Distr.

GENERAL

HCR/GIP/09/08
Date: 22 December 2009

Original: ENGLISH

GUIDELINES ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION:

Child Asylum Claims under Articles 1(A)2 and 1(F) of the 1951 Convention and/or
1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees

UNHCR issues these Guidelines pursuant to its mandate, as contained in the Statute
of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, in conjunction
with Article 35 of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and Article II
of its 1967 Protocol. These Guidelines complement the UNHCR Handbook on
Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention
and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (Reedited, Geneva, January
1992).

These Guidelines are intended to provide legal interpretative guidance for

governments, legal practitioners, decision makers and the judiciary, as well as UNHCR
staff carrying out refugee status determination in the field.

1
 Table of Contents

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 3
II. DEFINITIONAL ISSUES ....................................................................................... 5
III. SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS .................................................................................. 6
a) Well-founded fear of persecution ............................................................. 6
Child-specific rights ...................................................................................... 8
Child-related manifestations of persecution ................................................. 8
Child-specific forms of persecution .............................................................. 9
b) Agents of persecution ............................................................................. 16
c) The 1951 Convention grounds................................................................ 17
Race and nationality or ethnicity ................................................................ 17
Religion ...................................................................................................... 17
Political opinion .......................................................................................... 18
Membership of a particular social group .................................................... 18
d) Internal “flight” or “relocation” alternative ........................................... 20
e) The application of exclusion clauses to children ................................. 22
IV. PROCEDURAL AND EVIDENTIARY ISSUES ................................................... 25

2
Child Asylum Claims under Articles 1(A)2 and 1(F) of the 1951 Convention
and/or 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees

I. INTRODUCTION

1. These Guidelines offer substantive and procedural guidance on carrying out

refugee status determination in a child-sensitive manner. They highlight the specific
rights and protection needs of children in asylum procedures. Although the definition of
a refugee contained in Article 1(A)2 of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of
Refugees and its 1967 Protocol (hereafter “1951 Convention” and “1967 Protocol”)
applies to all individuals regardless of their age, it has traditionally been interpreted in
light of adult experiences. This has meant that many refugee claims made by children
have been assessed incorrectly or overlooked altogether. 1

2. The specific circumstances facing child asylum-seekers as individuals with

independent claims to refugee status are not generally well understood. Children may
be perceived as part of a family unit rather than as individuals with their own rights and
interests. This is explained partly by the subordinate roles, positions and status children
still hold in many societies worldwide. The accounts of children are more likely to be
examined individually when the children are unaccompanied than when they are
accompanied by their families. Even so, their unique experiences of persecution, due
to factors such as their age, their level of maturity and development and their
dependency on adults have not always been taken into account. Children may not be
able to articulate their claims to refugee status in the same way as adults and,
therefore, may require special assistance to do so.

3. Global awareness about violence, abuse and discrimination experienced by

children is growing, 2 as is reflected in the development of international and regional
human rights standards. While these developments have yet to be fully incorporated
into refugee status determination processes, many national asylum authorities are
increasingly acknowledging that children may have refugee claims in their own right. In
Conclusion on Children at Risk (2007), UNHCR’s Executive Committee underlines the
need for children to be recognized as “active subjects of rights” consistent with
international law. The Executive Committee also recognized that children may
experience child-specific forms and manifestations of persecution. 3

4. Adopting a child-sensitive interpretation of the 1951 Convention does not mean,

of course, that child asylum-seekers are automatically entitled to refugee status. The

1
UNHCR, Guidelines on Policies and Procedures in Dealing with Unaccompanied Children Seeking
Asylum, Geneva, 1997 (hereafter “UNHCR, Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3360.html, in particular Part 8.
2
See, for instance, UN General Assembly, Rights of the Child: Note by the Secretary-General, A/61/299,
29 Aug. 2006 (hereafter “UN study on violence against children”)
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/453780fe0.html; UN Commission on the Status of Women, The
elimination of all forms of discrimination and violence against the girl child, E/CN.6/2007/2, 12 Dec.
2006, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/46c5b30c0.html; UN General Assembly, Impact of armed
conflict on children: Note by the Secretary-General (the “Machel Study”), A/51/306, 26 Aug. 1996,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3b00f2d30.html, and the strategic review marking the 10 year
anniversary of the Machel Study, UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Representative of the
Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, A/62/228, 13 Aug. 2007,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47316f602.html.
3
ExCom, Conclusion on Children at Risk, 5 Oct. 2007, No. 107 (LVIII) - 2007, (hereafter “ExCom,
Conclusion No. 107”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/471897232.html, para. (b)(x)(viii).

