Contents

Chapter no. Name of Chapter Page

Chapter 1 Tensile Properties …………………………… 5
Chapter 2 Flexural Properties.……...………………….. 16
Chapter 3 Torsional Properties ………………...………. 23
Chapter 4 Frictional Properties …………….…………... 29
Chapter 5 Fibre Structure ……………………………….. 40
Chapter 6 Swelling……………………………………….. 46
Chapter 7 Optical Properties…………………...……….. 54
Chapter 8 Thermal properties…………………….…….. 64
Previous Year Questions ………………...….. 68
 Chapter

1
Tensile properties:
Tensile PropertiesProperties
When external force is applied to a mtl, it is balanced by internal forces development in the
molecular structure of the mtl. By increasing the stresses, material will deformed and follow the
stress – strain curve.

Stress- strain curve

Region O to A: Linear region:
In this stage, elongation is mainly concerned with the
B Breaking Point
deformation of the amorphous regions in which
primary and removed at this stage most of extension be
recovered and material would show elastic property.
Stress

So this region is called A elastic region and

deformation is called elastic deformation.
Region A to B:
The long chain molecules O A/ Strain would rearrange with
breakage of secondary bonds of molecule\s
structure. After deformation in this stage, mtl would not come back to its original form. i.e.
Material show plastic properties in this region. This deformation is called plastic deformation.
For further increasing the stresses the mtl will break down in the point B. the point B is called
Breaking point.

Yield point:
The point (A) up to which a mtl shows elastic properties (up to elastic deformation), after which
the fibre shows plastic properties (plastic deformation) is called Yield Point.
Tensile properties:
1. Tenacity
2. Breaking extension
3. Work of rupture
4. Initial Modulus
5. Yield stress
6. Yield strain
7. Work factor
8. elastic recovery

Tensile strength:
Force applied to break the fibres to the cross-sectional area is known tensile strength.

Tensile strength =
Unit: dyne/cm2, lb/ft2, N/m2

Tenacity:
Tenacity is the maximum strength to break a fibre.

Tenacity =
Unit: gm/tex, N/tex, CN/tex, gm/denier.

Breaking extension:
The breaking extension is the extension of specimen at the breaking point, which is expressed in
percentage of initial length.
If, L1= initial length of specimen
L2= final length of specimen at break.

Breaking extension =
L2 −L1
= ×100 %
L1
As this is a ratio of two lengths, it has no unit

Work factor:
If the fibre obeyed Hook’s Law, the load elongation curve would be a straight line and the work
of rupture would be given by,
Work of rupture = ½ (Breaking load x Breaking elongation)
So work factor is defined as the ratio of work of rupture to breaking load x breaking extension.

In ideal state, the work factor will be ½.

If the load elongation curves lies mainly above the straight line
the work factor will be more than ½.
If the load elongation curves lies mainly below the straight line
the work factor will be less than ½.

Work of rupture:
Work of rupture is defined as the energy needed to break a specimen.
If we may consider a fibre under a load F, increasing in length dl,
We have,
Work done
= force x displacement
= F. dl
break

∫ F×dl
So, total works to break = 0
break

∫ F×dl
So, work of rupture = 0

= ½ (Breaking load x Breaking extension)

Initial Modulus:
The value of initial modulus equal to the value of the stress that would be necessary to double
length of the specimen. It is equal to the slope of the stress – strain
curve at the origin. This slope usually remains const over the initial
portion of the curve.
stress
In fig, initial modulus, tan = strain
If initial modulus extensibility
It depends upon —
I) Chemical structure of the mtl.
II) Molecular chain.

The effect of initial modulus in textiles:–

1. Chemical structure Higher Ring structure of molecular chain in fibre, Higher
initial modulus.
2. Orientation for Higher orientation of molecules, Higher I.M.
3. Crystallinity for Higher crystallinity of fibre, Higher I.M.
4. Extensibility for lower extensibility of fibre, Higher I.M.
5. Stiffness for Higher stiffness of fabric, Higher I.M.

Yield stress and yield strain:

The point (A) up to which a mtl shows elastic properties (up to
elastic deformation) after which the fibre shows plastic properties is
called yield point.
This point is then characterized by its stress and strain –
The yield stress and yield strain.
Draw perpendicular AA ́ from A on the strain line to A ́ ́ point.
Let the angle of OC and OD is α.
'
AA
'
So, tanα = O A
Here, AA ́ ́ = Yield stress
OA ́ ́ = Yield strain.

Load : The application of a load to a specimen in its axial direction causes a tension to be
developed in the specimen.
The load is usually expressed in gm wt or pounds.
Breaking Load: The load at which material break is called breaking load. It is usually expressed
in gm –wt or lb-wt.
Stress: Stress is the ratio between the force applied and X-sectional area of the specimen.
Forceapplied F
So, Stress= X−sec tionalarea = A
Units: Dynes/cm2
Mass stress: Mass stress is the ratio of the force applied to the linear density (mass per unit
length).
Forceapplied
So, Mass stress= Lineardensity
Units: gm-wt/denier or gm –wt.
Breaking Length: The breaking length is the length of the specimen which will just breaks
under its own weight when hung vertically.
Unit of breaking length is kilometer.
Problem: 100 denier Rayon yarn breaks at a load of 185 gm what is breaking length?
185 9000
Breaking length= 1000 ¿ 100
=16.65 km
185 gm 185 gm
Tenacity= = = 16.65 gm/tex
100 den 100/9 tex
Single Yarn Strengtℎ
RKm Value =
Tex of Yarn
Elasticity:
Tendency to recover the extension of mtl when stress is removed.
Plasticity:
After elastic limit when stress is increased the mtl cannot recover the extension if stress is
removed is known plasticity.
Stress:
Stress is the ratio of force applied to the cros- sectional area of the specimen.

So, Stress = .
Strain:
The strain is the term used to relate the stretched or elongation with the initial length.
Strain = Elongation / Initial length.
Elastic Recovery: It is a property of a material by which it tends to recover its original size and
shape.

