Issue 77_______________________________________________________July/August 2014

Inside This Issue... Fundamentals of Crack Control in Reinforced Concrete

Fundamentals of Crack Control Robert J. Frosch, PhD, PE, Purdue University
in Reinforced Concrete
Michigan’s Experience with
Ductile ECC for Bridge Decks
Shrinkage Reducing Admixture
Usage in Hawaii Bridge Decks
Sustainable Bridges and Infra-
structure (Part II)

Fig. 1. Cracking Test Specimen.

Crack control is an important issue for primarily two reasons: aesthetics

and durability. Wide cracks detract from a structure visually as well as
may unduly alarm the public that there are structural problems. In addi-
tion, wide cracks may cause durability related problems. Cracks provide
a rapid route for oxygen, water, and, depending on exposure, chlorides to
reach the reinforcement, which may lead to corrosion and structural dete-
rioration. Both analytical and experimental research continue to provide
improved tools to assist in the control of cracking (Figure 1).
Current design approaches for the control of cracking focus on limiting
the spacing of the reinforcement. To understand this relationship, it is
important to review the fundamentals of cracking behavior which is dis-
cussed in detail in Frosch (1999). As shown in Figure 1, the crack width
wc at the level of the reinforcement can be calculated as wc=εsSc where εs
is the reinforcement strain (fs /Es) and Sc is the crack spacing.

Fig. 2. Cracking Model.

Page 1
 To calculate the crack width at
the beam surface, it is necessary
to account for the strain gradient
(Figure 2). Plane sections are
assumed to remain plane, and
the crack width at the level of the
reinforcement is multiplied by an
amplification factor

Fig. 3. Controlling cover dimensions.

resulting in the surface crack maximum concrete cover. Spe- all, correlated with surface crack
width. cifically, the minimum theoreti- widths (Darwin et al. 1985, Oes-
Cracks develop in concrete cal crack spacing is equal to the terle 1997). It is for this reason
because the tensile strength of distance from the center of the that the ACI 318 building code,
the concrete has been exceed- reinforcement to the point on the which is based on a crack width
ed. Once cracking initiates, the cover furthest from the reinforce- of 0.016 in., does not differentiate
tension in the section is fully ment d* (Figure 3). This spacing between interior and exterior
transferred to the reinforcement is the smallest that can develop exposure. The equations present-
at the crack. Between cracks, as smaller spacings cannot de- ed in the AASHTO design speci-
tension is resisted jointly by the velop sufficient tensile stresses fications were derived from the
concrete and the reinforcement. to exceed the tensile strength expression above using a crack
Obviously, the tensile stress in of the concrete. The maximum width of 0.017 in. While it was
the concrete at the crack is zero, crack spacing is equal to twice not felt necessary to have a more
and the tensile stresses in the this distance as a crack may not restrictive exposure condition,
concrete distribute approximate- develop halfway between the AASHTO decided to provide this
ly as shown in Figure 2. If there adjacent cracks. In other words, as an option for states resulting
is sufficient spacing between if the crack forms, the minimum in the Class 2 exposure condition.
cracks and adequate bond of the spacing results. The control of crack widths
reinforcement, an increase in the Putting these expressions to- presented here focuses on flex-
reinforcement stress results in an gether results in the equation for ural behavior and cracking on
increase in the concrete tensile the maximum crack width. This the tension face of the member.
stress. This increase continues equation can be rearranged to It is possible that crack widths
until the tensile strength of the solve for the maximum permissi- in deep members can be greater
concrete is reached. The max- ble bar spacing. As evident from on the side face rather than on
imum concrete tensile stress these expressions, the spacing of the tension face. For this reason
occurs halfway between existing the reinforcement is controlled skin reinforcement is required
cracks resulting in formation of primarily by the reinforcement which is discussed in more detail
a crack approximately halfway stress and concrete cover. in Frosch (2002). Furthermore,
between the cracks. This process crack control based on this
continues until the crack spacing flexural model is applicable only
is sufficiently small that there is for the design of flexural mem-
not enough distance to produce bers such as beams and slabs.
Maximum crack widths are
high enough tension between For bridge decks, cracking is
typically controlled to a target
cracks; therefore, a stabilized primarily caused by a different
value of approximately 0.016 in.
crack pattern results. mechanism. Bridge decks typi-
This value is based primarily on
It has been found that the crack aesthetics as research has shown cally develop full depth, trans-
spacing depends primarily on the that corrosion is not clearly, if at verse cracks which are caused

