Circuit Theory

Course No : ELC2120 Course Outcomes

Credits : 4 1. Perform transient and steady state analysis of linear circuits in time domain.
Course Category : Departmental Core 2. Use transforms like Laplace and Phasors for circuit analysis, along with use of
Network theorems, in frequency domain.
Pre-requisite(s) :
3. Understand and apply the fundamentals of graph theory for network analysis.
Contact Hours (L-T-P) : 3-1-0
4. Analyse the network as a black box using the concepts of two port networks.
Type of Course : Theory

Syllabus Unit III: Graph Theory and Network Equations

Unit I: Elementary Network Analysis
Circuit Elements: Models and Energy Consumed; Linear constant Coefficient Introduction to Graph Theory; Network Matrices: Incidence and Reduced Incidence
Differential Equations; Time Domain Analysis of Simple RLC Circuits, Circuit matrix, Loop Matrix, Fundamental Loop Matrix, Cut Set and Fundamental Cut Set
Transients; State Equations for Networks, Order of Complexity; Methods of Matrix; Relationship Between Network Matrices; Formulation of Network Equations,
Fundamental Loop Equations and Nodal Admittance Matrix; Tellegen’s Theorem and
Network Analysis: Mesh and Node Variable Analysis.
Application.
Unit II: Network Theorems / Frequency Analysis and Network Theorems Unit IV: Two Port Circuit Parameters
Steady State Sinusoidal Analysis Using Phasors; Impedance Concept; Power
Factor; Resonance Circuits, Bandwidth and Selectivity; Frequency Domain Introduction to Two Port Networks, Two Port Network Parameters: Z, Y, h Parameters,
Analysis of RLC Circuits, Steady State Analysis with Non-Sinusoidal Inputs; ABCD and g Parameters; Image Impedances; T and π Network; Relationship Between
Different Two Port Network, Interconnection of Two-Port Network: Cascade, Series,
Network Theorems: Superposition, Reciprocity, Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Millman’s
Parallel, Series-Parallel and Parallel-Series Connections; Indefinite Admittance Matrix
and Maximum Power Transfer Theorems; Wye-Delta Transformation. Unit and Applications.

Books:
1. M. E. Valkenburg, Network Analysis , PHI,1995.
2. S. Ghosh, Network Theory: Analysis and Synthesis, PHI, 2005.
3. T. S. K. Iyear, Circuit Theory, Tata McGraw Hill, 1985.
4. Del Toro, Principles of Electrical Engineering, PHI, 1994:
5. C. L. Wadhwa, Network Analysis and Synthesis, New Age Int. Pub., 2013.
 Dr. Anwar Sadat

Course Incharge (Circuit Theory)

[email protected]

9897257577
Classification of Network Elements

R = Resistance
L = Inductance
C = Capacitance

1
 Resistance

Property of material which opposes

the flow of electrons through it.
Voltage ;
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
Power;
𝑉 2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑅
Energy; 𝑊
𝑡 𝑡
𝑉2𝑡
= න 𝑃. 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑉. 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
0 0 𝑅

2
 Inductance

A wire of finite length when twisted

into a coil, it becomes an inductor.
Voltage:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑡
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿. Volts
𝑑𝑡
Current:
1 𝑡
𝑖𝐿 = ‫𝑉 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑚𝑝.
𝐿 −∞
Energy:
1 2
𝑊= 𝐿𝑖 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠.
2

3
 Capacitance

It is the capability of an element to store

electric charge within it.
Current:
𝑑𝑣
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 𝐴𝑚𝑝.
𝑑𝑡
Voltage:
1
𝑉𝑐 = ‫𝑠𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑉 𝑡𝐶 𝑖 ׬‬.
𝐶
Energy:
1
𝑊𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠.
2

4
 Assignment

Study the following:

1. KCL
2. KVL
3. Thevenins Theorem
4. Nortons Theorem

The Lecture Ends here

5
Example 𝑖𝑐 = 50 𝑐𝑜𝑠200𝑡 𝑚𝐴
In the interval 0 > t < 4π ms, a 10 μF 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖 = 25 𝑠𝑖𝑛200𝑡. 50 𝑐𝑜𝑠200𝑡 𝑚𝑊
capacitance has a voltage = 25 × 25 𝑠𝑖𝑛400𝑡 𝑚𝑊
= 0.625 𝑠𝑖𝑛400𝑡 𝑚𝑊
𝑉 = 25 𝑠𝑖𝑛200𝑡 𝑉. Find the charge, 𝑡2
power and energy . 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑊𝐶 = න 𝑃 . 𝑑𝑡
Solution 𝑡1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
4𝜋×10―3
= 10 × 25 𝑠𝑖𝑛200𝑡 𝜇𝐶
= 250 𝑠𝑖𝑛200𝑡 𝜇𝐶 𝑊𝐶 = න 0.625 𝑠𝑖𝑛400𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖 0
𝑑𝑉
𝐻𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶. 𝐶 −3
𝑑𝑡 0.625 4𝜋 × 10
= 10 × 25 × 200𝑐𝑜𝑠200𝑡 𝜇𝐴 =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠400𝑡
400 0

= 1.5 𝑛𝐽
Example 𝑑𝑖
= 3 𝐴/𝑠
The strength of current in 2 H inductor 𝑑𝑡
changes at a rate of 3A/s. Find the
voltage across it and the magnitude of 𝑑𝑖 = 3 𝑑𝑡
energy stored in inductor after 4 sec.
Solution 𝐼 = 3𝑡 𝐴/2

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = 4𝑠
𝐿 = 2𝐻, = 3 𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡
1 2
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑊 = × 2 × 12
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 = 2 × 3 = 6𝑉 2
𝑑𝑡
= 144 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
1 2
𝑊 = 𝐿. 𝑖
2
Example
A current source i(t) is applied to a series RLC circuit. Find the maximum voltage across
resistor

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑉𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
𝑉𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑅 𝑉
𝑉 𝑡 = 5 × 3 = 15 𝑉
Assignment
Find the voltage waveform and total voltage across
inductor. 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
Hint: 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿.
𝑑𝑡
Date of submission: 14.08.2020 (5 PM)
[email protected]
 Initial Conditions for the Resistor

For a purely resistive element the v-i relationship is given by

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡
Voltage across the resistor changes instantaneously if the current
through it changes instantaneously

𝑖𝑅 0 + ≠ 𝑖𝑅 0 −
and

𝑣𝑅(0+) ≠ 𝑣𝑅(0−)

1
 Initial Conditions for an inductor
The current through the inductor is
continuous for all t except in the case of
impulse excitation and its derivatives
𝑖𝐿 0 + = 𝑖𝐿 0 − = 𝐼0
The current in an inductor cannot change
instantaneously, the voltage across the
inductor has no such restriction
The v-i relationship for an inductor is 𝑣𝐿 0 + ≠ 𝑣𝐿 0 −
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝑡 =𝐿 If 𝑖𝐿 0 − = 0, i. e. t = 0- the current in the
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 inductor is zero, it is zero at t = 0+due to
1 principle of constant flux linkage. The flux
𝑖 𝑡 = න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖𝐿(0−) linkage can not change instantaneously
𝐿
0 and the current through inductor can not
−
Where L is in henrys. The initial current change instantaneously. The inductor
𝑖𝐿 0 − can be regarded as an therefore, acts as an open circuit at t = 0+
independent current source as shown in
Fig.2 2
 Initial Condition for a Capacitor
The v-i relationship for a capacitor are
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑣 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣𝐶 (0−)
𝐶
0
−
Where C is in farads. 𝑣𝐶 0 − is the
initial voltage across the capacitor just
before the switching action. It can be
regarded as an independent voltage
source as shown in Fig. 2.
In case of a capacitor voltage across its
terminals can not change
instantaneously
𝑣𝐶 0 + = 𝑣𝐶 0 − 3
 Energy Sources

VCVS = Voltage Controlled Voltage Source

VCCS = Voltage Controlled Current Source
CCVS = Current Controlled Voltage Source
CCCS = Current Controlled Current Source

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg. Dept., AMU Aligarh. 1

 Voltage Source (Independent)

Ideal Voltage Source Practical voltage Source

Terminal voltage of an ideal voltage Practical voltage has some finite
source is independent of the current internal resistance.
supplied by it.
Due to this terminal voltage reduces
Internal resistance of an ideal voltage with increase in current supplied.
source is zero.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg. Dept., AMU Aligarh. 2

 Current Source (Independent)

Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source

Current delivered is independent of Practical current source has some finite
internal resistance.
voltage across its terminals.
Due to this terminal current delivered
Internal resistance is infinite. reduces with increase in its terminal
voltage.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg. Dept., AMU Aligarh. 3