Elastic recovery =

Factors determining the results of tensile experiment:

1. The material and its condition:
The behavior of a mtl depends on the nature and arrangement of the molecules of which it is
composed and these will vary not only from one type of fibres to another but also from one
fibre to another in a given sample.
Condition means –
– The chemical treatment to which it has been subjected.
– The mechanical treatment that it has received.
– The amount of moisture that it contains.
– The temperature.
2. The arrangement and dimension of the specimen:
The dimensions of the specimen will have a direct effect on the results of tests. The breaking
load of a fibre will increase in proportion to its cross-sectional area and its elongation will
increase in proportion to its length.
3. The nature and timing of the test:
The result of experiments will be affected by time allowed and by the way on which the load is
applied whether it is by const rate of loading, const rate of elongation, reduction from a higher
load or any other sequence of events.

Basic method of tensile experiment:

1. Constant rate of loading (CRL).
2. Constant rate of elongation (CRE).

1. Constant Rate of Loading (CRL):

 A specimen ‘A’ is gripped in a fixed to P jaw J1 and bottom jaw J2 which is movable.
  A force F is initially zero but increases at constant rate along the direction to
downwards. In fig.
 By adding constant rate of water in a container which is
attached to jaw J2 may increase the load gradually.
 Const rate of flow gives const rate of loading.
 The function of this applied force is to extent the specimen,
until it eventually breaks.
 Here loading causes elongation.

2. Constant Rate of Elongation (CRE):

 A specimen ‘B’ is gripped in a fixed jaw J 1 and bottom jaw J2 which is movable to
downwards at a const velocity by a screw mechanism.
 Initially the tension in ‘B’ is zero. But when the bottom jaw J 2
moves at a const rate, the specimen is extended and an
increasing tension is developed until the specimen break down.
 In this case, the extension causes loading.

Some typical tensile strength testing instrument:

CRL:
1. The Cambridge extensometer.
2. Scott inclined plane tester.
3. Cliff tester.
4. Krais instrument.
5. Pressly fibre strength tester.
CRE:
1. The Cambridge extensometer.
2. The instron tensile tester.
3. Pendulum lever mechanism.

Differential between Yield point & Breaking point:

Yield point Breaking point
1. The point up to which a mtl 1. After Yield point, for further
shows elastic properties and after increasing the stresses the mtl
which the fibre shows plastic will break down in the point is
properties is called Yield point. called breaking point.
2. Follow Hook’s law. 2. Don’t follow Hook’s law.
3. In this point, the mtl will not 3. In this point, the mtl will break.
break.
Difference between CRL and CRE:
It will be shown that, creep in fibres under load results in
a difference between tests at constant rate of elongation
and tests at constant rate of loading. The curves may also
have quite a different shape since in a constant rate of
elongation test. It is possible for the load to decrease
while elongation increases. As in fig. this is not possible
in CRL tests where the load must increase throughout
the test.

Factors affecting the tensile properties of textiles:

1. Test specimen length.
2. The capacity of the machine.
3. The effect of humidity and temperature.
4. The previous history of the specimen.
5. The form of the test specimen.
The time of loading and the time to break the specimen

Recovery work of rupture on durability: Durability phenomenon:

Durability means, how long time a mtl will give service. When fibres are frequently subjected to
a shock of given energy, below their work of rupture it does not break initially, but a succession
of repeated shocks can be led up the stress strain curve to the breaking point.
If, Imposed shock has an energy =w
Work of recovery in given cycle =r
Amount of energy used in the cycle = w(1-r)
If the no. of shocks up to break the fibre =N
The total energy required to break is equal to work of rupture w of the fibre, that means
the life time of the fibre expressed in terms of the number N of shocks.
N
∑ w(1-r )
So, work of rupture, W = 1
For constant value of w and r the relation is,
Nw(1-r) = W
W
N = w(1-r )
Here, w(1-r) N
i.e. w N r increase close to 1.
Life time will be highest long time.
Creep:
We know, elastic mtls follows the Hooks law (i.e.
stress α strain). But textile mtls follows hook’s law
up to a certain point. After that point it does not
follow the Hook’s law. So when a load
applied on a textile mtls then instantaneous strain occurred in the fibre and after release the
stress, the fibre strain will be lower with the passing of rime i.e. slow deformation will be
occurred. This behaviour of textile fibres is called creep.

Creep is of two types:–

1. Primary creep.
2. Secondary creep.
1. Primary creep:
 It is fully recoverable in times. Fibres will come back to its original position after
removing the applied force.
 Elastic deformation is occurred.
 Molecular chain is stretched slightly.

2. Secondary creep:
 It is non recoverable in time. Fibres can’t be come
back to its original shape after removing the applied
force.
 Plastic deformation occurred.
 Molecular chain break.

Fatigue behavior of textile fibre:

When a textile fibre is used in long time then losses it’s some
tensile properties such as elastic deformation, plasticity etc. this behavior of textile fibre is called
fatigue behavior of textile fibre.
If applied a load for a long time in elastic limit, occurred the tiredness of fibre chain and fatigue
is happened.
Crimp:
When a crimped fibre is inserted in the tester without any limited tension, the load-elongation
curve will have the form shown in fig. The origin of the curve may put at A, where it diverges
from zero line, but this point is difficult to locate precisely. A better procedure is to put the
origin at O, the extrapolated point corresponding to a hypothetical straight fibre. The crimp is
given by AO and may be expressed as a percentage of initial
length.
Where, P1 = Initial (crimped) length
P2 = Straightened length.

Chapter

2
Flexural Properties
Flexural properties:
The behavior shown by the materials during bending is known flexural properties.

Importance:
I) The flexural properties are related to handle and drape of fabrics.
II) The recovery from bending is a factor of creasing.
III) Bending play an important role in the arrangement of fibres in the yarn.
IV) Bending strength is important in wear.

Important Flexural Rigidity:

1. Flexural rigidity.
2. Bending recovery
3. Bending modulus.

Flexural rigidity:
Flexural rigidity is the stiffness of a fibre in bending. It is defined as the couple required to bend
the fibre to unit curvature.

Where,E = Specific modulus

T = Linear density of mtls
ρ = Density of the mtls
η = Shape factor

Specific flexural rigidity:

The specific flexural rigidity is equal to the flexural rigidity of a fibre / filament of unity tex.