Page 2
by restrained shrinkage (Figure Look at Cracking and Crack
4). Therefore, controlling bar Control in Reinforced Con-
spacings as outlined here is not crete,” ACI Structural Jour-
appropriate or sufficient for the nal, Vol. 96, No. 3, May-June
control of bridge deck cracking. 1999, pp. 437-442.
This topic is discussed in an earli- 3. Frosch, R.J. (2002). “Model-
er HPC Bridge Views bridge deck ing and Control of Side Face
article (Frosch 2007), and more Beam Cracking,” ACI Struc-
resent research provides addi- tural Journal, Vol. 99, No. 3,
tional guidance on the control of May-June 2002, pp. 376-385.
bridge deck cracking (Frosch et
al. 2010). 4. Frosch, R.J. (2007). “Con- Fig. 4. Transverse Bridge Deck Cracking.
trolling Bridge Deck Crack- search Program, FHWA/IN/
References ing in Indiana,” HPC Bridge JTRP-2010/4, 318 pp. doi:
1. Darwin, D., Manning, D.G., Views, Issue No. 46, Septem- 10.5703/1288284314267.
and Hognestad, E. “Debate: ber/October 2007.
Crack Width, Cover, and 6. Oesterle, R.G., “The Role of
5. Frosch, R.J., Gutierrez, Concrete Cover in Crack
Corrosion,” Concrete Interna- S., Hoffmann, J., (2010).
tional, V. 7, No. 5, May 1985, Control Criteria and Corro-
“Control and Repair of sion Protection,” RD Serial
pp. 20-35. Bridge Deck Cracking,” No. 2054, Portland Cement
2. Frosch, R.J. (1999). “Another Joint Transportation Re- Association, Skokie, IL, 1997.

Michigan’s Experience with Ductile ECC for Bridge Decks

Victor C. Li, University of Michigan

Introduction or epoxy coating of steel rein-

Increasingly, DOTs are expected forcement to slow this process,
to maintain bridge inventories frequent maintenance of bridge
in good conditions under a tight decks remains to be the norm.
budget. Simultaneously, there is a A concrete that has an ability
sense of urgency to enhance mo- to reliably control cracking and
bility and sustainability of trans- limit the diffusion of chloride
portation infrastructure. Given through the concrete cover in the
that concrete is the most used field would be greatly beneficial
material in bridge infrastruc- to extending the service life of Fig. 1. Surface finishing of the ECC link-slab on
the Grove Street Bridge in Michigan, 2005.
ture, it would be natural to look bridge decks, reducing down-
transit facilities, and bridges.
to new performance in concrete time and enhancing driver com-
that could assist in meeting these fort. What is ECC?
challenges. The intent of the Envision Engineered Cementitious Com-
A common cause for repeated rating system is to standardize posite (ECC) is a special type of
maintenance of bridge struc- evaluation of the sustainability high performance concrete with
tures, especially in the northern of infrastructure projects. It is tensile deformability several
states with severe winters and applicable to projects in sectors hundred times that of normal
coastal states with salt-water such as energy, water, waste, concrete. Cracks in ECC are lim-
environment, is the cracking of transportation, landscaping, and ited to below 100 micron, often
concrete cover that often leads to information. In the transporta- less than 50 micron, even under
corrosion of steel reinforcement. tion sector, project types that can traffic induced fatigue loading. As
Although it is common to use use Envision include airports, a result, the water permeability
crack sealants on concrete and/ roads, highways, railways, public of ECC in the field can consistent-

