MODULE 4 – GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS

INTRODUCTION
The concept of transformation provides a different way of studying some
geometries. In the early geometry, students use flips, turns and slides to study geometric
relations informally. High school geometry includes rotations and translations. Recent
geometries include the idea of inversion and projection. In precalculus, transformations
is evident in the study of graphing equations. Graphs of functions maybe found as
transformation of more basic graphs. As shown in Figure 1, if y = f(x), then y = f(x + 1)
can be graph by shifting the graph of y = (fx) one unit to the left.

Figure 1.
All these ideas are related to a very concept in geometry: geometric
transformation. To gain more knowledge about geometric transformations, introduction
to transformation and groups of transformation are the foci of this module.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this module, you should be able to:

a. explain the different idea of mapping and the definition of transformation;

and
b. discuss the groups of transformation and their respective model.

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 1

 LEARNING CONTENT

Lesson 1: Introduction to Transformation

Definition: A transformation is a mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 such that each element of B is the
image of exactly one element of A.

Which of the following figures correctly illustrate a transformation?

a1 b1 a1 b1 b2
a2 a3 b2 a2 b3

A B A B
Figure 2. Figure 3.

a1 b1 b2
a2 a3 b3

A B
Figure 4.
Figure 2 illustrates a mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 whose ordered pairs are
{(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ), (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ), (𝑎3 , 𝑏2 )}. It could be observed that the range {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 } is equal to the
codomain of 𝑓. This means that this is onto mapping. Given that there are two preimages
of 𝑏2 : 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 , then this is not a transformation.
On the other hand, Figure 3 is a one-to-one mapping whose ordered pairs are
{(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ), (𝑎2 , 𝑏3 )}. However, there exist an element 𝑏 of 𝐵 that is not paired with any
element 𝑎 of 𝐴. Hence, this is not a transformation.
Lastly, it could be observed from the mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 in Figure 4 who ordered
pairs are {(𝑎1 , 𝑏3 ), (𝑎2 , 𝑏1 ), (𝑎3 , 𝑏2 )} that the range of 𝑓 = 𝐵 and each element of 𝐵 is the
image of exactly one element of 𝐴. Since it is onto and one-to-one mapping, then it is a
transformation.
Example 1: 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ given by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 2
Solution: Show that the mapping is a one-to-one and onto mapping.
To show that it is one-to-one, let us determine if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏).
3𝑎 − 2 = 3𝑏 − 2 Definition of 𝑓
3𝑎 = 3𝑏 Add 2
𝑎=𝑏 Divide by 3

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 2

 As such we have shown that if 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏), then 3𝑎 − 2 = 3𝑏 − 2 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏.
Therefore, it is one-to-one mapping.
To show that it is onto mapping, let 𝑟 be any element of the codomain. Solve for 𝑎
in the domain so that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑟.
3𝑎 − 2 = 𝑟 Definition of 𝑓
3𝑎 = 𝑟 + 2 Add 2
𝑟+2
𝑎= 3 Divide by 3
Given that substituting 𝑟 by any value of ℝ will always result to an element of ℝ,
then it is onto mapping.
Given that it is both one-to-one and onto mapping, then 𝑓 is a transformation.

Example 2: 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ given by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −5𝑥 2

Solution: Determine whether it is one-to-one and onto mapping.
To show that it is one-to-one, let us determine if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏).
−5𝑎2 = −5𝑏2 Definition of 𝑓
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 Divide by – 5
±𝑎 = ±𝑏 Extract the roots
Thus, 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑎 = −𝑏 or −𝑎 = 𝑏. Since 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, then 𝑎 and 𝑏 could either be positive
or negative. As such, it is not one-to-one mapping.
To show that it is onto mapping, let us solve for 𝑎 in the domain so that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑟.
5𝑎2 = 𝑟 Definition of 𝑓
2 𝑟
𝑎 = −5 Divide by – 5
𝑟
𝑎 = ±√−5 Extract the roots
When we substitute any positive element of ℝ to 𝑟, the result is not an element of
ℝ. Therefore, 𝑓 is not onto.
Given that it is neither one-to-one nor onto mapping, then 𝑓 is not a transformation.