Sp F.R. Fibre flexibility Quality

Fibre Shape factor Sp F.R (mN-mm2 / Tex2)

Viscose rayon 0.74 0.19
Wool 0.80 0.20
Silk 0.59 0.19
Nylon 0.91 0.14
Glass 1.0 0.89

Prove that Flexural rigidity =

The flexural rigidity (stiffness) of fibre is defined as the couple required to bend the fibre to unit
curvature. (Curvature is the reciprocal of radius, r of curvature).
Suppose we have a specimen of length , bend through an angle of θ to a radius of curvature r,
its outer layer will be extended and inner layer will be compressed but a neutral plane in the
centre is unchanged in length. As a result of extension and compression, stresses will be set up
that give an internal couple to balance the applied couple.
Consider an element of area of cross section δA, at a perpendicular distance x from the neutral
plane.
Unit of Flexural rigidity:
Problem: 01
Find out the flexural rigidity of viscose fibre.
Where, Specific modulus = 0.2x103 N/tex
Linear density = 0.2 tex, Density = 1.12

Problem: 02
Find out the flexural rigidity of a circular fiber, where the linear density, specific modulus and
density of that fiber are 3.5 tex, 5 N/tex and 1.1 gm/cc respectively.

Shape factor:
It is the quantity which determines the shape of a material.
 ; Shape factor is 1 for the fibre
1.
which is completely round.

2. ; Shape factor is less than 1 for the

fibre whose thickness is reduced while bending.

3. ; Shape factor is more than 1 for the

fibre whose thickness is increased
while bending.

Bending recovery:
Recovery from a given curvature is called Bending Recovery.
Nylon & polyester shows complete recovery for a small curvature. The bending recovery of 15
denier nylon 100% recovered for a small curvature but 20% for high curvature.

Bending Modulus:
The ratio of bending stress and bending strain is called B.M.

Flexural properties influences:

1. Behavior of Yarn.
2. The drape and handle properties of fabrics.
3. The recovery from bending.
4. The weariness of fabric.
5. The arrangement of fibre in the Yarns.

Chapter

3
Torsional Properties
Torsional properties:
The behavior shown by the mtls when it is subjected to a torsional force is called its torsional
properties.

Important torsional properties:

1. Torsional rigidity.
2. Breaking twist.
3. Shear modulus.
Torsional rigidity:
Torsional rigidity is the resistance of a material to twisting. It is defined as the torque required
to produce unit twist per unit length.

Where, є = shape factor

n = specific shear modulus
T = linear density
ρ = density of the materials

Show that, Torsional Rigidity = єnT2/ ρ

Torsional rigidity of a fibre is the resistance of this fibre against twisting. It is defined as the
couple needed to put in unit twist, that is unit angular deflection between the ends of the
specimen of unit length.
Torsion rigidity can be obtained in terms of the shear modulus.
Consider the twisting of a cylinder ℓ and radius r. after it has been twisted through an angle of
θ, a line AB has been sheared through an
angle Ф to the new position AB ́.

The shear stress up give an internal couple opposed to the applied torque. The shear angle (Ф)
which is zero at the centre, increased in proportion to the distance from the centre. Consider an
element of area δA at a distance x from the centre.
The line AB, parallel to the axis before the cylinder is twisted. On twisting, since the point B
shifts to B ́. The line AB takes place the position AB ́, such that before twisting if the hollow
cylinder were to be cut along AB and flatted out, it will form the rectangular plate ABCD but
after twisting it takes the place AB ́CD ́ (as fig.)
So the shearing of cylinder after twisting = BAB ́ = Ф
Some typical value of α of different fibre:
Fibre
1. Cotton 35˚
2. Viscose rayon 33˚
3. Polyester 50˚
4. Glass 4˚
5. Wool 40˚
6. Silk 39˚
Some typical value of Sp. Torsional Rigidity:
Fibre Sp. TR. (mN-mm2/Tex2)
1. Cotton 0.16
2. Viscose rayon 0.085
3. Polyester 0.067
4. Nylon 6,6 0.06
5. Wool 0.12
6. Silk 0.16

Breaking Twist:
The twist for which a fibre will breaking is called breaking twist. The number of twist required
to break a fibre depends on its diameter and

is inversely proportional to the diameter.

Breaking Twist Angle (BTA):

This is the angle through which the outer layers are sheared at breaking is called Breaking Twist
Angle.

= tan-1 ( dTb)
Where, d = dia of fibre
Tb = Breaking twist per unit length
(Breaking TPI, TPCm etc.)
Problem 01: If a fibre hold 40 breaking TPI and diameter is 0.1 mm; find out the BTA.
Solution:
Problem 02: Breaking twist of cotton fibre is 60 of diameter is 0.017 mm. Find out the BTA of
that fibre.
Solution:
Where, d = 0.017 mm
Tb per inch = 60
Tb per cm = 60/2.54
Tb per mm = 60/ (2.54*10)
= 2.362

Chapter

4
Frictional properties:
Frictional Properties
During processing, friction is developed between fibres. Due to that friction, the properties
shown by the fibre is called frictional properties.

Influence/effect of F.P:
Fibre stage:
I) The behavior of fibre during drafting.
II) Frictional force holds together the fibre in yarn.
Yarn stage:
I) Twist needs more for staple fibre. As a result cohesion force increased in yarn. For
insertion high Twist in yarn frictional force will be increased.
II) If the frictional force is too high, yarn strength will be low.
III) Friction increases the lusture and smoothness of yarn.
IV) Friction makes more clean yarn.
V) Friction occurs nep formation.

Fabric stage:
I) Fabric feelings varied for difference between static kinetic friction.
II) Fabric will be slippery if µs < µk
µs = Co-efficient of static friction.
µk = Co-efficient of kinetic friction.
III) If the frictional force is high, the handle properties of fabric will be low.
IV) High static friction cause high breakage of yarn in spg, wvg, ktg.

Minimize the frictional intensity:

1. By processing with Lubricant & Softener:
Lubricant mtls as emulsion is used before jute spg. Sizing is done during weaving
preparation process.
2. By chemical treatment:
By using acid or alkali. Wool scale sharpness will be reduced by chemical treatment.
3. By finishing:
I) Mechanical finishing: Ironing or calendaring.
II) Chemical finishing : By using resign, reduce surface
Irregularity and remove crease.
Factors affecting frictional intensity/force:
1. Composition of the mtls : for PVC Higher frictional force.
Glass Lower frictional force.
2. State of the surface : for roughness Higher frictional force.
smoothness Lower frictional force.
3. Pressure between the surfaces: Higher pressure Higher frictional force.
4. Temperature : Temp Friction
5. Relative humidity : R.H Friction
6. Load : Load Friction.
7. Area of contact or area of contact: Area of contact Friction.
8. Speed of sliding: More speed of sliding causes more F. intensity.
9. Oil content & viscosity: The frictional force increases both as oil content and viscosity
increases.

