distribution ay. 2 TS A cold woodland or forest often ae Sy on marshy land. This biome spans in the northern parts of America, Europe and Asia. Animal and Plants Species Largest terrestrial biome. Summer is the shortest season in Coniferous Forest (Taiga). Annual rainfall ranges from 300. mm to 900 mm “A Leaves.from its trees don’t fall sincé' they are in needle form. Trees also carry seeds in cones. Temperature ranges from about - 40 degrees Fahrenheit to about 68 degrees Fahrenheit (-40 to 20 degrees Celsius).Tundra are found just below the ice I caps of the Arctic, across North America, in Europe, Siberia and Asia. Most of Alaska and almost ! I half of Canada are located in the I oa =——-==== Ty An ecosystem that is cold and [ }, dry in the northernmost part of | | the world. [ === Se Tundra temperatures ranges from -20 to -30 degrees F (winter) and 45 to 50 degrees F during summer. Possess low biotic diversity and simple vegetation but has large population oscillations.2.) Species diversity- total number of species weighted by some measure of abundance such as number of individuals. referred as the variety of living things, it also served ag the basic unit of classification and phylogenetic analysis. / Components of S e cies Diversity “Species richnes- count of species -Species evenne$s- quantifies how equal the abundance of the species is; relative abundance and distribution of species. -Keystone species- certain species that play critical roles in the ecosystem they inhabit because they affect the abundance and health of many species. “Endemic species- species whose habitat is restricted to 4 particular area. r Keystone Species eee The Shark as a Keystone Species Vanna sara prey on omote yeh i ry o8 rave copes and seope Te eedwe a been ‘nanos or Bown yar Wn he frre shark ‘ele pated te veruringon he Mtn P. -2@------ Endemic Species F Co cra Pheasant Philippine Eagle Philippine Eagle and Palawan pheasant are notable bird species that are endemic in the Philippines only. ei geneeesrsity- the variety of genes within a single species which the variations that cause species to evolve and adapt over What is Species? Up until to the recent, the definition of Species is still debatable Biological Species Concept A species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature, not according to similarity of appearance. Although appearance is helpful in identifying species, it does not define species. The Biological species concept does not cover asexual organisms, hybrids, species separated by space and time.How many species there are? { The natural world contains about 8.7 million species, according to a new imate described by scientist but the vast majority have not yet identified and it akes more than 1,000 years to do a complete cataloguing of the entire species. hese 8.7 million are animals, with progressively smaller numbers of fungi, plants, protozoa and chromists. Today, about 1.2 million species have been formally described, the vast majority came from terrestrial ecosystem rather than the oceans ‘(World Conservation Union, 2014). Global Estimate of Described Species Estimated number of described species VERTEBRATES Mammals 5,513 Birds 10,425 Reptiles 10,038 ‘Amphibians 7,302 Fishes 32,900 Subtotal 66,178 INVERTEBRATES Insects 1,000,000 Molluscs 85,000 Crustaceans 47,000 Corals 2,175 ‘Arachnids 102,248 Velvet Worms. 165 Horshoe Crabs 4 Others 68,658 Subtotal 7,305,250 PLANTS Mosses 16,236 Ferns and Allies 12,000 ‘Gymnosperms 4,052 Flowering Plants 268,000 Green Algae 4,242 Red Algae 6,144 Subtotal 307,674 FUNGI AND PROTIST Lichens 17,000 Mushrooms: 31,496 Brown Algae 3,127 Subtotal 51,623 1,730,725e Philippine Flora and Fauna Philippine is a country located in tropical region (center of world’s iodiversity). An archipelago which consist of 7,641 islands with wide range of land iS, geological origins, remoteness and numerous types of habitats and niches. The Philippines consist of 3,000 formally described vertebrate animals % world); mammals (198 8 species, 65% are ° endemic) Marine mammals (21 terms of plant species diversity, the Philippines has 14,000 to 15,000 + (46-60% endemic). In terms of Microorganisms, the Philippines has less than 1 % scribed species. Philippine Tarsier olden-capped Fruit Bat (Tarsius syrichta) \cerodon jubatus) arge Flying Fox Greater Slow Loris (Pteropus vampyrus) (Nycticebus coucang) One of the smallest deer in the ‘One of the smallest buffalo ippine Mouse Deer species in the world gulus nigricans) S===== === mn = Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis)World's largest living reptile | Saltwater Crocodile r 1 Reticulated Python (Crocodylus porosus) | Largest/ longest snake | (Python reticulatus) King Cobra tk (Ophiophagus hannah) Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jeffery!) Largest flower in the world ——+ i Rafflesia Hardest wood Philippine Iron wood (Xanthostemon verdugonianus) Plants !