Example 3: 𝑓: ℝ × ℝ → ℝ × ℝ given by 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2, 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 1)

Solution: To show that it is one-to-one, let us determine if 𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑓 (𝑐, 𝑑 ).
(2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2, 𝑎 + 4𝑏 − 1) = (2𝑐 − 𝑑 + 2, 𝑐 + 4𝑑 − 1) Definition of 𝑓
Since the equation is an equality of ordered pairs, then
2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2 = 2𝑐 − 𝑑 + 2
𝑎 + 4𝑏 − 1 = 𝑐 + 4𝑑 − 1
By adding the corresponding side of the equations in this system, we obtain
3𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 1 = 3𝑐 + 3𝑑 + 1
3𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 3𝑐 + 3𝑑 Subtract 1
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑐+𝑑 Divide by 3
Since substituting 𝑎 = 𝑐 into either equation in the system gives us 𝑏 = 𝑑, then
𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑 ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑). As such, if 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑓 (𝑐, 𝑑 ), then (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑).
Therefore, 𝑓 is one-to-one.
To determine if 𝑓 is onto, we let (𝑟, 𝑠) ∈ ℝ × ℝ and solve for 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the domain
so that 𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑟, 𝑠).
(2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2, 𝑎 + 4𝑏 − 1) = (𝑟, 𝑠) Definition of 𝑓

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 3

 Since the equation is an equality of ordered pairs, then
2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2 = 𝑟
𝑎 + 4𝑏 − 1 = 𝑠
Let us first solve for 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the system by elimination.
8𝑎 − 4𝑏 + 8 = 4𝑟 Multiply 4 2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2 = 𝑟
+ 𝑎 + 4𝑏 − 1 = 𝑠 + −2𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 2 = −2𝑠 Multiply – 2
9𝑎 + 7 = 4𝑟 + 𝑠 −9𝑏 + 4 = 𝑟 − 2𝑠
Simplify
9𝑎 = 4𝑟 + 𝑠 − 7 Subtract 7 −9𝑏 = 𝑟 − 2𝑠 − 4 Subtract 4
4𝑟+𝑠−7 𝑟−2𝑠−4
. 𝑎= 9 Divide by 9 𝑏=− 9 Divide by – 9
4𝑟+𝑠−7 𝑟−2𝑠−4
Given that 𝑎 = and 𝑏 = − , let us verify 𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑟, 𝑠).
9 9
𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑟, 𝑠)
4𝑟+𝑠−7 𝑟−2𝑠−4
𝑓( 9 ,− 9 ) =
4𝑟+𝑠−7 𝑟−2𝑠−4 4𝑟+𝑠−7 𝑟−2𝑠−4
(2 ( 9
) − (− 9
) + 2,
9
+ 4 (−
9
) − 1) =
8𝑟+2𝑠−14+𝑟−2𝑠−4+18 4𝑟+𝑠−7−4𝑟+8𝑠+16−9
( ,
)=
9 9
(𝑟, 𝑠) = (𝑟, 𝑠)
This means that for all (𝑟, 𝑠) ∈ ℝ × ℝ, there exists (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ × ℝ such that
𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑟, 𝑠). Therefore, 𝑓 is onto.
Given that it is one-to-one and onto mapping, then 𝑓 is a transformation.

Composition of Transformations

Definition: Given a transformation 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and a transformation 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶, the product

ℎ = 𝑔𝑓 is the transformation ℎ: 𝐴 → 𝐶, called the composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔, by ℎ(𝑎) =
𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)).