Amonton’s law of friction:

1. The frictional force is independent of the area of contact between tow surfaces.
2. The frictional force F is proportional to the normal load w so that the co-efficient of

friction
3. This law is also called Coulomb’s law and also frictions 3 rd law. Kinetic friction is
independent of the speed of sliding.

Measurement co-efficient of friction:

Capstan methods are two types:
I) Static capstan method.
II) Dynamic capstan method.

I) Static capstan method:

We know from Amonton’s law.

A loop of yarn is placed over the guide and a small load placed on
two sides. The load on the other side is then decreased until
slippage commences. If incoming tension is T1 and leaving tension
T2 and angle of contact is .
Then we get,

From above equation we can measure the co-efficient of friction.

II) Dynamic capstan method:

In this method, yarn is running continuously over the guide. The tension may also be measured
with tension meters. In the typical form of apparatus, shown in
figure. They would be given with resistance, capacitance or
inductance pick-ups.
So, From Amonton’s law,

Measurement of inter fibre friction:

For the measurement of inter fibre friction, Lindberg and Gralen introduced a
method in which the two fibres are twisted together as shown in fig. if the
difference between the tensions applied to the opposite ends of each fibre is increased the fibres
will eventually slip over one another.
It is shown –
Where,T1 and T2 = The tensions in fibre.
n = Number of turns of twist
and β = The angle between the fibre axis of the twisted element.

Effect of Lubricant on frictional force:

Lubricants reduce the frictional force between two surfaces at a certain level. In case of metals,
lubricants may reduce the value of µ from 1.0 to 0.05 but in case of fibres, it has comparatively
little effect and will usually reduce the value between 0.2 to 0.7.
A good lubricant acts by forming monolayer on the surface and preventing the adhesion of the
two surfaces at a point of contact.
A scoured cotton on steel give µ = 0.7 but raw cotton. (5% oil and waxes) give µ = 0.25 and
lubricated scoured cotton on steel gives the value of 0.14-0.35.
If the amount of lubricant is too high, then the friction increases. When acetate yarn passes over
a guide then the frictional force increases with the increases of oil content yarn.
Again the viscosity of lubricant has effect on friction.
Frictional force viscosity of the lubricant

Directional frictional effect:

The friction of the wool fibre depends on the direction in which it is pulled. The scales than
when it is pulled with them. This is known as the directional frictional effect (DFE).
a) Directional friction in wool between fibres placed in same direction.
 b) Directional friction between fibres against scales.
c) Directional friction between fibres with scales.
d) Directional friction on plane surface against scales.
e) Directional friction on plane surface with scales.

Theory of directional frictional effect:

The simplest geometrical theory is that the wool fibre acts as a ratchet with the scales
interlocking with one another or catching against asperities on another surface. Motion against
the scales would be strongly resisted, since it would involve rupture or deformation of the
scales. The resultant force R acting at the contact may be resolved either into components W and
F acting perpendicular and parallel to
the direction of motion or into components N and P acting

Fig: Geometry of contact

perpendicular and parallel to the tangent at the contact. If the angle between these directions is
Ө, we must have.
N = Wcos + Fsin ………….(I)
P = Fcos - Wsin ……………(II)
 For slippage to occur, the junction must be sheared. The force necessary to do this will
be given by the general relation;
P = aNn
From equation (II),
Fcos - wsin = aNn
Fcos - wsin = a (wcos + Fsin )n ;[From equation (I)]

Lincoln gives a graphical solution of this equation, showing the values of F for various values of
a and Ө when n = 2/3.

Fig: Variation of F with with

Problem of friction in textile:
1. Friction generates temperature and therefore static electricity is developed. The
electricity attracts dust, dirt etc. and mtl becomes dirty.
2. Yarn break due to excessive friction/Tension.
3. Due to irregularity of frictional surface, textile mtls surface becomes hairy for
protruding fibre.
4. Friction worns out of the m/c parts/ elements.
5. In case of sewing fabric, yarn, needles is damaged.

Effect of MR on the frictional Properties: With the increase of MR%, the frictional force of fibre
increases.
 Fig: Change of co-efficient of friction with regain for nylon on nylon,
wool on horn and cotton on steel
The above figure shows the effect of MR on frictional properties of different fibres.
Laws of friction:
1. Laws of static friction:
a. The magnitude of forces of friction is exactly equal to the force which tends the
body to move.
b. The magnitude of limiting frictional bears a constant ratio to the normal friction
between two surfaces.

; F = limiting friction, N = Normal reaction

c. The force of friction is independent of area of contact between two surfaces.
d. Force dependent on the roughness of surface.
2. Law of kinetic friction:
a. The frictional forces always act in direction opposite to that in which the body is
moving.
b. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal friction
between two surfaces.
c. Frictional force remains constant but decreases slightly with the increase of
speed.

3. Amonton law of friction: (Previous)

Relation among friction, load and area of contact:

The ratio of frictional force ‘F’ to normal load ‘N’ for fibres is found to
 Fig: Variatin of co-efficient of frictin of fibres with load (D = fibre diameter)
decrease as the load I increases d. in other words, the Amonton’s law is not obeyed. Some
typical examples are given in fig
Among the various mathematical relations, that have been used to fit the experimental data are
the following –
I) F = µo N + S
II) F/N = A-BlogN
III) F = aN + bnC
Where S = Area of contact and
µo, A, B, a, b, c are constant.
The most successful relation is F = aNn
Where a and n are constant.
This is a form of equation previously found by Bowden and Young to apply some non-
metals.

The value of n generally lies between to 1.

Suppose for a load N on an area A1, the frictional force is F1, then F1 = aNn
For the same load on area A2,

The two classical laws of friction replaced by the relations.