Page 3
ly retain that of intact concrete
throughout its service life. And it
does so without relying on steel
reinforcement. Under accelerat-
ed chloride tests, the corrosion
rate of reinforcing steel inside
ECC is significantly below that of
reinforcing steel inside normal
concrete subjected to the same
mechanical loading. Further, it
has been demonstrated that ECC
is spall resistant. These attri-
butes of ECC – low permeability,
low chloride diffusivity, and high
corrosion resistant for steel rein-
forcement and spall resistance in
the field – make it a good candi-
Fig. 2. ECC demonstrates an ability to deform without brittle fracturing.
date material for overcoming the
challenges faced by those having mm x 5.5 m x 20 m, replaces a Despite the attentions given to
the responsibility to maintaining conventional expansion joint on a the ECC link-slab, the first use of
bridge deck conditions. high-skew bridge. The link-slab is ECC was actually a small patch
A typical composition of ECC is connected to the adjacent con- repair on Curtis Road Bridge over
given in Table 1. Depending on crete deck through steel rein- M-14 in Michigan, in September
the exact composition, the com- forcements, and is partially tied 2002. The ECC patch was placed
pressive strength of ECC is in the to the supporting steel girders side-by-side with a regular patch
range of 50-75 MPa, whereas the through shear connectors. It is repair concrete. The deck ex-
tensile ductility is 2-4%, about otherwise designed to stretch perienced heavy 11-axle truck
200-400 times that of normal freely. Movement of the bridge loading. This application of ECC
concrete. The ability of ECC to ex- deck induced by thermal expan- demonstrated the durability of
perience large deformation with- sion and contraction is accommo- ECC under severe Michigan win-
out fracturing is illustrated in a dated by the ductile deformation ter weather conditions combined
bending experiment shown in of the link-slab, thus serving the with large mechanical loading.
Fig. 2. Because ECC does not in- function of an expansion joint. Cracks were monitored on both
clude coarse aggregates, shrink- The ECC link-slab eliminates the ECC and the adjacent repair
age control should be considered the typical problems of expan- concrete patches. The maximum
especially for large surface area sion joints, including joint mal- crack width in the normal repair
applications. functioning, water leakage, and concrete grew to about 3.8 mm
rusting or beam-end corrosion over the following two years,
Michigan’s Experience with of the supporting girders. By this and had to be re-repaired in late
Ductile ECC writing, almost ten years have 2005. The maximum crack width
In 2005, the world’s first ECC passed since its installation. This in the ECC patch remained tight
link-slab was installed on Grove ECC link-slab continues to serve at approximately 50 micron for
Street Bridge in Southeast Michi- its intended functions without the whole monitoring period
gan. The link-slab measuring 225 any maintenance. ending in 2007 when full deck
Cement Fine Aggregates Fly ash Water HRWR* Fiber** replacement took place.
Another bridge deck patch re-
578 462 694 319 7:51 26 pair was performed on Ellsworth
* High range water reducer, **PVA fiber with surface coating Road over M-23 in Ann Arbor,
Michigan, in late November of
Table 1. A typical mix composition of an ECC (kg/m3)