3
child applicant must establish that s/he has a well-founded fear of being persecuted for
reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
opinion. As with gender, age is relevant to the entire refugee definition. 4 As noted by
the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, the refugee definition:

… must be interpreted in an age and gender-sensitive manner, taking into

account the particular motives for, and forms and manifestations of, persecution
experienced by children. Persecution of kin; under-age recruitment; trafficking
of children for prostitution; and sexual exploitation or subjection to female
genital mutilation, are some of the child-specific forms and manifestations of
persecution which may justify the granting of refugee status if such acts are
related to one of the 1951 Refugee Convention grounds. States should,
therefore, give utmost attention to such child-specific forms and manifestations
of persecution as well as gender-based violence in national refugee status-
determination procedures. 5

Alongside age, factors such as rights specific to children, a child’s stage of

development, knowledge and/or memory of conditions in the country of origin, and
vulnerability, also need to be considered to ensure an appropriate application of the
eligibility criteria for refugee status. 6

5. A child-sensitive application of the refugee definition would be consistent with

the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (hereafter “the CRC”). 7 The Committee
on the Rights of the Child has identified the following four Articles of the CRC as
general principles for its implementation: 8 Article 2: the obligation of States to respect
and ensure the rights set forth in the Convention to each child within their jurisdiction
without discrimination of any kind; 9 Article 3 (1): the best interests of the child as a
primary consideration in all actions concerning children; 10 Article 6: the child’s inherent
right to life and States parties’ obligation to ensure to the maximum extent possible the
survival and development of the child; 11 and Article 12: the child’s right to express
his/her views freely regarding “all matters affecting the child”, and that those views be
given due weight. 12 These principles inform both the substantive and the procedural

4
UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 1: Gender-Related Persecution Within the context
of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 7
May 2002 (hereafter “UNHCR, Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3d36f1c64.html, paras. 2, 4.
5
UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 6 (2005): Treatment of
Unaccompanied and Separated Children Outside Their Country of Origin, CRC/GC/2005/6, Sep. 2005
(hereafter “CRC, General Comment No. 6”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/42dd174b4.html,
para. 74.
6
UNHCR, Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum, op cit., page 10.
7
With a near universal ratification, the CRC is the most widely ratified human rights treaty, available at
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38f0.html. The rights contained therein apply to all children
within the jurisdiction of the State. For a detailed analysis of the provisions of the CRC, see UNICEF,
Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, fully revised third edition, Sep.
2007 (hereafter “UNICEF, Implementation Handbook”). It can be ordered at
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_43110.html.
8
CRC, General Comment No. 5 (2003): General Measures of Implementation for the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (Arts. 4, 42 and 44, Para. 6), CRC/GC/2003/5, 3 Oct. 2003 (hereafter “CRC,
General Comment No. 5”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4538834f11.html, para. 12.
9
CRC, General Comment No. 6, para. 18.
10
Ibid, paras. 19–22. See also ExCom Conclusion No. 107, para. (b)(5), and, on how to conduct “best
interests” assessments and determinations, UNHCR, Guidelines on Determining the Best Interests of
the Child, Geneva, May 2008, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/48480c342.html.
11
CRC, General Comment No. 6, paras. 23–24.
12
Ibid, para. 25. See also CRC, General Comment No. 12 (2009): The right of the child to be heard,
CRC/C/GC/12, 20 July 2009 (hereafter “CRC, General Comment No. 12”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4ae562c52.html.

4
aspects of the determination of a child’s application for refugee status.