F = aNn for constant apparent surface area in contact
F = bA(1-n) for constant load.
Where a and b are constant dependent on the area and respectively.
 Chapter

5
Requirements of fibre formation:
1. Polymer must have straight and long chain molecules.
Fibre Structure
2. The chain must be more parallel to each other.
3. They must have attraction.
4. Some measure of freedom of molecular movement in order to give required
extendibility.
Methods for investigation of the fibre structure:
1. X-ray diffraction method.
2. The absorption of Infrared radiation.
3. Optical microscopy.
4. Electron microscopy.
5. Nuclear magnetic Resonance.

X-ray diffraction method:

When a beam of X-rays strikes on a crystal, it strongly reflected whenever it strikes layer
of atoms at an angle of Q as like in fig. such that nλ=2dsinθ

Where, n = integer (1, 2, 3……….)

λ is the wavelength of X-rays
d is the distance between atomic layers
Here, B΄BD = 90˚, B΄BC = θ
So <CBD = 90˚ - θ
Since <BCD = 90˚
<CBD + <BDC = 90˚
90˚ - θ + <BDC = 90˚
<BDC = θ
And <EBD = 90˚, <EBA = θ
So <ABD = 90˚ - θ
 Since <BAD = 90˚
90˚ - θ + <ADB = 90˚
<ABD = θ

So sinθ = and sinθ =

Sinθ.BD = BC AB = BD sinθ
BC = dsinθ AB = dsinθ
So AB + BC = dsinθ + dsinθ
AB + BC = 2dsinθ
Nλ = 2dsinθ
So ,d Atomic layer distance Crystallinity

Electron microscope:
The electron microscope is exactly analogous to the optical microscope.
The rays from an electron source are condensed on the specimen and then focused by electric or
magnetic fields acting as lenses to give a magnified image on a fluorescent photographic plate.
An electron microscope consists of –
1. Source of electron.
2. Electron lens (condenser lens)
3. Projector lens.
4. Screen to take the image of specimen.

Fig: Electron Microscope

Absorption of infrared radiation:

When infrared radiation, composed of electromagnetic woven with wavelengths between 1 and
15µm, is passed through a mtl, it is most highly absorbed at certain characteristics frequencies.
By using on
 Fig: Infra-red absorption spectrum of nylon
infrared spectrometer, the variation in absorption can be found, in case of the absorption
spectrum of nylon in fig.
Here, Full line: Electric vector perpendicular to fibre axis.
Broken line: Electric vector parallel to fibre axis.
The picks occur where the frequency of the electromagnetic waves corresponds with the natural
frequency of variation between two atoms in the mtl. If these are associated with an electric
dipole, then the variations in the electric field set up the vibration and energy is absorbed from
the radiation.
The wave number at which absorption takes place depends primarily on the nature of the two
atoms and of the bond between them.

To a similar extent, the absorption frequency is influenced by the other groups in the
neighborhood.
Instruments consists of –
I) Source of infrared radiation
II) Diffraction grating
III) Sensitive heat detector
IV) Output display.

Advantage:
1. Identification of certain chemical groups in the molecule, leading to the definition of
its chemical formula.
2. To identify and estimate quantitatively the presence of given substances by
observing of their characteristics spectrum.
3. Determination of the amount of the water in fibres.
4. Investigation degree of orientation of the molecules in a fibre.
5. Find the direction in which a particular group points in a molecule of unknown
form.
6. Degree of crystallinity and non-crystallinity regions.
Relation between fibre properties & structure of fibre:
1. Tensile strength:
a. Proportional to covalent bond energy.
b. Proportional to molecular weight.
c. Proportional to crystallinity.
d. Proportional to fibre orientation.
2. Extensibility:
a. Reciprocal to degree of molecular orientation.
b. Reciprocal to degree of crystallinity.
c. Proportional to helical angle of fibril.
d. Proportional to chain length.
3. Moisture regain:
a. Proportional to no of polar group.
b. Reciprocal to the degree of crystallinity.
4. Electrical properties:
a. Change magnitude is proportional to degree of crystallinity.
b. Proportional to the molecular orientation.
5. Electrical conductivity:
a. Reciprocal to the degree of crystallinity.
b. Proportional to the number of polar-group
c. Proportional to electrolytic content.
Comparison between IR radiation & X-ray diffraction Method:
IR method X-ray diffraction method.
1. Infrar4ed radiation of wave length 1–5 1. The basis of this method is the
µm is passed through the fibre. reflection of X-ray beam from fibre.
2. It is possible to identify the chemical 2. It is not possible to identify.
formula by this process.
3. This method is influenced by all the 3. Influenced the molecules of crystalline
molecules of the fibre. region.
4. Infrared spectrometer is used as main 4. α-ray source, collimator and
component. photographic film are used.

Advantage of IR radiation absorption method:

1. The first use of infrared absorption is therefore as an aid to the identification of the
presence of molecular groups, leading to determination of its chemical formula.
2. It can be used in routine analysis to identify and estimate quantitatively the presence
of given substances, even in small quantities in a mixture. It can also determine the
amount of the water in fibre.
3. It can analyze the degree of orientation of the molecules in a fibre.
4. It can also determine the molecular configuration of a molecule.
 5. It can give information all the molecules of crystalline and non-crystalline region.
Where as the X-ray diffraction method can give information only the crystalline
region.

Chapter

6
Swelling: Swelling
When a fibre absorbs water, they change in dimension (length, width). Welling is occurred in
transversely (widthwise) and axially (lengthwise). It may be expressed in herms of the increase
in diameter, area, length or volume.

Types of swelling/ change in fibre dimension:

The swelling may be expressed in terms of the increased in dia, area, length or volume.
I) Transverse diameter swelling:
Factional increase in diameter of fibre is transverse diameter swelling. It is expressed by,
ΔD
SD = D
Where,
D = Original dia of fibre
ΔD = Swelling of fibre
II) Transverse area swelling:
Fractional increase in area of the fibre is
transverse area swelling. It is expressed by,
ΔA
SA = A
Where,A = Original area of fibre.
ΔA = Increased swollen area of fibre.
III) Axial swelling:
Fractional increase in length of fibre is axial swelling. It is expressed by,
ΔL
SL = L
Where, L = Original length of fibre
 ΔL = increased length of fibre
IV) Volume swelling:
Fractional increase in volume of fibre is volume swelling. It is expressed
by,
ΔV
SV = V
Where, V = Original volume of fibre
V = increased volume of fibre
All are expressed by percentage.