| Direct Values of Biodiversity 4.) Food - more than 90% of the calories consumed by people worldwide came from 80 plant species. Most people depend mainly on domesticated species for their dietary needs. Some 200 million depends on wild species for at least part of their food. Food biodiversity is the diversity of plants and animals and other organisms used for food, both cultivated and from the wild. Ways on which Food biodiversity contributes to healthier diets 1. Food biodiversity provides a wide range of nutritious, colorful options to choose from that meet diverse cultural and taste preferences. Biodiversity has been recognized as a fundamental principle in recent dietary guidelines. 2. Food biodiversity takes advantage of important and significant nutritional differences between species. Example, different species of fish in Bangladesh have high levels of vitamin B12, calcium, iron and vitamin A- much higher than cultivated fish like carp. 3. Food biodiversity takes advantage of important and significant nutritional differences within species-orange-fleshed bananas, for example, contain much higher levels of beta-carotene than typical white bananas. 4. Food biodiversity provides the ingredients for a portfolio of nutritious foods in different seasons of the year, including small animals and diverse fruits and vegetables to improve diets. Lesser known plant and animal species are often well adapted to local environments including soils and climate, may depend less on farming inputs, and can yet be more nutritious than typical food commodities. 5. Healthy food needs to be; available in sufficient quantities year-round, accessible, affordable and acceptable for people to eat. Medicine In\some countries, medicinal plants and animals provide most of the drugs people use, and even in fechnologically advance countries like Japan and USA. Half of the 100 most-preseribed drugs originated from wild species. More than 70,000 different plant species are used traditionally and modern medicine. At least 858 Philippine plant species are used in the field of medicine. Local communities and indigenous people|rely Heavily for medicines and health care. \ Clothing Fibers which is » oft diverse plant or animal species. also from animal parts. raw materials to produce cloth were derived from ther clothing materials and accessories derived| Shelter | Some materials were derived from various plant sources. Commercial and Industrial Use Animals provide oils, fuels, silk, feathers, leathers and pets. Other plants are main sources of livelihood. Agriculture Wild species are important in the production of domestication as they become resources for new genes, Wild animal species are important in improving the live stock production of cattle, pigs and poultry. Indirect Values of Biodiversity Social and Cultural Values Many plants and animals are considered holy and sacred in different cultures around the world. Ethical Values These vallies are related to conservation f biodiversity where ethical issues of all life forms must be preserved. All species have a moral right to exist independent of out need fir them: Aesthetic Values. Natural landscapes at undisturbed places are a delight to watch and also provide opportunities for recreational activities like bird watching and nature photography. It also promotes eco-tourism which further generates revenue by designing of zoological and botanical gardens, national parks, wildlife conservation parks. Educational and Scientific Values These values ineliide the unexplored or unknown potentials of biodiversity. Environmental Service Values Carbon dioxide fixation through photosynthesis, maintaining essential nutrients by carbon, oxygen, hitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus cycles. Maintaining water cycles and techarging of grond water. Soil formation and protection of erosion. Regulating climate by reeyeling\moisture into the atmosphere and detoxification and decomposition of waste. |Biotechnology The Biodiversity International has released a module titled “Law and policy of relevance to the management of plant genetic resources” (Bragdon et al., 2005) which primarily aims to help professionals in managing, conserving and using plant genetic resources for food security and agriculture. The module provides following definitions: | 1.) Biotechnology Uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for a specific use. 2.) Genetic engineering is a technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one source to another. It leads to the production of living modified organisms (LMOs) or genetically modified organisms (GMOs). 