II. DEFINITIONAL ISSUES

6. These guidelines cover all child asylum-seekers, including accompanied,

unaccompanied and separated children, who may have individual claims to refugee
status. Each child has the right to make an independent refugee claim, regardless of
whether s/he is accompanied or unaccompanied. “Separated children” are children
separated from both their parents or from their previous legal or customary primary
caregivers but not necessarily from other relatives. In contrast, “unaccompanied
children” are children who have been separated from both parents and other relatives
and are not being cared for by an adult who, by law or custom, is responsible for doing
so. 13

7. For the purposes of these Guidelines, “children” are defined as all persons
below the age of 18 years. 14 Every person under 18 years who is the principal asylum
applicant is entitled to child-sensitive procedural safeguards. Lowering the age of
childhood or applying restrictive age assessment approaches in order to treat children
as adults in asylum procedures may result in violations of their rights under
international human rights law. Being young and vulnerable may make a person
especially susceptible to persecution. Thus, there may be exceptional cases for which
these guidelines are relevant even if the applicant is 18 years of age or slightly older.
This may be particularly the case where persecution has hindered the applicant’s
development and his/her psychological maturity remains comparable to that of a
child. 15

8. Even at a young age, a child may still be considered the principal asylum
applicant. 16 The parent, caregiver or other person representing the child will have to
assume a greater role in making sure that all relevant aspects of the child’s claim are
presented. 17 However, the right of children to express their views in all matters

13
CRC, General Comment No. 6, paras. 7–8. See also, UNHCR, Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children
Seeking Asylum, op cit., p. 5, paras. 3.1-3.2. See also, UNHCR, UNICEF et al, Inter-agency Guiding
Principles on Unaccompanied and Separated Children, Geneva, 2004 (hereafter “Inter-Agency Guiding
Principles”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4113abc14.html, p. 13.
14
CRC, Art. 1 provides that “a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless,
under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.” In addition, the EU Council Directive
2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country
Nationals or Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International
Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted, 19 May 2004, 2004/83/EC,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4157e75e4.html, provides that “’unaccompanied minors’ means
third-country nationals or stateless persons below the age of 18, who arrive on the territory of the
Member States unaccompanied by an adult responsible for them whether by law or custom, and for as
long as they are not effectively taken into the care of such a person; it includes minors who are left
unaccompanied after they have entered the territory of the Member States”, Art. 2 (i).
15
The United Kingdom Immigration Appeals Tribunal (now the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal) has
held that “[t]o adopt a rigidity however in this respect is in our view to fail to recognize that in many
areas of the world even today exact ages and dates of birth are imprecise. It is better to err on the side
of generosity”; Sarjoy Jakitay v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Appeal No. 12658
(unreported), U.K. IAT, 15 Nov. 1995. See also, Decision VA0-02635, VA0-02635, Canada,
Immigration and Refugee Board (hereafter “IRB”), 22 March 2001,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b18dec82.html.
16
See, for instance, Chen Shi Hai v. The Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, [2000] HCA
19, Australia, High Court, 13 April 2000, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b6df4.html. In this
case, which concerned a 3 ½ year-old boy, it was found that “under Australian law, the child was
entitled to have his own rights determined as that law provides. He is not for all purposes subsumed to
the identity and legal rights of his parents”, para. 78.
17
See also UNHCR, Refugee Children: Guidelines on Protection and Care, Geneva, 1994,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3470.html, pp. 97–103.

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affecting them, including to be heard in all judicial and administrative proceedings, also
needs to be taken into account. 18 A child claimant, where accompanied by parents,
members of an extended family or of the community who by law or custom are
responsible for the child, is entitled to appropriate direction and guidance from them in
the exercise of his/her rights, in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the
child. 19 Where the child is the principal asylum-seeker, his/her age and, by implication,
level of maturity, psychological development, and ability to articulate certain views or
opinions will be an important factor in a decision maker’s assessment.