 Dependent Sources

Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS) Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg. Dept., AMU Aligarh. 4

 Nodal Analysis

Applying KCL at node ‘a’

𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉1 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
+ + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 𝑉𝑏 𝑉1
𝑉𝑎 + + − =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑅1
By applying KCL at node ‘b’

𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉2
+ + =0
𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5

−1 1 1 1 𝑉2
𝑉𝑎 + + + 𝑉𝑏 =
𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5 𝑉5
Currents can be calculated from the above equations.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Example

Write the node voltage equations and determine the currents in each branch of the network.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 Example

Find the voltage at node 2 in the network shown.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 Source Transformation

Voltage Source to Current Source

𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑅𝑠

𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿

Current Source to Voltage Source

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑠

𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 4

 Mesh Analysis

𝑉1 , 𝑉2 Voltage sources
𝐼1 , 𝐼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 Loop currents

Applying KVL in Loop

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝑉1 = 0
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − 𝐼2 𝑅2

Applying KVL in loop 2

−𝐼2 𝑅3 − 𝐼2 𝑅4 + 𝐼3 𝑅4 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼1 𝑅2 = 0
−𝐼1 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 − 𝐼3 𝑅4 = 0

Applying KVL in Loop 3

−𝐼3 𝑅5 − 𝑉2 − 𝐼3 𝑅4 + 𝐼2 𝑅4 = 0
−𝐼2 𝑅4 + 𝐼3 𝑅4 + 𝑅5 = −𝑉2

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Contd..

From equation 1, 2, 3
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 −𝑅2 0 𝐼1 𝑉1
−𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 −𝑅4 𝐼2 = 0
0 −𝑅4 𝑅4 + 𝑅5 𝐼3 𝑉2

𝑉1 −𝑅2 0
0 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 −𝑅4
−𝑉2 −𝑅4 𝑅4 + 𝑅5
𝐼1 =
𝑅

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 −𝑅2 0
Where 𝑅 = −𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 −𝑅4
0 −𝑅4 𝑅4 + 𝑅5

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 Contd..

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑉1 0
−𝑅2 0 −𝑅4
0 −𝑉2 𝑅4 + 𝑅5
𝐼2 =
𝑅

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 −𝑅2 𝑉1
−𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 0
0 −𝑅4 −𝑉2
𝐼3 =
𝑅

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 Example

Determine the mesh currents I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit shown.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 4

 First Order Circuits

First Order Circuits: First order circuits are circuits which contain only one energy storing element i.e. inductor
or capacitor, and is described by first order differential equations.

Forced response of the circuit: refers to the behaviour of the circuit with the sources turned on.

Natural response of the circuit: refers to the behaviour of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.

Total response of the circuit: sum of the forced response plus the natural response.

Time Constant(𝜏): The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay to a factor of 1/𝑒
or 36.8% of its initial value.
𝐿
𝜏 = (𝑅𝐿 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝑅
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑠)

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

 First Order RL Circuits
𝑉
𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 0 + 𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑅
𝑉
𝑙𝑛 = 0 + 𝐴
𝑅
𝑅 𝑉
𝑙𝑛 𝑖 = − 𝑡 + 𝑙𝑛
𝐿 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑖 𝑉
= 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 or 𝑖 = 𝑅 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡
𝑉/𝑅
Current (i) response is exponentially decaying curve determined by R, L
of the circuit as shown in Fig. 3 a tangent to the curve at I0 intersects time
axis at 𝑡 = 𝜏.
𝐿
= 𝜏 𝑠𝑒𝑐 is time constant
The switch is initially placed in position ‘a’ for a long time and current is 𝑅
𝑉 −1 𝑉
IL . The inductor stores energy in the form of electromagnetic field 𝑖 𝜏 = 𝑒 = 0.368
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉
𝑖𝐿 0 − = 𝐼0 = 𝑅
𝑉 −4
𝑖 4𝜏 = 𝑒 = 0.0180𝐼𝑜
Now the switch is changed to position ‘b’ the circuit will become as shown 𝑅
in Fig. 2. the energy stored in inductor gets dissipated gradually through
the resistor. Differential equation for circuit 2 is
𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑉
𝑖 0+ =
𝑅