3.) Modern biotechnology gives scientist molecular tools for obtaining a better understanding of the structure and function of genes in living organisms. Moder biotechnology paves the way for new developments on food and agriculture. Particularly, it aimed to develop new precision tools and diagnostics; speed up breeding grains and efficiency; develop pest-and disease resistant crops; combat salinity, drought and problems of agriculture, enhance the nutritional quality of food; increase crop varieties and choice; reduce inputs and production costs; and increase profits (Bragdon et al., 2005). Genetically Modified Organism; a product of Biotechnology Based on evolutionary theory, the concept of survival of the fittest implies that living organisms have a natural spectrum of characteristics such as size, mass or length. The characteristics of an organism and its successors can be modified today by modern technology, giving rise to what are called genetically modified organism or GMOs (Mayr, 2001) AGMOisa plant, animal, microorganism, or other organism whose genetic makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA methods (also called gene splicing), gene modification, or transgenic technology. It is the result of a laboratory process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and artificially inserted into the genes| f an unrelated plant or animal, also called genetic engineering (GE) or genetie modification (GM). Because this process involves the transfer of genes, GMOs are also known as “transgenic” organisms Genetic modification,aims to address issues with regard to food security,jout the microbe and its reproduction mechanism are The first step in the process is the identification of the nism. A gene containing this trait is first isolated and of the trait happens. What is being transferred from one the whole gene but only sections of the gene that carry the will be integrated into the adult organism. After the ied organism should be able to grow and replicate. mbinant DNA technology, the needed information for an another. Such a process means that a farmer can e characteristics necessary to address particular issues ant the crops to have less chance of getting bruised due sm containing a gene that prevents bruising in the mature genetics) could be found, then this characteristic could ‘ops through the process of recombinant gene technology. Creation of an Insect Resistant Tomato Plant = o< A coatungtn rgols oars SONA vectors 5. toa vector coated paris ot eon 6 Lowe bt it gan gun, @w) Ge 1. Shooting the gene gon ‘eso pater 33 ign velocity peretatrg ‘hepine cal eestor enter thecal Te gene ae ant oenome a.The cals patdon trad Only cleat eve nerprted the vector wt ron Flot rom tacos, @ eo Insect resistant tomato plant However, because GMOs are novel life forms, biotechnology companies were also able to obtain patents which restrict their use. As a result, some companies that make GMOs could have the power to sue farmers whose fields are contaminated with —_these organisms, even when it is the result of inevitable drifting from neighboring fields (Nicholson, 2014). GMOs, therefore, may pose a serious threat to farmer sovereignty and to the food security of a country. The promise of better food that is more resistant to Spoilage, pest invasiveness, and harsh weather conditions has made transgenic amps enticing to many people. It is a truly debatable topic for the people of the 21* century, given the promise of this technology and yet the fact that it is very new, should it be embraced as a saving grace or is - it to be feared as a possible threat ‘a sustainable food supply?nt breeding where pecse changes are made to plant's DNA to gue it ere toe nit ns ADVANCED BREEDING GM PLANT ‘Breeders identity and tag desable characteristics BREEDING (traits) within a plant genome. They ue this information Saeare fatima! ik btm imn roo ee tetas pant inthe a, ilar to tow ‘ames fave rturaly Snprove te crops they gow sce ‘arming began. though anced being 2 gene canbe ‘ned fr nme, gto acter souce cn be te Fee ae 1% of the corn in the United States in 2015 was produced from seed varieties developed through genetic modification technologies. I s -As the use off genetically engineered crops has risen, the use of insecticides ha: lecreased. -As the use I I of genetically engineered crops has risen, the use of I herbicides has 1 I Il reased. Many science organizations throughout the world, including -World Health nization, find genetically modified crops safe for consumption.7 Plant Breeding Methods Traditional plant Breeding has been used “|” since human began domesticating plants GM PLANT for food pféduction,/ Early crop