Psychology Questions for End Sems

Memory (Module 4)

Q.1. Briefly explain the Disuse/Decay theory of forgetting.

Answer:-
According to the Disuse/Decay theory of forgetting, the events between learning and recall have
no effect whatsoever on recall. It is the length of time the information must be retained that is
important. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and therefore, more information
is forgotten.

For example, if you study a language for a few years, then it'll take you more than a few days to
forget it

There are several methodological problems confronting researchers trying to investigate the trace
decay theory. One of the major problems is controlling the events that occur between learning and
recall.

Clearly, in any real-life situation, the time between learning something and recalling it will be
filled with all kinds of different events. This makes it very difficult to be sure that any forgetting
which takes place is the result of decay rather than a consequence of the intervening events.

One of the problems with decay theory is that it is more or less impossible to test it. In practice, it
is not possible to create a situation in which there is a blank period of time between the presentation
of material and recall. Having presented information participants will rehearse it. If you prevent
rehearsal by introducing a distracter task, it results in interference.
 Memory (Module 4)

Q.2. Briefly explain Retro Active Innovation Theory and Pro Active Innovation Theory

Answer:
Proactive interference happens when an individual is unable to learn new information because old
information prevents its retrieval. In other words, old memories interfere with the retrieval of new
memories. Older memories are often more strongly encoded in long-term memory because the
individual has had more time to revisit and rehearse them. As a result, they are easier to recall than
memories that were made more recently. Research has shown that one way to reduce proactive
interference is to rehearse the new information through testing or recitation.

Example: During the first month or two of every year, you may find yourself putting the
previous year down whenever you write the date. This is because you’ve frequently
rehearsed the previous year and it’s easier to recall than the new year.

Retroactive interference happens when an individual is unable to recall old information because
new information prevents its retrieval. In other words, new memories interfere with the retrieval
of old memories.

Example: If you’re an actor and must learn a new monologue for a play, you may forget
the previous monologue you learned for a different play.
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Q.3. How can a memory of a person be improved?

Answer:-
Methods used for improving memory are: -

1. Mental Stroll Method (“Method of Loci”)

A favourite method is to remember a list of items by taking a mental stroll through one’s
house, forming a visual image of each item at a particular location (the method of loci).

2. Mnemonic Devices
Some Mnemonic devices easily memorized rhymes whereas others use visual images or
verbal associations.

3. Encode Information in More than One Way

The more elaborate the encoding of information, the more memorable it is. Elaboration can
be in many forms e.g., remembering a telephone number by the sound of the individual
digits.

4. Add Meaning
The more meaningful material is, the more likely it is to link up with information already
in long-term memory. Meaningfulness also reduces the number of chunks of information
one has to learn.

5. Pay Attention
Attention is important for encoding. Impairment in attention e.g., in depression may result
in impaired encoding causing pseudodementia.

6. Use Visual Memory

Memory for pictures is often better than memory for words.
 Memory (Module 4)

7. Take Your Time

If one has to remember large amounts of verbal material, leisurely learning, spread out over
several sessions will produce better results than rapid cramming.

8. Take Time Out

If possible, minimize interference by using study breaks for rest or recreation. Sleep is the
ultimate way to reduce interference.

9. Overlearn
Overlearning – Studying information even after you think you know it – is one of the best
ways to remember it.

10. Planning to Learn

Plan a study schedule, regular rehearsal, subjective organization and retrieval cues, testing
oneself (feedback) and review help in memorizing (i.e., “PRC- Planning, Rehearsal,
Organization and “FRO” – Feedback, Review and Over- learning).

11. Avoiding the Use of Drugs

Alcohol, benzo-diazepines, antihistaminic and other CNS depressants may impair the
memorizing process. Nootropics (Brain tonics) are not useful in normal persons.
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Q.4. Briefly explain the processes involved in memory.

Answer:
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past, we cannot operate in the present
or think about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday, what we have
done today or what we plan to do tomorrow. Without memory, we could not learn anything.

Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of information. This information takes many
different forms, e.g., images, sounds or meaning.

Stages of Memory

Encoding Storage Retrieval

• Memory Encoding

When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed
into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored.

Think of this as like changing your money into a different currency when you travel from one
country to another. For example, a word which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is changed
(encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e., semantic processing).

There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed)
o Visual (picture)
o Acoustic (sound)
o Semantic (meaning)

For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up in the phone book?
If you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself, you are
using acoustic coding (by sound).
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• Memory Storage

This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information is stored, how long the
memory lasts (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of
information is held.

The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been a significant amount
of research regarding the differences between Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term
Memory (LTM).

Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. Miller (1956) put this
idea forward and he called it the magic number 7. He thought that short-term memory capacity
was 7 (plus or minus 2) items because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could
be stored.

However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if
we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot more information in our short-term
memory. In contrast, the capacity of LTM is thought to be unlimited.
Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0-30 seconds), but LTM can last a
lifetime.

• Memory Retrieval

This refers to getting information out of storage. If we can’t remember something, it may be
because we are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the
differences between STM and LTM become very clear.

STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group of participants are given a list
of words to remember, and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through
the list in the order they heard it to retrieve the information.
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LTM is stored and retrieved by association. Therefore, you can remember what you went upstairs
for if you go back to the room where you first thought about it.

Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You can organize information in sequences (such
as alphabetically, by size or by time). Imagine a patient being discharged from hospital whose
treatment involved taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing, and doing
exercises.

If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which they must be carried out throughout the
day (i.e., in the sequence of time), this will help the patient remember them.