𝑑𝑖 𝑅
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝐿
𝑅
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑖 = − 𝐿 𝑡 + 𝐴 (where A is a constant)

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

First Order RC Circuits
The switch is initially placed in position ‘a’ for a long time and the switch is changed to
position ‘b’ the circuit will become as shown in Fig. 2.
Differential equation for circuit 2 is
𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0

𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝐶 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑉 1
+ .𝑉 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑉 1
=− . 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑅𝐶
Integrating both sides
−𝑡
𝑙𝑛 𝑉 = + 𝑙𝑛 𝐴
𝑅𝐶
Where A is the integration constant
𝑉 −𝑡 𝑉
𝑙𝑛 = ⇒ = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝐴 𝑅𝐶 𝐴

𝑉 𝑡 = 𝐴. 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
At t= 0
𝑉 0 = 𝑉0
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

Example Solution II
In the circuit shown in figure has 𝑉𝐶 0 = 15𝑉. Find the
followings. Applying KCL at node Vx
I) The value of 𝑉𝐶 𝑡 , 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 2𝑠
II) The value of 𝑉𝑋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑉𝑋 𝑉𝑋 𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝐶
+ + =0
12 6 8

2𝑉𝑋 + 4𝑉𝑋 + 3 𝑉𝑋 − 𝑉𝐶 = 0

9𝑉𝑋 = 3𝑉𝐶

1
Solution I 𝑉𝑋 = 𝑉𝐶 ⇒ 𝑉𝑋 = 1 3 × 15. 𝑒 −𝑡/4 𝑉.
3
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 8 + 6 ∥ 12 ⟹ 12Ω 𝑉𝑋 = 5. 𝑒 −0.25𝑡 𝑉
𝜏 = 12 × 1 3 = 4𝑠
𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 15𝑒 −𝑡/4 𝑉
at 𝑡 = 2𝑠
𝑉𝐶 2 = 15𝑒 −2/4 ⇒ 15𝑒 −0.5𝑡 = 9.09

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

Example For 𝑡 ≥ 0:
The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long time, and
it is opened at t=0. Find 𝑉𝐶 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0 The switch is opened and the circuit becomes

Solution
For t < 0 𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶
When the switch is closed the voltage 𝑉𝐶 0 −

9
𝑉𝐶 0 − = 20 × = 15𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑡 𝑡 < 0 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 9 + 1 = 10Ω
9+3
𝜏 = 10 × 20 × 10−3 𝑠 = 0.2 𝑠
𝑉𝐶 0 − = 𝑉𝐶 0 + = 15 V
The voltage across the capacitor 𝑡 ≥ 0
(The voltage across capacitor does not change
instantaneously) 𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉0 . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 = 15𝑒 −𝑡/0.2 = 15𝑒 −5𝑡 V.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

Example
Find the time constant of the given circuit.

Solution
𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝜏= 𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 1 + 4 ∥ 4 = 3Ω
2
𝜏= 𝑠
3

2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = + 2 ∥ 4
3
2 4
= + = 2𝐻
3 3

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

Example
Assuming that the switch was open for a long time. Find i0, 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0(𝑡 = 0 +), the switch is closed,
iL, for t (For t < 0 and t > 0)
𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 𝐴.

Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0, (𝑡 = 0_), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛

𝑅𝑡ℎ = 6 ∥ 3 = 2Ω

𝐿 2
𝑖0 = 0𝐴 (current through 6Ω) 𝜏= = = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
10 𝑅𝑡ℎ 2
𝑖𝐿 0 − = = 2𝐴
5
𝑉0 = 3 × 2 = 6𝑉 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑖 0 + . 𝑒 −𝑡/1 = 2. 𝑒 −𝑡 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh

 Assignment 2 (Circuit Theory)
1. In the given circuit , the switch S is closed at 𝑡 = 0, Find 3. Find the current i(t) for t > 0, when VC= 100V at t = 0-,
𝑑𝑖 before the switch is closed.
the rate of change of current (0+).
𝑑𝑡

2. Find the current in the circuit when the switch is closed at 4. Find the resulting current I in a series RL circuit with R =
t = 0. 5 ohm and L = 2mH and applied voltage V =150 sin 5,000t.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Contd..
5. For the given circuit, the switch is position ‘a’ initially 7. In the circuit the initial charge on the capacitor is 2.5 mC,
then thrown to position ‘b’, i(0-) = 2 A and VC(0-) = 2 V are with the voltage polarity as indicated. The switch is closed at
initial conditions. Find the circuit current. time t = 0. Find the current i(t) after the switch is closed.