9. Where the parents or the caregiver seek asylum based on a fear of persecution
for their child, the child normally will be the principal applicant even when accompanied
by his/her parents. In such cases, just as a child can derive refugee status from the
recognition of a parent as a refugee, a parent can, mutatis mutandis, be granted
derivative status based on his/her child’s refugee status. 20 In situations where both the
parent(s) and the child have their own claims to refugee status, it is preferable that
each claim be assessed separately. The introduction of many of the procedural and
evidentiary measures enumerated below in Part IV will enhance the visibility of children
who perhaps ought to be the principal applicants within their families. Where the child’s
experiences, nevertheless, are considered part of the parent’s claim rather than
independently, it is important to consider the claim also from the child’s point of view. 21

III. SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS

a) Well-founded fear of persecution

10. The term “persecution”, though not expressly defined in the 1951 Convention,
can be considered to involve serious human rights violations, including a threat to life
or freedom, as well as other kinds of serious harm or intolerable situations as assessed
with regard to the age, opinions, feelings and psychological make-up of the applicant. 22
Discrimination may amount to persecution in certain situations where the treatment
feared or suffered leads to consequences of a substantially prejudicial nature for the
child concerned. 23 The principle of the best interests of the child requires that the harm
be assessed from the child’s perspective. This may include an analysis as to how the
child’s rights or interests are, or will be, affected by the harm. Ill-treatment which may
not rise to the level of persecution in the case of an adult may do so in the case of a

18
CRC, Art. 12(2); CRC, General Comment No. 12, paras. 32, 67, 123.
19
CRC, Art. 5.
20
UNHCR, Guidance Note on Refugee Claims relating to Female Genital Mutilation, May 2009 (hereafter
“UNHCR, Guidance Note on FGM”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a0c28492.html, para. 11.
See also UNHCR, ExCom Conclusion on the Protection of the Refugee’s Family, No. 88 (L), 1999,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae68c4340.html, para. (b)(iii).
21
See, for instance, EM (Lebanon) (FC) (Appellant) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department
(Respondent), U.K. House of Lords, 22 Oct. 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/490058699.html; Refugee Appeal Nos. 76250 & 76251, Nos.
76250 & 76251, New Zealand, Refugee Status Appeals Authority (hereafter “RSAA”), 1 Dec. 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/494f64952.html.
22
See UNHCR, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951
Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, 1979, re-edited, Geneva, Jan.
1992 (hereafter “UNHCR, Handbook”) http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3314.html, paras. 51–
52; UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 7: The Application of Article 1A(2) of the 1951
Convention and/or 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees to Victims of Trafficking and
Persons at Risk of Being Trafficked, 7 Apr. 2006 (hereafter “UNHCR, Guidelines on Victims of
Trafficking”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/443679fa4.html, para. 14.
23
UNHCR, Handbook, paras. 54–55.

6
child. 24

11. Both objective and subjective factors are relevant to establish whether or not a
child applicant has a well-founded fear of persecution. 25 An accurate assessment
requires both an up-to-date analysis and knowledge of child-specific circumstances in
the country of origin, including of existing child protection services. Dismissing a child’s
claim based on the assumption that perpetrators would not take a child’s views
seriously or consider them a real threat could be erroneous. It may be the case that a
child is unable to express fear when this would be expected or, conversely,
exaggerates the fear. In such circumstances, decision makers must make an objective
assessment of the risk that the child would face, regardless of that child’s fear. 26 This
would require consideration of evidence from a wide array of sources, including child-
specific country of origin information. When the parent or caregiver of a child has a
well-founded fear of persecution for their child, it may be assumed that the child has
such a fear, even if s/he does not express or feel that fear. 27

12. Alongside age, other identity-based, economic and social characteristics of the
child, such as family background, class, caste, health, education and income level, may
increase the risk of harm, influence the type of persecutory conduct inflicted on the
child and exacerbate the effect of the harm on the child. For example, children who are
homeless, abandoned or otherwise without parental care may be at increased risk of
sexual abuse and exploitation or of being recruited or used by an armed force/group or
criminal gang. Street children, in particular, may be rounded up and detained in
degrading conditions or be subjected to other forms of violence, including murder for
the purpose of “social cleansing”. 28 Children with disabilities may be denied specialist
or routine medical treatment or be ostracized by their family or community. Children in
what may be viewed as unconventional family situations including, for instance, those
born out of wedlock, in violation of coercive family policies, 29 or through rape, may face
abuse and severe discrimination. Pregnant girls may be rejected by their families and