BREEDING domestication was accomplished by using basic plant selection techniques to identify and promote’ Ideal food plants. This Is _|f a plant needs a trait that can’t be achieved known selective breeding. through advanced breeding, a gene can be Crossbreeding, inbreeding, and turned off or moved, or a gene from another hybridization are specific plant breeding source can be inserted. methods that fall under the umbrella of selective breeding. These methods have ga° Fe & allowed farmers| to/ Isolate genes for specific characteristits and progressively fh OE: create more plants well suited to provide an abundant supply of nutritious food tai. (e.g., fruits, vegetables, and grains). For sf example, tomatoes come in many varieties, including large slicing tomatoes, & cherry, and grape tomatoes. Tomatoes also come in a Variety of colors, Including from bright red, orange, yellow, and even a dark burgundy color. In addition to color alee and size, these plants also vary in taste, & shelf lite, and the amount of time they take we y | to grow from seed to fruit. All of these control characteristics were brought about by es selective breeding; Identifying desirable traits and continually cross-pollinating Liles plants with those traits to eventually create a variety with desirable characteristics. Often In traditional plant breeding processes plants will gain either a resistance or a \propensity toward disease. All of these ¢haracteristics vary from variety to variety\due to the plants changing genetics from generation to generation) While these\ traditional plant breeding methods have been successful, they can take a significant amount of time (years or decades) to achieve the desired result, and it,can be difficult to Isolate Individual traits such as, disease or pest tolerance, color, flavor, of any ni : Flavr Savr Tomatoes other traits. In addition, the desired gen&t > or characteristic must already be available in the plant ‘s gene pool. XY * GMOs can help farmers . change nutritional ‘profilenother! method of plant breeding is called mutation breeding, or mutagenesis. This is the process of exposing seeds to chemicals or radiation to promote DNA mutations to maximize genetic diversity in h an effort to create new traits in plants. In biology, a mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence. Some mutations cause little effect on an organism, and others cause dramatic damage. Mutations occur randomly but are accelerated by exposure to UV rays, radiation, and some chemicals. Through the years, mutagenesis has helped create genetic variability and produce desired characteristics in crops such as wheat barley, rice cotton, sunflowers, and grapefruit Mutagenesis can elicit results much faster than crossbreeding or mm However the changes are random and unpredictable. Crossbreeding, inbreeding, hybridization, and mutagenesis are all traditional plant breeding techniques and do not use biotechnology. The resulting plants are not GMOs, although may people hold the common misconception that they are. The Development of Genetically Modified Crops The first genetically engineered plant was created in 1983 when an antibiotic- resistant gene was inserted into a tobacco plant. The first genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr tomato, created in 1994. This tomato had an extended shelf life, allowing it to be vine ripened and then shipped to grocery stores without rotting. Although the fruit had desired extended shelf life without rotting, it still softened, making it little better than its traditional counterparts. Since that time, novel genes have been inserted into many crop plants. Genetically engineered crops have specific traits such as the following 1.) Herbicide tolerance-this traits allow farmers to spray their crops with an herbicide which will kill the weed but not the crop. 2.) Pest tolerance- These GM plants have a natural resistance to pest. 3, the European corn borer which is a destructive pest that bores talks. When the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is | go a e 5 ° o 3 a g 3 3 8 a gs a 2 3 2 5 8 8 a s a s a a 8 3 a 3 = 3 = Zz 3 a a » $ a 4, 9 3 2 é a s = 3 g ® an g 32 a ce 8 $ < 8 g oO 8 8 8 g z 8 2 3 8 a °° £ < 3 g 2 3 3 g 3 a to be hardier in dr Shelf life extende to consumer without be harvested before thi example. ight conditions and use less water. 