Page 4
2006. For this repair, a special public mobility by reducing traf- plication of ECC for Bridge
version of ECC with high ear- fic interruptions, while reducing Deck Link Slabs,” RILEM J. of
ly strength of 24 MPa within 4 downtime and enhancing envi- Materials and Structures, 42
hours was adopted. This patch ronmental sustainability. In the (9) 1185-1195, 2009.
remains in good condition to this case of the Grove Street Bridge, 3. Lepech, M.D. and V.C. Li,
day. life-cycle analyses conducted by “Long Term Durability Per-
ECC’s Value Proposition the Center for Sustainability at formance of Engineered Ce-
the University of Michigan found mentitious Composites,” Int’l
ECC can extend service life of
that the adoption of ECC leads to J. for Restoration of Buildings
concrete bridge decks. Although
a reduction of about 40% of car- and Monuments, 12 (2) 119-
the material is more expensive
bon and energy footprints over 132, 2006.
than normal concrete, it is com-
the life-time of the bridge deck. 4. Li, M., and V.C. Li, “High-Ear-
petitive with repair mortars
ECC offers values to DOTs, the ly-Strength ECC for Rapid
commonly adopted in small-scale
motorist public, and the natural Durable Repair – Material
repair projects. Because of the
environment. Properties,” ACI Materials J.,
enhancement in bridge deck
durability, the life-cost consid- References 108(1), 3-12, 2011.
eration of projects specifying 1. Lepech, M.D., and V.C. Li, 5. Li, V.C. and M. Li, “Influence
ECC can make the adoption of “Large Scale Processing of of Material Ductility on the
this newer concrete particular- Engineered Cementitious Performance of Concrete
ly attractive. Furthermore, by Composites,” ACI Materials J., Repair,” ACI Materials J., 106
minimizing repair needs, ECC 105(4) 358-366, 2008. (5) 419-428, 2009.
contributes directly to enhancing 2. Lepech, M.D. and V.C. Li, “Ap-

Shrinkage Reducing Admixture Usage in Hawaii Bridge Decks

Gerobin Carnate, Hawaii DOT

Hawaii’s climate is considered

ideal for concrete construction
due to its mild temperatures and
moderate humidity levels year
round. Rarely does the tempera-
ture rise above 90°F or drop
below 65°F at lower elevations.
Humidity may vary slightly on
a daily basis, with an average
of 63% humidity in Honolulu.
Even with such a moderate cli-
mate, cracking due to creep and
shrinkage is still a big concern in
the design and construction of
bridges. While concrete mixtures
that optimize aggregate content Fig. 1. Kualaka'i Parkway Grade Separation – No deck joints and No Shrinkage
can also minimize paste content Cracks with use of SRA.
thereby controlling shrinkage, lo- values have resulted in cracks The Hawaii Department of Trans-
cal materials used in Hawaii have in concrete structures when the portation (HDOT) has continually
higher values of shrinkage and stresses exceed the tensile capac- looked for ways to reduce or
creep in comparison to concrete ity of the concrete. Bridge design- eliminate the number of joints
construction in other parts of the ers address cracking by install- in bridge decks to cut construc-
country. ing joints within the structure, tion and joint maintenance costs.
The high creep and shrinkage especially within the bridge deck. Ultimately, the best approach in
Page 5
bridge deck construction is to
eliminate joints.
The Kualaka’I Parkway Grade
Separation structure is a newly
constructed bridge on Interstate
Route H-1 in Kapolei, Oahu. The
structure is a prestressed con-
crete spliced-girder bridge that
was constructed with a high per-
formance concrete deck mixture
containing Shrinkage Reducing
Admixtures (SRA) and with no
deck joints. No cracks have been
found in the deck during recent Fig. 2. Kualaka'i Parkway Grade Separation – No deck joints and No Shrinkage
bridge inspections. Cracks with use of SRA .