24
See, for instance, United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services, Guidelines For
Children's Asylum Claims, 10 Dec. 1998 (hereafter the “U.S. Guidelines for Children’s Asylum Claims”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f8ec0574.html, noting that “the harm a child fears or has suffered,
however, may be relatively less than that of an adult and still qualify as persecution.” See also, Chen
Shi Hai, op. cit., where the Court found that “what may possibly be viewed as acceptable enforcement
of laws and programmes of general application in the case of the parents may nonetheless be
persecution in the case of the child”, para. 79.
25
UNHCR, Handbook, paras. 40–43.
26
See UNHCR, Handbook, paras. 217–219. See also Yusuf v. Canada (Minister of Employment and
Immigration), [1992] 1 F.C. 629; F.C.J. 1049, Canada, Federal Court, 24 Oct. 1991,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/403e24e84.html. The Court concluded that “I am loath to believe
that a refugee status claim could be dismissed solely on the ground that as the claimant is a young
child or a person suffering from a mental disability, s/he was incapable of experiencing fear the reasons
for which clearly exist in objective terms.”, at 5.
27
See, for instance, Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v. Patel, 2008 FC 747, [2009] 2
F.C.R. 196, Canada, Federal Court, 17 June 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a6438952.html, at 32–33.
28
“Social cleansing” refers to the process of removing an undesirable group from an area and may
involve murder, disappearances, violence and other ill-treatment. See, UNICEF, Implementation
Handbook, pp. 89, 91, 287. See also Case of the “Street Children” (Villagrán-Morales et al.) v.
Guatemala, Inter-American Court of Human Rights (hereafter “IACtHR”), Judgment of 19 Nov. 1999,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17bc442.html, paras. 190–191. The Court found that there was
a prevailing pattern of violence against street children in Guatemala. Relying on the CRC to interpret
Art. 19 of the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights, "Pact of San Jose", Costa Rica (hereafter
“ACHR”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36510.html, the Court noted that the State had
violated their physical, mental, and moral integrity as well as their right to life and also failed to take any
measures to prevent them from living in misery, thereby denying them of the minimum conditions for a
dignified life.
29
See further, UNHCR, Note on Refugee Claims Based on Coercive Family Planning Laws or Policies,
Aug. 2005, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4301a9184.html.

7
subject to harassment, violence, forced prostitution or other demeaning work. 30

Child-specific rights

13. A contemporary and child-sensitive understanding of persecution encompasses

many types of human rights violations, including violations of child-specific rights. In
determining the persecutory character of an act inflicted against a child, it is essential
to analyse the standards of the CRC and other relevant international human rights
instruments applicable to children. 31 Children are entitled to a range of child-specific
rights set forth in the CRC which recognize their young age and dependency and are
fundamental to their protection, development and survival. These rights include, but are
not limited to, the following: the right not to be separated from parents (Article 9);
protection from all forms of physical and mental violence, abuse, neglect, and
exploitation (Article 19); protection from traditional practices prejudicial to the health of
children (Article 24); a standard of living adequate for the child’s development (Article
27); the right not to be detained or imprisoned unless as a measure of last resort
(Article 37); and protection from under-age recruitment (Article 38). The CRC also
recognizes the right of refugee children and children seeking refugee status to
appropriate protection and humanitarian assistance in the enjoyment of applicable
rights set forth in the CRC and in other international human rights or humanitarian
instruments (Article 22).