Example 4: Let 𝑓 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} and 𝑔 = {(2, 1), (3, 3), (3, 1)} be transformations
of points on a line.
a. Find the composition of 𝑔𝑓.
b. Find the composition of 𝑓𝑔.
Solution:
a. The product 𝑔𝑓 is defined in such a way that the transformation on the right is
performed first.
ℎ = 𝑔𝑓
ℎ = {(2, 1), (3, 3), (3, 1)}{(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}
ℎ = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (2, 1)(1, 3)}
This means that 𝑔𝑓 = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (2, 1)(1, 3)}.
b. To find the product of 𝑓𝑔, start with transformation on g.
ℎ = 𝑓𝑔
ℎ = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}{(2, 1), (3, 3), (3, 1)}
ℎ = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
As such, 𝑓𝑔 = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 4

 Based on the results, it could be observed that the composition of 𝑔𝑓 is not equal
to the composition of 𝑓𝑔.
Example 5: Let 𝑓 be the transformation such that (𝑥, 𝑦) has the image (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 − 1) and
𝑔 be the transformation such that (𝑥, 𝑦) has the image (2𝑥 − 3, 𝑦 + 2). Find the
composition of 𝑔𝑓.
Solution: Let us determine the composition of the plane given by 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 − 1)
and 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2𝑥 − 3, 𝑦 + 2).
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦))
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 − 1)
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2(𝑥 + 4) − 3, (𝑦 − 1) + 2)
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2𝑥 + 5, 𝑦 + 1)
This means that the composition of 𝑔𝑓 is ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2𝑥 + 5, 𝑦 + 1).
1 2 3 1 2 3
Example 6. Let 𝑅1 = ( ) and R(120) = ( ) be transformations of the set
1 3 2 2 3 1
of symmetries of an equilateral triangle. Find the composition of R(120)𝑅1 .
Solution: Let us perform the transformation on the right first which is 𝑅1 .
1 2 3 1 2 3
R(120)𝑅1 = ( )( )
2 3 1 1 3 2
1 2 3
R(120)𝑅1 = ( )
2 1 3
1 2 3
As such, the composition of R(120)𝑅1 is ( ).
2 1 3

WEB Link

To learn more about transformation through the WEB, you may watch a video on
the following link: https://youtu.be/XiAoUDfrar0.

Proceed to Activity 1 to further test your understanding of the lesson

presented above.

Lesson 2: Groups of Transformations

Transformation of a set onto itself can be multiplied by first applying one
transformation 𝑓 and then another transformation 𝑔. With this composition, the set of all
automorphisms of a structure has itself the structure of a group.

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 5

Definition: A group of transformations is a nonempty set S of transformations f
such that:
a. f  S implies that f 1  S
b. f  S and g  S imply that fg  S and gf  S
c. f ( gh)  ( fg)h
d. 𝐼 ∈ 𝑆

Example 7: Considering an equilateral triangle, identify the symmetries.

3

1 2
Figure 2. Symmetries of Equilateral Triangle

Solution: The symmetries of the triangle designates the reflections about the axes of
symmetry or rotation such that the new figure coincides with the old. The result of each
symmetry can be represented by renaming the three vertices.

There are six different ways to transform an equilateral triangle into itself
without distorting it.
1. 𝐼: 𝑅 2 → 𝑅2
3 3
I

1 2 1 2
Figure 6. The identity transformation
This is the identity transformation in which all the vertices remains fixed. It has a
1 2 3
permutation group symbol I = ( ).
1 2 3
2. 𝑅1 : 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

3 2

𝑅1

1 2 1 3

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 6

 Figure 7. Reflection about the axis through vertex 1
Vertex 1 remains fixed, vertex 2 moves to the place where vertex 3 was originally,
and vertex 3 moves to the place where vertex 2 was originally. The permutation group
1 2 3
symbol is 𝑅1 = ( ).
1 3 2
3. 𝑅2 : 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

3 1
𝑅2

1 2 3 2

Figure 7. Reflection about the axis through vertex 2

Vertex 2 remains fixed, vertex 1 moves to the place where vertex 3 was originally,
and vertex 3 moves to the place where vertex 1 was originally. This could be represented
1 2 3
using 𝑅2 = ( ).
3 2 1