HDOT’s usage of SRA began in steel reinforcements of 0.3 to 1.2 bridges constructed with no
early 2001 in the construction percent. Vibrating strain gages expansion or contraction joints
of the Keaiwa Stream Bridge on were used to monitor shrinkage, between the integral abutments.
Hawaii Island. The design of the strain and creep for one year. These bridges have spans rang-
muti-span bridge included a 30- Results showed a 60% reduction ing from 60 feet to 180 feet in
day delayed closure strip over a in shrinkage in the unreinforced length. Examinations of the decks
pier to prevent the superstruc- test specimens with SRA. Creep have shown no visible cracks
ture from “lock up” due to a large was also reduced by 30 percent. resulting from drying shrinkage
skew which was analyzed to The reinforced sections also of the concrete.
cause high stresses in the bridge showed reductions in shrinkage HDOT’s current concrete deck
deck from transverse bending. and creep. mixture has been able to achieve
To minimize construction time In addition, the Keaiwa Stream substantial shrinkage reduction
the contractor requested HDOT Bridge and another single –span and toughness without strength
to consider using 96 oz per concrete structure in Kahuku, loss. Varying addition rates of
cubic yard of SRA in the con- Oahu containing SRA in the deck SRA will result in varying costs
crete bridge deck to reduce the mixture were instrumented with and benefits. Local testing should
shrinkage in lieu of the 30-day vibrating wire strain gages and be done to determine optimal
delayed poured closure strip. The data collected for a year. This addition rates for a given mix de-
contractor’s consultant, KSF Inc., data also indicated a reduction of sign and the desired performance
had been consulting with Japa- creep and shrinkage values. of the concrete.
nese engineers at Taiheiyo Ce- The compressive strength of Concrete mix design using SRA
ment Corporation who had used concrete containing SRA was is only one of the elements in
SRA quite extensively as early as reduced as compared to the base- HDOT’s effort to reduce and/
1980. line concrete mixture without or eliminate joints. The overall
To determine its effectiveness SRA by approximately 10 to 15 design and construction of the
and the effects of reinforcing, a percent. bridge also play a major role in
research project was undertaken Since completion of these proj- achieving the most crack free
by HDOT to monitor the shrink- ects, SRA has been required in all structure possible with the least
age strains in the Keaiwa Stream bridge deck concrete mixtures. amount of maintenance. Howev-
bridge deck and in eight 36 x36 x With the incorporation of SRA, er, SRA has proven to be a useful
8 inch concrete specimens. These fibers, superplastizers and syn- tool in a synergistic approach
specimens were categorized into thetic air entrainment in the deck to prevent and limit cracking in
two groups, with and without concrete, Kualaka’I Parkway was bridge decks as well as elimi-
the SRA and varying amounts of the first of several single-span nate or reduce joints in H bridge
decks.
Page 6
Sustainable Bridges and Infrastructure (Part II)
Julie Buffenbarger, FACI, LEED AP, Lafarge

(Part II of a two-part series)

Design Selection with Life Cy-
cle Analysis
For several decades, research-
ers interested in the relationship
between building materials,
construction processes, and
their environmental impacts
have studied embodied energy
in building materials. Embodied
energy is divided into two main
areas, namely the initial embod-
ied energy and the operational
energy. Simply put, initial em-
bodied energy is the total ener- Fig. 1. Nearly 80 years after it was first constructed, the Hope Memorial (Lorain-Carnegie) Bridge
is “complete.” The $4.5 million investment is consistent with the Cleveland’s Complete and Green
gy consumed during resource Streets law, which requires sustainable transportation options be incorporated into new road
extraction, transportation, man- projects.

ufacturing, and fabrication of a dominate: Reduced net embodied with the international standard
material/product; and is typically energy; Environmental Product ISO 14025 (Type III Environmen-
calculated within the boundaries Declarations (EPDs); or specific tal Declarations). Specific param-
of Cradle-to-Gate (factory gate) parameters from EPDs. An EPD, eters of EPDs may include global
or Cradle-to-Site (site of use) is a comprehensive, internation- warming potential (GWP), ozone
to separate it from operational ally harmonized, verified docu- depletion, acidification, eutro-
impacts. Operational energy is ment that reports environmental phication, photochemical smog,
non-renewable energy consumed data of products, materials or ecotoxity, resource depletion, and
to maintain, repair, restore, refur- processes based on life cycle reduced net embodied energy.
bish or replace materials, com- assessment (LCA) and other rel- Collings1 studied embodied
ponents or systems during the evant information in accordance energy and CO2 emissions data
structure’s life span. Operational
energy is heavily influenced by
the durability and maintenance
of construction materials, sys-
tems and components installed in
the structure, and the life span of
the structure.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
is a method to evaluate all the
aspects connected with bridge
construction and the associated
environmental impacts during its
entire life span, including such
phases like materials acquisition,
creation, transportation, use, and
finally disposal of the product(s).
Three reporting strategies to
support impact reduction pre- Fig. 2. Three Bridge Forms Considered in the Study: a) girder; b) arch; and c) cable stay.projects.