14. Children’s socio-economic needs are often more compelling than those of
adults, particularly due to their dependency on adults and unique developmental
needs. Deprivation of economic, social and cultural rights, thus, may be as relevant to
the assessment of a child’s claim as that of civil and political rights. It is important not to
automatically attribute greater significance to certain violations than to others but to
assess the overall impact of the harm on the individual child. The violation of one right
often may expose the child to other abuses; for example, a denial of the right to
education or an adequate standard of living may lead to a heightened risk of other
forms of harm, including violence and abuse. 32 Moreover, there may be political, racial,
gender or religious aims or intentions against a particular group of children or their
parents underlying discriminatory measures in the access and enjoyment of ESC
rights. As noted by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights:

The lack of educational opportunities for children often reinforces their

subjection to various other human rights violations. For instance, children
who may live in abject poverty and not lead healthy lives are particularly
vulnerable to forced labour and other forms of exploitation. Moreover, there
is a direct correlation between, for example, primary school enrolment levels
for girls and major reductions in child marriages. 33

Child-related manifestations of persecution

15. While children may face similar or identical forms of harm as adults, they may
experience them differently. Actions or threats that might not reach the threshold of

30
UNHCR, Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution, op cit., para. 18.
31
In the context of Africa, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child should also be
considered (hereafter “African Charter”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38c18.html.
32
CRC, General Comment No. 5, op cit., paras. 6–7. See further below at v. Violations of economic,
social and cultural rights.
33
UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (hereafter “CESCR"), General Comment No.
11: Plans of Action for Primary Education (Art. 14 of the Covenant), E/1992/23, 10 May
1999, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4538838c0.html, para. 4.

8
persecution in the case of an adult may amount to persecution in the case of a child
because of the mere fact that s/he is a child. Immaturity, vulnerability, undeveloped
coping mechanisms and dependency as well as the differing stages of development
and hindered capacities may be directly related to how a child experiences or fears
harm. 34 Particularly in claims where the harm suffered or feared is more severe than
mere harassment but less severe than a threat to life or freedom, the individual
circumstances of the child, including his/her age, may be important factors in deciding
whether the harm amounts to persecution. To assess accurately the severity of the
acts and their impact on a child, it is necessary to examine the details of each case and
to adapt the threshold for persecution to that particular child.

16. In the case of a child applicant, psychological harm may be a particularly

relevant factor to consider. Children are more likely to be distressed by hostile
situations, to believe improbable threats, or to be emotionally affected by unfamiliar
circumstances. Memories of traumatic events may linger in a child and put him/her at
heightened risk of future harm.

17. Children are also more sensitive to acts that target close relatives. Harm
inflicted against members of the child’s family can support a well-founded fear in the
child. For example, a child who has witnessed violence against, or experienced the
disappearance or killing of a parent or other person on whom the child depends, may
have a well-founded fear of persecution even if the act was not targeted directly against
him/her. 35 Under certain circumstances, for example, the forced separation of a child
from his/her parents, due to discriminatory custody laws or the detention of the child’s
parent(s) could amount to persecution. 36

Child-specific forms of persecution

18. Children may also be subjected to specific forms of persecution that are
influenced by their age, lack of maturity or vulnerability. The fact that the refugee
claimant is a child may be a central factor in the harm inflicted or feared. This may be
because the alleged persecution only applies to, or disproportionately affects, children
or because specific child rights may be infringed. UNHCR’s Executive Committee has
recognized that child-specific forms of persecution may include under-age recruitment,
child trafficking and female genital mutilation (hereafter “FGM”). 37 Other examples
include, but are not limited to, family and domestic violence, forced or underage
marriage, 38 bonded or hazardous child labour, forced labour, 39 forced prostitution and

34
See further Save the Children and UNICEF, The evolving capacities of the child, 2005,
http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/evolving-eng.pdf.
35
See, for instance, Cicek v. Turkey, Application No. 67124/01, European Court of Human Rights
(hereafter “ECtHR”), 18 Jan. 2005, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/42d3e7ea4.html, paras. 173–
174; Bazorkina v. Russia, Application No. 69481/01, ECtHR, 27 July 2006,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/44cdf4ef4.html, paras. 140–141.
36
See EM (Lebanon) (FC) (Appellant) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department (Respondent), op.
cit., Refugee Appeal Nos. 76226 and 76227, Nos. 76226 and 76227, New Zealand, RSAA, 12 Jan.
2009, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49a6ac0e2.html, paras. 112–113.
37
ExCom, Conclusion No. 107, para. (g)(viii).
38
CRC, Art. 24(3); International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights (hereafter “ICCPR”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3aa0.html, Art. 23; International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36c0.html, Art. 10; Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3970.html, Art. 16.
39
CRC, Arts. 32–36; International Labour Organization, Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, C182
(hereafter “ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ddb6e0c4.html; Minimum Age Convention, C138, (hereafter “ILO
Minimum Age Convention”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/421216a34.html, Arts. 2 (3), 2(4).