4. 𝑅3 : 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

3 3
𝑅3

1 2 2 1

Figure 7. Reflection about the axis through vertex 3

Vertex 3 remains fixed, vertex 2 moves to the place where vertex 1 was originally,
and vertex 1 moves to the place where vertex 2 was originally. In permutation symbol,
1 2 3
this is 𝑅3 = ( ).
2 1 3
5. 𝑅(120): 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

3 2
R(120)

1 2 3 1

Figure 7. Rotation through an angle of 1200 counterclockwise

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 7

 Vertex 1 moves to the place where vertex 2 was originally, vertex 2 moves to the
place where vertex 3 was originally, and vertex 3 moves to the place where vertex 1
1 2 3
was originally. The permutation symbol for this is R(120) = ( ).
2 3 1
6. 𝑅(240): 𝑅2 → 𝑅2

3 1
R(240)

1 2 2 3

Figure 7. Rotation through an angle of 2400 counterclockwise

Vertex 1 moves to the place where vertex 3 was originally, vertex 2 moves to the
place where vertex 1 was originally, and vertex 3 moves to the place where vertex 2
1 2 3
was originally. The representation for this is R(240) = ( ).
3 1 2
1 2 3
As such, the six symmetries of an equilateral triangle are I = ( ), 𝑅1 =
1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
( ), 𝑅2 = ( ), 𝑅3 = ( ), R(120) = ( ), and R(240) =
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1
1 2 3
( ).
3 1 2

The composition operator is like multiplication operator for transformations, and it

provides the symmetry group with an interesting mathematical structure, a group
product.

Example 8. Determine the compositions of the set of symmetries of an equilateral triangle.

Solution: Let us determine the compositions by completing the multiplication table for
elements.
The easiest way to do this is to use the following permutation symbols.
1 2 3 1 2 3
I=( ) 𝑅3 = ( )
1 2 3 2 1 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑅1 = ( ) R(120) = ( )
1 3 2 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑅2 = ( ) R(240) = ( )
3 2 1 3 1 2
To illustrate this, let us determine the composition of 𝑅1 𝑅2 . Let us perform the
transformation on the right first which is 𝑅2 .

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 8

 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑅1 𝑅2 = ( )( )
1 3 2 3 2 1
1 2 3
𝑅1 𝑅21 = ( )
2 3 1
1 2 3
As such, the composition of R(120)𝑅1 is R(120) = ( ).
2 3 1
Given that the second transformation should be performed first in determining the
composition of two transformations, then the transformations located at the column
should be done first as shown in the table below.
Table 1. Multiplication Table for the Transformations
First Transformation Performed
I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Transformation
Performed

I I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Second

𝑅1 𝑅1 I R(120)
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑅3 𝑅3
R(120) R(120)
R(240) R(240)

As such, the table below presents the complete multiplication table for the
transformations.
Table 1. Multiplication Table for the Elements
First Transformation Performed
I 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Transformation

𝑅1 𝑅2
Performed

I I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Second

𝑅1 𝑅1 I R(120) R(240) 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅2 R(240) I R(120) 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅3 𝑅3 R(120) R(240) I 𝑅1 𝑅2
R(120) R(120) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 R(240) I
R(240) R(240) 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 I R(120)

Properties of Group Transformation

Based on the definition of group of transformations, it could be observed that there
are four properties involved: inverse, closure, associative, and identity.

1. Existence of an inverse element. The inverse for each transformation is also an

element in the set of transformations.
2. Closure Property. The product of any two transformations in the set is also a
transformation.

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 9

 3. Associative Property. Regardless of the grouping by parentheses, the definition of
multiplication of transformations results in one transformation followed by another,
and the product of the same three transformations in the same order.
4. Existence of an identity element. For every group of transformations there exists
an identity element as an element of the group.

Theorem 1. The set of symmetries of the equilateral triangle is a group of

transformations.
Axiom 1: G is closed under investigation: if T belongs to G, then so does T-1.
Axiom 2: G is closed under composition: ifT and U belong to G, then so does the
composition 𝑇°𝑈.
Axiom 3: G is closed under associativity: if T, U, and V belong to G, then the triple
composition 𝑉°(𝑇°𝑈) = (𝑉°𝑇)°𝑈.
Axiom 4: The identity transformation I belongs to G.