Page 7
from different forms of bridge neered, longer span bridge using material property improvements
construction in the United King- regional materials, recycled steel and infrastructure life cycle
dom (Figure 2). Data was gath- and eco-friendly concrete is sim- analysis. By coupling materials
ered on a moderate river bridge ilar to shorter less sustainable and structural deterioration
with a width of approximately spans.2 Subsequent LCA studies models, a quantitative service
394 feet (120 m) and 217 feet by others conducted on bridges life maintenance model and full
(66 m) approaches on each side have also shown concrete to be a life-cycle impact assessment
and a total deck area was approx- favorable environmental building can be created.10 Evaluation of
imately 46,285 ft2 (4300 m2). material in comparison to wood environmental factors, loads,
The main river span and shorter and steel alternatives.3, 4, 5 materials, service life prediction
approach span structure were LCAs of structures are greatly models during the analysis and
evaluated. impacted by service life. Bridges design stages coupled with life
Three commonly used construc- should be designed to maximize cycle assessment and life cycle
tion materials were considered: the life of the existing infrastruc- cost optimization should become
steel; concrete; and a steel–con- ture. Proper structural design an integral part of a sustainable
crete composite. and detailing, material compo- infrastructure design. Figure 2
sition, high quality construction shows a flow chart of durability
The concrete type used an in design.
situ deck on a reusable shutter- practice, and preplanned opera-
ing system. The composite type tion and maintenance routines, Life Cycle Balance: Life Cycle
was of steel girders supporting a including durability monitoring Costing Analysis and Service
concrete deck slab with perma- of the structure will significant- Life Performance
nent formwork. For the compos- ly extend service lives and offer Requirements
ite bridge the towers of the cable much lower predictable opera- The design of long life structures
stay form were concrete and the tional energy.6, 7 and effective life cycle manage-
arch steel. The steel bridge used It is the responsibility of the ment of existing structures will
an orthotropic deck on girders. bridge engineer to consider both enable the construction of bridge
The embodied energy and car- the mechanical and environmen- infrastructure that contribute
bon dioxide emissions generated tal loads effects, including future to the protection of the environ-
during construction are shown in climatic conditions, and potential ment, as well as ensuring public
Table 1. The data illustrates that deterioration mechanisms and safety, health, security, service-
across the range of bridge forms, durability risks to ensure safety ability and life cycle cost-effec-
concrete construction consumes and serviceability over the bridge tiveness.12, 13 Development of
the least energy and produces structure’s entire service life.8, 9 performance-based approaches
the least CO2 emissions. It addi- Qualitative service life prediction and employment of appropriate
tionally implies that a well-engi- models should be used to link maintenance strategies is critical
to ensure adequate safety, ser-
viceability and extended service
life that minimizes the risk of fail-
ure for concrete infrastructure.
The increased emphasis on life
cycle cost analysis (LCCA) for
projects requires that attention
be focused on the service life
and durability of concrete struc-
tures including costs of initial
construction, continued mainte-
nance, and eventual demolition
or deconstruction. The initial
Table 1. Embodied Energy and CO2 emissions data for different forms of bridge construction21 selection of bridge construction