Swelling phenomenon in fibres:

In a highly oriented fibre, the molecular chains are lying parallel to the fibre axis. As a result
fibre has a low molecular space between the chains and swelling will be lower.
So, Orientation swelling due to lower molecular space
and Amorphous region swelling

When the fibres are immersed into water, the water molecules enter into the molecular space of
fibre and pushed the fibre chain and these will be considerable increase in diameter but very
little increase in length.

Typical value of swelling of swelling% of different fibres:

Fibre Area swell% Diameter Axial swelling Volume
Cotton 40 20 0.1 —
Jute 40 20 — —
Viscose 67 35 3.7 119
Wool 25 14.8 — 37
Silk 19 16.5 16 30

Water proof fabric by swelling phenomenon:

When fibres absorb water, this have technical consequences in the dimensional stability of
fabrics, the predominant traverse swelling usually resulting in a shrinkage of twisted or
interlaced structures. The pores of closely woven fabrics will be completely blocked when the
fibres are swollen and they may be impermeable to water.

Viscose swelling is greater than Nylon swelling:

Nylon is more oriented than viscose. In Nylon, the molecules are lying parallel to the fibre axis.
So Nylon has a low molecular space between the chains and in viscose high molecular space. In
when the fibres are immersed in water, the water molecules can easily penetrate in molecular
space of viscose than Nylon and in Nylon show resistance to penetrate water.

Relation between SV, SL & SA:

We know,
ΔA
Transverse area swelling, SA = A

ΔD
Transverse axial swelling, SD = D
ΔV
Volume swelling, SV = V
If the fibre is uniform along its length, we have original
volume of fibre, V = Al where, L is the original length and A is the original area of the fibre.
After swelling, the swollen volume of fibre,
V + ∆V = (A + ∆A). (L + ∆L)
Now we get from the definition,
ΔV V + ΔV −V
SV = V = V

=
AL+ Δ AL+ AΔL+ ΔAΔL− AL
= AL
AL Δ AL AΔL ΔAΔL
+ + + −1
= AL AL AL AL
ΔA ΔL ΔA ΔL
+ + ×
= A L A L
= SL + SA + SA. SL
So, SV = SL + SA + SA. SL
Relation between SA & SD:
ΔA
We know, Transverse area swelling, SA = A
ΔD
Transverse diameter swelling, SD = D
For circular cross-sectional fibres, we have original area of fibre,

()
2
D
A= r2 = 2
 Where D = dia of fibre
Similarly, for the swollen fibre,
Cross-sectional area of the fibre,

A + ∆A =

=
ΔA
Now we get, SA = A
A+ Δ A-A
= A

=
ΔD ΔD2
2
=1+2 D + D -1
= 2 SD + SD2
So, SA = 2 SD + SD2
Measurement of volume swelling:
If we consider a specimen of mass 1 gm when dry,

We get, Volume, V =

And Swelling volume, V + ∆V =

Where, = Density of the specimen when dry

= Density of the specimen when swollen

m = Mass of water absorbed
and r = Regain%
r
1+
100
So, V + ∆V =
ρs
 ΔV (V + ΔV )- V
Hence, SV = V = V
r
1+
100
ρs
1
= ρo -1
r
1+
100
×ρo −1
=
ρs

= ρs
ρo
[ 1+
r
100]−1

Thus volume of swelling may be measured from the value of ρo, ρs and r.

Measurement of Transverse swelling:

As fibres have such a small diameter, measurements of changes in it are not easy to make.
Microscope is used to determine the diameter of a fibre. But may be and error of 25%. If a fibre
of 20 mm diameter is examined, it will be possible distinguish detail down to one fortieth of the
fibre diameter. If diameter fibre swelling is 10%, it will be swelling to measure this to an
accuracy of only 0.5 in 2.
Microscopic methods are used either for examining the fibre profile and measuring the
apparent diameter of for examining sections and measuring diameter of the area of cross-
section.
Diameter swelling is not a sound way of expressing the transverse swelling with an irregular
cross-section.

Effect/ Importance of Swelling:

1. Improve the absorption of dyes and chemicals.
2. Increase the dimensional stability of the fabric.
3. Due to swelling, the pores of closely interlaced woven fabric will be completely
blocked and they may produce water proof fabric.
4. Improve fastness of dyed mtls.
5. Elastic properties changed.

Fastness:
Colour fastness to some agents (such as water, wash, light, chlorine, perspiration, sea water, hot
water) to distortion.

Swelling recovery:
When a fibre is wetted, it usually extends owning to swelling but welling recovery may cause a
net contraction. Viscose rayon shows almost complete recovery in water, as does silk in steam,
but acetate shows only partial recovery.
Swelling recovery may be useful as a reason of restoring the original fibre properties.

Relation between swelling and relative humidity

Fig: Swelling of fibres between dryness and saturation

a = Cotton (SA) swelling is absorption and desorption

b = Wool (SD) diameter
c = Nylon (SA) area swelling
d = Nylon (SD) diameter swelling
e = Cotton (SL) length swelling.
 Chapter

7
Birefringence:
Optical Properties
When a beam of light falling on a textile fibre, it splits up into two refracted beam, one polarized
parallel to the fibre axis and the other polarized perpendicular to fibre axis.
In general, an anisotropic mtl will have three principal refractive indices, but fibres are usually
axially symmetrical so that the refractive indices perpendiculars to the fibre axis are all the
same. The difference between the refractive index for light polarized parallel to the fibre axis
and light polarized perpendicular to the fibre axis is called Birefringence of that fibre. Let n ||
and n┴ are the refractive index for light
polarized parallel and perpendicular to the
fibre axis respectively.
So, Birefringence value = n|| - n┴
The birefringence of a fibre is due to the
orientation of the crystal axis in the crystalline
regions and of the individual molecules in the
non-crystalline regions.
Greater the value of birefringence indicate the
most of molecules are lined up parallel to the
fibre axis & it will be zero if they are randomly
directed.
Refractive Index:
The velocity with which light is transmitted varies with the medium through which it is
passing. Refractive index ‘n’ is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the
velocity of light in the mtl.
Alternative definition is,
sine of angle of incidence
Refractive index, n = sine of angle of refraction
The refractive index of a mtl varies with the temp and with the wave length of the light being
transmitted.