9
child pornography. 40 Such forms of persecution also encompass violations of survival
and development rights as well as severe discrimination of children born outside strict
family planning rules 41 and of stateless children as a result of loss of nationality and
attendant rights. Some of the most common forms of child-specific persecution arising
in the context of asylum claims are outlined in greater detail below.

i. Under-age recruitment

19. There is a growing consensus regarding the ban on the recruitment and use of
children below 18 years in armed conflict. 42 International humanitarian law prohibits the
recruitment and participation in the hostilities of children under the age of 15 years
whether in international 43 or non-international armed conflict. 44 Article 38 of the CRC
reiterates State Parties’ obligations under international humanitarian law. The Rome
Statute of the International Criminal Court classifies as war crimes the enlistment and
use of children under the age of 15 years into the armed forces at a time of armed
conflict. 45 The Special Court for Sierra Leone has concluded that the recruitment of
children under the age of 15 years into the armed forces constitutes a crime under
general international law. 46

20. The Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed
Conflict provides that States parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure that
members of their armed forces under the age of 18 years do not take part in hostilities,
and ensure that persons under the age of 18 years are not compulsorily recruited into
their armed forces. 47 The Optional Protocol contains an absolute prohibition against the
recruitment or use, under any circumstances, of children who are less than 18 years
old by armed groups that are distinct from the armed forces of a State. 48 It also amends

40
CRC, Art. 34; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children,
Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b38bc.html.
41
See, for instance, Xue Yun Zhang v. Gonzales, No. 01-71623, U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit,
26 May 2005, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17c7082.html; Chen Shi Hai, op. cit.
42
See UNICEF, The Paris Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated With Armed Forces or
Armed Groups, Feb. 2007 (hereafter “The Paris Principles”). While not binding, they reflect a strong
trend for a complete ban on under-age recruitment. See also UN Security Council resolution 1612
(2005) (on children in armed conflict), 26 July 2005, S/RES/1612,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/43f308d6c.html, para. 1; 1539 on the protection of children
affected by armed conflict, S/RES/1539, 22 Apr. 2004,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/411236fd4.html.
43
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of
Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36b4.html, Art. 77(2).
44
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of
Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b37f40.html, Art. 4(3).
45
UN General Assembly, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, A/CONF. 183/9, 17 July 1998
(hereafter “ICC Statute”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3a84.html, Art. 8 (2) (b) [xxvi] and
(e)[vii].
46
See Prosecutor v. Sam Hinga Norman, Case No. SCSL-2004-14-AR72(E), Decision on Preliminary
Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment), 31 May 2004, paras. 52–53; UN Security
Council, Report of the Secretary-General on the establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone, 4
Oct. 2000, S/2000/915, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6afbf4.html, para. 17, which recognized
the customary character of the prohibition of child recruitment.
47
The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in
Armed Conflict, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47fdfb180.html, Arts. 1–2. There are currently 127
States Parties to the Optional Protocol. See also the African Charter, which establishes 18 years as the
minimum age for all compulsory recruitment, Arts. 2 and 22.2, and the ILO Convention on the Worst
Forms of Child Labour, which includes the forced recruitment of children under the age of 18, Arts. 2
and 3(a) in its definition of worst forms of child labor.
48
Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, Art. 4.