5. spo aa resistance- crops must travel from farmAre there Environmental and Economic Benefits to GMO Crops? Nicholas Sfropoli i j Global benefits tor genetically modified crops have reached $150 billion since the crops were first planted, according to a report published by PG Economics LTD. The report comes ‘on the heels of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) which also noted that genetically modified crops offered substantial economic and environmental benefits. This latest report finds that the majority of the economic benefits for farmers from GM crops were derived from higher yields and extra production, with countries in the developing world seeing the most benefits. The report's findings are not limited to economics- it also finds substantial environmental benefits tom using genetically engineered crops. / PG economics is a UK based advising and consultancy agency for agriculture and other natural resource-based industries. Its clients Include both public and private sector entities including biotech companies, tanners' organizations, the UK government and the European Commission. This is its 11th report on the global economic and environmental Impact of GM crops, which completed data from 1996 fo 2014. The report's findings are based largely on scientific economic. and environmental data published in peer reviewed journals and the report itself will be published in two (2) parts in the peer-reviewed journal GM Crops. The authors, who have backgrounds in agricultural economics broke down the data by both country and crop. The overall finding was that globally farmers who grow GMOs are ante to do more or less while the environmental impact of farming has decreased Economic benefits Globally, the report found that farmers received an average of $3.59 for each dollar invested in GM crop seeds in 2014. However, in developing countries that number was een higher, as farmers in places such as South and Latin America, Africa and Asiafeceived an average of $4 42 for every dollar Invested in GM crop. Much of the economic boom resulting from growing genetically engineered crops resulted from insect resistant (IR) crops like those engineered to produce the Bt Insecticide-a\ protein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis, which Is also used in organic farming ina tropic spray application From 1996-2014, farmers saw significant increase in yields due to reduced pest infestations from insect resistant cotton\and corn, Cort, farmers experienced a 13% increase in yields just from IR technology, while cotton farmers experienced 17% percent yields gains as compared to conventional farming. In 2014 alone IR genetically engineered com was responsible for $5.3 billion added income for farmers globally.significant economic benefits for farmers planting them-particularly in the soybean and/canola Sectors. Globally, HT technology boosted farmers’ income by $5.2 billion in 2014 alone and has delivered an additional $46.6 billion in income for fanmers since 1996. HT canola crops, mainly grown in North America, contributed ait additional $4.86 billion in income for farmers since 1996. | Qver all since 1996, farmers in developing countries received $70 billion in additional income from GM crops-largely from benefits derived from IR and HT technologies. j Environmental Benefits PG economics did not just focus on the benefit to farmer's wallets, it also focused in the ecological benefits of the crops. The report outlines primary ways GM crops, mostly HT and IR ones have contributed to reductions in greenhouse gas emission. Farmers have to make fewer passes on their fields to apply chemical insecticides and herbicides, which means they bum less fuel. For example, in Bangladesh conventional fanners sometimes have to spray their brinjal (eggplant) crops twice a week to protect them from the highly damaging fruit and shoot borer-that is over 180 times a season. 1R brinjal may need as little as one application during a season HT crops have helped more farmers adopt ‘no-till’ and ‘reduced-til'soil conservation practices .Tilling the land involves the turning over soil in order to disrupt weeds growing before planting the season's crops. Tilling the land requires fatmers to run tractors more (and burn more fuel), damages soil and water retention and reduces soil carbon and nitrous oxide sequestration by the soil. Because HT crops have greatly improved weed management, farmers have been able to move away from needing to till their land. PG economic reports that in 2014, these GM crops contributed to the reduction of almost 2.4 billion kg in carbon dioxide emission savings. The cultivation of GM crops globally contributed to reduced fuel burning equivalent to removing 1.07 million cars fromithe road. Additionally, the report estimated that increased carbon sequestration from, less tilling of land led to the equivalent of removing approximately 8 million cars from the road. Other positive environmental benefits include a global reduction in pesticide spraying by 581 million kg between 1996 and 2014. Also, GM crops have allowed farmers to grow more on less land, X