Birefringence property depends on following factor:

1. The degree of orientation.
2. The degree of asymmetry of molecular chain.
Highly oriented fibres will have high Birefringence value. Ideally oriented fibres have different
birefringence value.
The magnitude of birefringence which ranges from 0.005 for Triacetate to 0.188 for Terylene.
If all the atoms in a molecule are arranged in a straight chain as fig. (a) the bond polarizabilities
are greatest along the line joining the atoms, and then will be get high birefringence value.
However the actual molecules in fibres do not have this form and their birefringence will be
reduced for two reasons.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig: (a) Straight chain, (b) Zigzag chain & (c) Chain with sidegroup
Firstly, most main chains have a zigzag form as in fig (b) provided that the bonds diverge from
the main axis by less than about 55˚; this will still gives a positive birefringence value. The
coiling of the keratin molecule will have a similar effect in wool.
Secondly there will be side groups attacked to the main chain as in fig(c), and these will have
the effect of providing atomic bonds at right angles to the main axis. In this case, n ┴ value is
higher than n|| value and reduces the Birefringence value. In acrylic fibre, side groups have a
greater effect than the main chain and the Birefringence value will be negative.

Optical orientation factor:

Birefringence depends on the relation between the direction of polarization of light and the
direction of alignment of the molecular chain. Birefringence value will be greatest when the
molecules are all lined up parallel to the fibre axis. Hermans has defined an optical orientation
factor, f, as t6he ratio of the birefringence of the fibre to that of an ideal fibre in which the
molecules are perfectly oriented parallel to the fibre axis.

Where, n||́ and n┴́ refer to the ideally oriented fibre an imaginary fibre in which all the
molecules are arranged at the same angle and which has the same B.F. as the actual fibre.
In the ideally oriented fibre, f = 1 and Ф = 0
In an isotropic fibre, f = 0 and Ф = 55 ˚
Where there is no B.F.

Measurement of Refractive Indices:

There are various methods for measuring the refractive index of textile fibres.
I) The Becke line method (Heyn).
II) Wavelength varying technique.
III) Fibre refractometer (Rapid).
IV) Interference technique (Faust).
I) The Becke line method:
In this method, the fibre is immersed in a liquid and compared the refractive index. If the index
is same, then its boundary ceases to be visible. By trial and error with a series of liquid mixtures
of varying composition, the observation of this effect may be used as a mean of measuring the
refractive index of fibre. It is necessary to use polarized light so that only one ref4active index is
concerned; it gives the refractive index of the surface layer of the fibre.
If the refractive index of the fibre is different, a bright line can be seen at the boundary between
them. When the objective of the microscope is raised the line moves towards the medium of
higher refractive index.

IV) Interference technique:

In this technique both double beam and multiple – beam interference technique used.
In double beam fig (a) method the light is split into two beams, one of which passes through the
specimen, while the other by passes it. The two are then combined and give an interference
pattern.
(b) Multiple-beam Inter ferometry.

(a) Schematic representation of

Double-beam Inter ferometry.

In multiple beam method fig (b), the specimen is placed between two partly silvered mirrors. A
series of beams, which have passed through the specimen for a differing number of times,
depending on the number of reflections are transmitted by the system and combine to give the
interference pattern.

Measurement of Birefringence:
The Birefringence of a fibre can be measured directly by determining the retardation or
difference in optical path length. Since the optical path length equals the product of the
refractive index and the thickness of the specimen through which the light passes.

So, Optical path retardation

 Where, (N + δ N) = Total number of wave length.
λ = Wave length.
t = Thickness.
So, from the equation (i),
Optical path retardation = Birefringence x Thickness

Birefringence
Where, n|| = Refractive index for light polarized parallel to the fibre axis.

= Refractive index for light polarized

Perpendicular to the fibre axis.

Relation among Refractive index, Density & Swelling:

Refractive Indices of a material is determined by an appropriate summation of the
polarizabilities of the bonds present in each of its molecules. So R.I. will increase if no of
molecules i.e. density increases.
By Gladstone and Dale’s law,

Where, ρ = density of the mtl

n = R.I. of the mtl.

V (n-1) = constant; [where = V; m = 1]

A similar relation applies to mixtures.
If Vm and nm are the volume and R.I. respectively of a mixture and V1, V2, V3,……….. and n1, n2,
n3,……………. Are the corresponding quantities for the individual components, the relation is,
Vm (nm – 1) = V1 (n1 – 1) + V2 (n2 – 1) + V3 (n3 – 1) +…………..
For the two components cellulose and water with the refractive index of water taken 1.33333.
So, Vr (nr – 1) = Vo (no – 1) + 0.3333r
Where, Vo is the volume of 1 gm of dry cellulose
Vr is the volume of the specimen at a fractional regain r.
and no and nr are the R.I. of the dry and swollen cellulose.
This equation applies to both the Refractive Indexes n|| and n┴.
The equation is,

Dichroism:
The variation in the absorption of radiation by a coloured fibre (by dyeing) with the direction of
polarization of the light is called Dichroism which may result in the differences in the depth of
shade or even in the actual colour.
We get,

Dichroic or Dichroitic ratio or constant, Ф =

Where, k|| = Absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel
to the fibre axis.

= Absorption coefficient for light polarized

pserpendicular to the fibre axis.

Requirements of Dichroism:
1. The dye molecule must be asymmetrical so that its absorption of radiation varies
with the direction of the electric field exciting the characteristics vibration.
2. The dye molecule must be absorbed on to the fibre molecule in a particular direction
so that all the dye molecules make the same angle (or a limited range of angles) with
the axis of the chain molecules.
3. The chain molecules must be preferentially oriented.

Cross fibre absorb more radiation than parallel fibre:

When light passes through the two Dichroic fibres, there is a greater total absorption if they are
crossed than there is if they are parallel.
The reason is fairly obvious:-
If the fibres are crossed, the first fibre absorbs a large part of one component and the second
fibre absorbs a large part of the perpendicular component. But if the fibres are parallel, the same
component is transmitted through both little absorption.