Page 8
 Sustainable Bridge Engineer-
ing Tools
CEEQUAL, Envision™, INVEST
and the National Cooperative
Highway Research Program’s
“Guidebook for Sustainability
Performance Measurement for
Transportation Agencies” are
some recently developed rating
systems and guidance tools pro-
viding similar goals; objectives;
evaluation, measurement and
assessment tools; as well as, de-
sign and project implementation
strategies to improve the sustain-
able design and performance of
infrastructure.15, 16, 17, 18, 19
Future Considerations
The use of innovative design and
practices such as: complemen-
tary cementing materials, ul-
tra-high performance concretes,20
high-performance fiber rein-
forced cementitious composites,
recycled concrete aggregates,
internal curing, photovoltaic
and LED lighting, vertical wind
turbines, and accelerated bridge
construction can all impact LCA
and LCCA. In addition, high-speed
and high-resolution, nondestruc-
tive evaluation (NDE) technolo-
gies for inspection, evaluation,
and performance monitoring
feedback to deterioration mech-
Fig. 3. Flow Chart of the Durability Design Procedure11
anisms that allow for timely pre-
materials may depend on a num- LCCA helps to identify the lowest ventive, corrective, and improve-
ber of complex and often intan- cost alternative that accomplish- ment measures to preserve good
gible factors, but the total initial es project objectives by providing structural and functional per-
and long-term costs of using any critical information for the over- formance with extended service
construction material system is all decision-making process. life. Considerations should also
one of the most important pa- When used in combination with include maintenance manage-
rameters for planners and bud- service life performance require- ment programs with inclusion of
geters. LCCA is a necessary com- ments, LCCA modeling provides a non-invasive devices and sensors
ponent in bridge management balanced importance of econom- (e.g., smart sensors, embedded
systems (BMSs) for assessing ics, environmental and societal sensors and systems) that permit
investment decisions and iden- impacts for material or system both periodic and continuous
tifying the most cost-effective selections for infrastructure (Fig- performance evaluation and
improvement alternatives. The ure 3). accurate condition assessment.21

Page 9
Finally, designing for adaptabil-
ity and deconstruction provide
strategies for climate change
adaptation and end of life decom-
missioning.22
In closing
Bridge and highway infrastruc-
ture systems, represent an enor-
mous investment of materials,
energy, and capital, resulting
in significant environmental
burdens and social costs. Devel-
opment of innovative materials,
construction practices, and em-
ployment of appropriate inspec-
tion and maintenance strategies
is critical to ensure adequate Fig. 4. Macroscale Life Cycle Modeling of Infrastructure Systems14

safety, serviceability and extend- advances”, Proceedings of the Solutions to Global Trans-
ed service life that minimizes Institution of Civil Engineers, portation Needs Organized
the risk of failure for structures Bridge Engineering, Vol 161, by International Society of
and infrastructure. Design, con- Issue 4, December 2008, pp. Concrete Pavements, Québec
struction, maintenance, climate 183-188. City, Québec, Canada, July
adaptation and resiliency are all 8-12, 2012.
considerations to secure long- 3. Hammervold, J., M. Reenaas,
term sustainability of new bridge and H. Brattebø, Environ- 7. Mirza, S., “Design of Durable
assets. Hence, enhancing the re- mental Life Cycle Assess- and Sustainable Concrete
silience of bridge infrastructure ment of Bridges. Journal of Bridges”, Proceedings In-
through designed robustness, du- Bridge Engineering, 2013. ternational Workshop on
rability, longevity, disaster resis- 18(2): p. 153-161. Cement Based Materials and
tance, and safety should also be a 4. Hammervold, J. and C. Gross- Civil Infrastructure, Karachi,
priority for the bridge engineer. rieder, E6: Vinstra-Sjoa; Life Pakistan, December 2007,
cycle assessment (LCA) of 3 pp. 333-343.
Ms. Buffenbarger is the current
Chairman of ACI’s Sustainable bridge alternatives, in Misa 8. Connal, J and Berndt, M.
Concrete Committee. For more in- reports. 2011, MiSA AS. Sustainable Bridges – 300
formation, she can be contacted at 5. Dequidt, T.C.E., “Life Cycle Year Design Life for Second
[email protected]. Assessment of a Norwegian Gateway Bridge. Proceed-
Bridge”, Master’s Thesis, ings, Austroads Bridges
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Bridge Engineering, Vol 159, Thesis, Department of Civil
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