Example 9: Verify that the set of symmetries of an equilateral triangle constitutes a group.
Solution: To show that the set of symmetries is a group of transformations, let us consider
the symmetries of equilateral triangle as shown in the table below. The symmetries of
the triangle designates the reflections about the axes of symmetry or rotation such that
the new figure coincides with the old. The result of each symmetry can be represented
by renaming the three vertices.

Axiom 1

Given a transformation 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, the inverse transformation of 𝑓, denoted by 𝑓 −1

is the transformation 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴 which has the property that 𝑓𝑓 −1 = 𝑓 −1 𝑓 = 𝐼. Given that
the identity transformation is the product of the transformation and its inverse, then we
need to locate the identity transformation in the multiplication table.
Table 1. Multiplication Table for the Elements
First Transformation Performed
I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Transformation
Performed

I I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Second

𝑅1 𝑅1 I R(120) R(240) 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅2 R(240) I R(120) 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅3 𝑅3 R(120) R(240) I 𝑅1 𝑅2
R(120) R(120) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 R(240) I
R(240) R(240) 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 I R(120)

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 10

 Since there is exactly one I in each row and column of Table 1, then every element
has a unique inverse. In particular, the inverses of the row transformations are the
corresponding column transformations where the identity element is located. As such,

𝑓 𝑓 −1
I I
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑅3 𝑅3
R(120) R(240)
R(240) R(120)

Given that the inverses of each transformation is also an element of the set of
transformations in the symmetries of an equilateral triangle, then the first property is
satisfied.
Axiom 2
Since all products of transformations are elements of the set of symmetries of an
equilateral triangle, then it is closed.

Axiom 3
Let us consider 𝑓 = 𝑅1 , 𝑔 = 𝑅2 , and ℎ = R(120). This could be verified using Table
2.
𝑅1 (𝑅2 R(120)) = (𝑅1 𝑅2 )R(120)
𝑅1 𝑅3 = R(120)R(120)
R(240) = R(240)
Axiom 4
Since I is present in each row and column, then there exists is an identity element I =
1 2 3
( ).
1 2 3
Since 𝑓 ∈ 𝑆 implies that 𝑓 −1 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑓 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑔 ∈ 𝑆 implies 𝑓𝑔 ∈ 𝑆, f ( gh)  ( fg)h ,
and 𝐼 ∈ 𝑆, then set of symmetries of the equilateral triangle is a group of transformations.

Definition: An Abelian Group is a group wherein commutative property does hold for
all pairs of elements in a group.

This means that in verifying an Abelian Group, determine first if it satisfies the
properties of a group of transformations. In general, commutative property 𝑓𝑔 = 𝑔𝑓 does
not hold for transformations.

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 11

Example 10: Determine whether the set of symmetries of the equilateral triangle is an
Abelian group.
Solution: Since we have already established that the set of symmetries of the equilateral
triangle is a group, we will proceed with the fifth property which is commutative.
Based on the multiplication table for the elements, commutative property does not
hold because it could be observed that when we disregard the main diagonal, the entries
in the upper triangular matrix do not mirror the entries in the lower triangular matrix e.g.
𝑅1 𝑅2 ≠ 𝑅2 𝑅1 .
Table 1. Multiplication Table for the Elements
First Transformation Performed
I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
Transformation
Performed

I I 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 R(120) R(240)
econd

𝑅1 𝑅1 I R(120) R(240) 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅2 R(240) I R(120) 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅3 𝑅3 R(120) R(240) I 𝑅1 𝑅2
R(120) R(120) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 R(240) I
R(240) R(240) 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 I R(120)

As such, the set of symmetries of the equilateral triangle is not an Abelian group.
WEB Link

To learn more about transformation through the WEB, you may watch a video on
the following link: https://youtu.be/nvrH8XgXYXw.

Proceed to Activity 2 to further test your understanding of the lesson

presented above.

Module 4: Geometric Transformations 12