Dichroic constant for direct dyes on cellulose:

Fibre Dichroic constant
Ramie 9
 Viscose rayon 1.4 – 2.3
Cellophane 1.5

Reflection & Lusture:

Lusture is an important aesthetic property of textile fibre or fabric. If a beam of light falls on a
surface, it may be reflected spectacularly along

Combination of specular
Specular reflexion Diffuse reflexion
& diffusion reflexion

the angle of reflection as fig (a); diffusely in varying intensity over a hemi-sphere as in fig (b) or
in a combination of both as in fig(c).
The reflection may vary with the angle of incidence and with the colour and polarization of
light. The total visual appearance resulting from these reflections determines the lusture of the
mtl.

Lusture depends on:

1. Incident angle of light:
If the light falls across the fibre or along the fibre.
If a fibre behaved as a perfect reflecting circular cylinder, it would reflect light as like fig (a) and
fig (b).
It is clear that if the light falls across the fibre, it is reflected at various angles. Where as if it falls
along the fibres, here it reflect at constant angle.

i ¹r i=r

Reflexion of light
Axis in incident plane
Axis normal to incident plane

2. Fineness of fibre:
The fibre the fibres incorporated in a fabric, the greater is the number of individual reflecting
surfaces per unit area of the fabric. Therefore, fibre fineness affects the lusture for the same
types of smoothness and regularity, the coarser fibres will have more lusture than fiber one.
3. Irregularity of the fibre surface:
Irregularity on the surface of the fibre and in its cross-sectional shape will cause light to be
reflected in various directions and will reduce the lusture. It is essential that fibre should be
uniform along its length. For this reason, lusture is greatest in regular filaments, such those of
silk and the M.M.F.
4. Fibre shape:
Fibre shape is an important factor for lusture. The particular types of lusture associated with
nylon, rayon and silk must be vary due to (the influence on) the pattern of light reflection of
their respective circular, serrated and triangular shape.
Circular → More lusture → → Nylon

Serrated → Dull lusture → → Rayon

Tirangular → Less lusture → → Silk

5. Presentation of small particles on fibre like TiO2 or Minimize the lusture of M.M.F:
When a beam of light falls on the falls on the fibre, it is not only reflected but also transmitted.
Some of this transmitted light will reflect from the internal surfaces as fig (a).
If the fibre contains small particles e.g. TiO2 or Cavities as fig (b), these will scatter the
transmitted light at varying angles and cause it to emerge as particularly diffuse reflection.
TiO2 is used as dellustrants in MMF to reduce its lusture.

(b)
(a)
Scattering of transmitted light
Internal reflexion
in delustred fibre

6.Maturity of fibre:
If the maturity is high then the reflection will be high and with these the lusture will also be
high.
Maturity Reflection Lusture

Immature fibre Mature fibre

 Chapter

8
Thermal properties of textile fibre:
Thermal properties
The thermal properties of fibre/textile fibres is not extensively investigated. The thermal
behaviors of textile fibre is influenced by the factors are-
 Thermal conductivity.
 Heat expansion and contraction.
 Melting temperature (Tm)
 Glass transition temperature. (Tg)
Thermal conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is the rate of transfer of heat along a body by conduction. The higher
value of thermal conductivity, the fibre will then more conductive. The protein fibre have a
lower conductivity than cellulosic fibers, that’s why the woolen (protein) dresses are more
suitable than cellulosic dresses in winter season.

Synthetic dresses are not suitable in summer or winter season:

The value of thermal conductivity of synthetic fibre. i.e. Polyester, Nylon is higher than
natural(i.e. Cotton, Silk, Woolen etc) fibre. as a result the synthetic dresses are more conductive,
hence rate of transfer of heat along a body is very high. So, in summer season, atmospheric heat
is easily felt and in winter season, low temperature of air is also effect on the body by synthetic
fibre dresses and disgusting.
That’s why, the synthetic dresses are not suitable in summer or winter season.
Glass transition temperature(Tg):
The temperature at which the fibre behaves as a glass and brittle condition is called glass
transition temperature. It is denoted by ‘Tg’
The range of Tg for linear polymer is -1000C to 3000C

Factor influence the Tg:

1. Flexibility of chain bond decrease the value of Tg
2. Composition of ring structure in molecular chain raises
Tg

the value of Tg
3. Bulky side groups raises the value of Tg
4. Flexibility of side group decrease the value of Tg
5. Tg increases with molecular weight up to 20,000
6. Polarity of side groups increases 20000 the value of Tg
Molecular Weight
7. Random co-polymer has lower value of Tg than homo-
polymer.
8. Increase the orientation of fibre chain restrict the chain movement and increase the value
of Tg
Typical value of thermal conductivity of some fibres:
Fibre Thermal conductivity
1. Cotton - 71
2. Polyester - 140
3. Nylon - 250
4. Wool - 54
5. Silk - 50

Melting temperature:
The range of temperature at which the fibre melts is called melting temperature(Tm). A
polymer has variable melting temperature as small crystal melts quickly than larger one. The
value of temperature at which the larger crystal melts taken as the melting temperature of that
polymer.
At melting temperature fibre looses its density and changes to viscous liquid. The fibre looses
strength and a bit of wt for melting.
Cellulose and protein fibre decomposes before melting.

Effect of temperature on fibre deformation:

Increase of cellulosic fibre, for increasing the temperature, if deform toe decompose and finally
turn toe ashes. For thermoplastic fibres, it deforms to soften and melts. This melting is regarded
as first order transition temperature.
Before melting point, a fibre can deform any desired form at a certain temperature which is
called second order transition temperature.

Melting point depends on:

Composition : Polyester Tm= 264
PVC Tm = 310
Structure : Larger polymer structure = Tm
Rigid structure = Tm
Bonding force : Covalent Bond, Hydrogen bond = Tm

Factors of flammability:
Chemical structure : Covalent Bond, H-
bond→Flammability
Cl Bond→Flammability¯
Crystallinity : Crystallinity→Flammability¯
Amorphous→Flammability
Rigidity : Rigidity→Flammability¯

Some typical value of Tm and Tg:

Fibre Tm0C Tg0C
 Nylon 6 - 250 - 50
Nylon 6.6 - 270 - 50
PVC - 310 - 81
PET - 264 - 69

Wool dresses are warmer in winter season:

 Due to the lower conductivity.
 There are provided air pocket into the wool fibre structure, as air prevent the cooling
atmosphere. So, wool dresses are warm in winter.