6. For the circuit switch S is at position ‘A’ when t < 0. At t = 8. In the given circuit, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the
0, the switch is thrown to position ‘B’. Find the value of initial value of the current through the capacitor.
current ‘I’ in the circuit at the instant t = 4s.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 Contd..
9. Find the time constant of the circuit after the switch is 10. Find the current in the circuit when the switch is closed
opened. at t = 0.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 Step Response of an RL/RC Circuit

Complete Response of a circuit = Transient Response + Steady State Response

Transient Response:-

The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die out with time.

Steady State Response:-

The steady state response is the behaviour of the circuit a long time after an external excitation is
applied.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Step Response of an RL Circuit

Complete Response of a circuit

𝑖 = 𝑖𝑡𝑟 + 𝑖𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑡𝑟 = Transient Response
𝑖𝑠𝑠 = Steady State Response
𝐿
𝑖𝑡𝑟 = 𝐴. 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝜏 = 𝑅 (decaying exponentially)

In the steady state condition (after a long time when the

switch is closed) inductor resistance and voltage both will be
zero.
𝑉𝑠
𝑖𝑠𝑠 = Steady State Response = A.
𝑅

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 Contd..
Complete Response of a circuit = Transient Response + Steady State
Response
𝑉𝑠
𝑖 = 𝐴. 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 +
+ − 𝑅
𝑖 0 = 𝑖 0 = 𝐼0
At t = 0 above equation becomes
𝑉𝑠
𝑖 0 =𝐴+ = 𝐼0
𝑅
𝑉𝑠
𝐴 = 𝐼0 −
𝑅

𝑉𝑠 −𝑡/𝜏 𝑉𝑠
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 − 𝑒 +
𝑅 𝑅
Complete Response of RL Circuit
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 ∞ + 𝑖(0) − 𝑖(∞) . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 A

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 Example:

An input voltage 𝑉 𝑡 = 10 2 cos 𝑡 + 100 + 10 5 cos 2𝑡 + 100 𝑉 is applied to a series

combination of resistance R = 1 ohm and an inductance L = 1H. Find the steady state current i(t)
in amperes.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 4

 Step Response of an RC Circuit

When DC source is applied,−this can be

+
modelled as step function
𝑉 0 = 𝑉 0 = 𝑉0
V0 = initial voltage on the capacitor

− +
𝑉 0 =𝑉 0 (Voltage across does not change instantaneously)
Applying KCL for 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
𝐶. + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑𝑉 𝑉 𝑉𝑠
+ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑉 (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠)
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑉 1
=− 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Contd..

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠,

𝑉(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠 = −
𝑣0 𝑅𝐶 0

𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝑉 𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑛𝑡 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 = − +0
𝑅𝐶

𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑠 −𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑡 =
𝑣0 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑅𝐶

𝑉 𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠

𝑉 𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 ; 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 Contd..

Complete response of the RC circuit is

𝑉; 𝑡≤0
• 𝑉 𝑡 =ቊ 0
𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 ; 𝑡 > 0

𝑑𝑉(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶.
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑠
𝑖 𝑡 = . 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 ; 𝑡 >0,
𝑅

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 Example:
Find the initial voltage across the capacitor when the switch is opened at t = 0.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 4

 High Order Circuits

Definition:
When two or more energy storing (L /C) are present, the network can be represented
by second order differential equation.

Series RLC Circuits Parallel RLC Circuits

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Series RLC Circuits

Applying KVL in Fig. 1

𝑑𝑖 1 𝑡
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿. + න 𝑖. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 −∞

Differentiating with respect to time

𝑑𝑖 𝑑2𝑖 𝑖
𝑅. + 𝐿. 2 + = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑2𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑖
+ . + =0
𝑑𝑡2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
Applying Laplace transform
𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝑛 = 0
(Second order characteristic equation) TODO
1 𝑅
𝜔𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 =
𝐿𝐶 𝐿

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 Contd.. TODO

𝑅
𝜉𝜔𝑛 = Over damped oscillation:
2𝐿
1 𝐿
𝜏= =2
2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑅 ∝> 𝜔𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝜉 > 1
𝑅 𝐶
𝜉= .
2 𝐿 Critically damped oscillation:

The roots of characteristic equation are

𝜉 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 𝜔𝑛

−𝑅 𝑅 1
𝑠= ± 2 − Under damped oscillations:
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
𝑅 1 0 < 𝜉 < 1 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 < 𝜔𝑛
Let ∝= 2𝐿 = 𝜏

𝑠 =−∝ ± ∝ 2 − 𝜔2𝑛

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 GATE 2014 Question
Find the value of capacitor (mF) in the following circuit, needed to have critically damped response.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 4

 Parallel RLC Circuits

𝑖𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑐 (𝑡)

𝑉𝑐 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 the voltage across capacitor

𝑡
𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
+ න 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶. = 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡)
𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
0
Simplifying
𝑑2𝑉𝑐(𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑉𝑐(𝑡) 1
+ . + . 𝑉𝑐 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡2 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
S domain
1 1
𝑠 2 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 + . 𝑠𝑉𝑐 0 + . 𝑉𝑐 𝑠 = 02
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶

1 1
𝑠2 + .𝑠 + =0
𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
1 𝐿 1
𝜉= 𝜔𝑛 =
2𝑅 𝐶 𝐿𝐶

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 Question
Determine whether the circuit is over, under or critically damped .

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

Assignment 2 Answers
𝑅𝑠𝐿𝑠
𝐿
0.01𝑒 −1000𝑡

0.25𝑒 −62.5𝑡

13.4sin(5,000𝑡 − 63.40 )

−3𝑒 −3/2𝑡

0.1𝜇𝐴

𝑖 𝑡 = 15 exp −2 × 103 𝑡 𝐴

0.8 A

0.5s

0.01𝑒 −1,000𝑡
 State Variable Analysis

The Concept of State:-

The state of a system is defined as the minimum set of variables known as state variables which contain
sufficient information about the past history of the system so that it is possible to compute future state of the
system if the future inputs and equations describing the system are known.

State Variables (n-n1-n2):-

For an electric network the number of state variables equals the total number of energy storing elements
(capacitor and inductor) minus all capacitor loops and all inductor cut-sets.

The order of complexity of a network: What are these ?

Number of state equations that can be written for a network or the number of state variables of the network.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 1

 State equation for the network

Number of state equations = n - n1 - n2 = 2 – 0 – 1 = 1

n, total number of energy storing elements = 2
n1, all capacitor loops = 0
n2, inductor cut-sets= 1
Order of complexity = state equation = 1
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿2 + 𝑅(𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝑠)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = −𝑅 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝑠 − 𝐿2 + 𝑣𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑅 𝐿2 𝑑𝑖𝑆 𝑣𝑆
=− 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝑠 − +
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 2

 State equation for the network

Number of state equations = n - n1 - n2 = 2 – 0 – 0 = 2

n, total number of energy storing elements = 2
n1, all capacitor loops = 0
n2, inductor cut-sets= 0
(n-n1-n2 )= Order of complexity = state equation = 2
Applying KVL
𝑑
𝐿 𝑖 − 𝑖2 + 𝑅1 𝑖1 = 𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 1

𝑑
𝐿 𝑖 − 𝑖1 + 𝑅2 𝑖2 + 𝑣𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 𝑖𝐿 and 𝑖2 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑖1 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 3

 Contd..
𝑑𝑖𝐿
−𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑖2 + 𝑣𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑖2 = 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝐿 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 + 𝐶 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝐿 = 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑅2 𝑖2 = 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑅2 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 + 𝐶 = 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑅2 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 = (𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝐶)
𝑑𝑡

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 4

 Contd..

𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 𝑣𝑐 𝑣(𝑡)
=− − +
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝐿 = 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑅1𝑖1 = 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 𝑣𝑐 𝑣(𝑡)
= 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑅1 𝑖𝐿 − 𝐶𝑅1 − +
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅1 𝑅12 𝑖𝐿 𝑣𝑐 𝑅1 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅1

= − 𝑖𝐿 + + − .
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑣𝑐 𝑅1 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅1
= −𝑖𝐿 1− + + 1−
𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 5

 Contd..

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑣𝑐 𝑅1 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅2
= −𝑖𝐿 + + .
𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Therefore, the state equation are

𝑑𝑖𝐿 −𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿
+
𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑅1 1 𝑣𝐶 1
− −
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 6

 Example

Obtain the state equations for the network shown.

Dr. Anwar Sadat, Electronics Engg Dept , AMU Aligarh 7