10
Article 38 of the CRC by raising the minimum age of voluntary recruitment. 49 States
also commit to use all feasible measures to prohibit and criminalize under-age
recruitment and use of child soldiers by non-State armed groups. 50 The Committee on
the Rights of the Child emphasizes that

… under-age recruitment (including of girls for sexual services or forced

marriage with the military) and direct or indirect participation in hostilities
constitutes a serious human rights violation and thereby persecution, and
should lead to the granting of refugee status where the well-founded fear of
such recruitment or participation in hostilities is based on “reasons of race,
religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion”
(article 1A (2), 1951 Refugee Convention). 51

21. In UNHCR’s view, forced recruitment and recruitment for direct participation in
hostilities of a child below the age of 18 years into the armed forces of the State would
amount to persecution. The same would apply in situations where a child is at risk of
forced re-recruitment or would be punished for having evaded forced recruitment or
deserted the State’s armed forces. Similarly, the recruitment by a non-State armed
group of any child below the age of 18 years would be considered persecution.

22. Voluntary recruitment of children above the age of 16 years by States is

permissible under the Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in
Armed Conflict. 52 However, the recruiting State authorities have to put in place
safeguards to ensure that the recruitment is voluntary, that it is undertaken with the
informed consent of the parents and that the children who are so recruited are
requested to produce satisfactory proof of age prior to their recruitment. In such cases,
it is important to assess whether the recruitment was genuinely voluntary, bearing in
mind that children are particularly susceptible to abduction, manipulation and force and
may be less likely to resist recruitment. They may enlist under duress, in self-defence,
to avoid harm to their families, to seek protection against unwanted marriages or
sexual abuse within their homes, or to access basic means of survival, such as food
and shelter. The families of children may also encourage them to participate in armed
conflict, despite the risks and dangers.

23. In addition, children may have a well-founded fear of persecution arising from
the treatment they are subjected to, and/or conduct they are required to engage in, by
the armed forces or armed group. Boys and girls associated with armed forces or
armed groups may be required to serve as cooks, porters, messengers, spies as well
as to take direct part in the hostilities. Girls, in particular, may be forced into sexual
relations with members of the military. 53 It is also important to bear in mind that children
who have been released from the armed forces or group and return to their countries
and communities of origin may be in danger of harassment, re-recruitment or
retribution, including imprisonment or extra-judicial execution.

49
Ibid., Art. 3.
50
Ibid., Art. 4.
51
CRC, General Comment, No. 6, para. 59. See also para. 58.
52
Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, Art. 3. States Parties
are required to raise in years the minimum age for the voluntary recruitment from the age set out in Art.
38, para. 3 of the CRC, hence, from 15 to 16 years.
53
The Paris Principles define children associated with an armed force or group as follows: “A child
associated with an armed force or armed group refers to any person below 18 years of age who is or
who has been recruited or used by an armed force or armed group in any capacity, including but not
limited to children, boys and girls, used as fighters, cooks, porters, messengers, spies or for sexual
purposes. It does not only refer to a child who is taking or has taken a direct part in hostilities.” Art. 2.1.

11
 ii. Child trafficking and labour

24. As recognized by several jurisdictions, trafficked children or children who fear

being trafficked may have valid claims to refugee status. 54 UNHCR’s Guidelines on
Victims of Trafficking and Persons at Risk of Being Trafficked are equally applicable to
an asylum claim submitted by a child. The particular impact of a trafficking experience
on a child and the violations of child-specific rights that may be entailed also need to be
taken into account. 55

25. The trafficking of children occurs for a variety of reasons but all with the same
overarching aim to gain profit through the exploitation of human beings. 56 In this
context, it is important to bear in mind that any recruitment, transportation, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation is a form of trafficking
regardless of the means used. Whether the child consented to the act or not is,
therefore, irrelevant. 57

26. The trafficking of a child is a serious violation of a range of fundamental rights

and, therefore, constitutes persecution. These rights include the right to life, survival
and development, the right to protection from all forms of violence, including sexual
exploitation and abuse, and the right to protection from child labour and abduction, sale
and trafficking, as specifically provided for by Article 35 of the CRC. 58

27. The impact of reprisals by members of the trafficking network, social exclusion,
ostracism and/or discrimination 59 against a child victim of trafficking who is returned to
his/her home country needs to be assessed in a child-sensitive manner. For example,
a girl who has been trafficked for sexual exploitation may end up being rejected by her
family and become a social outcast in her community if returned. A boy, who has been
sent away by his parents in the hope and expectation that he will study, work abroad
and send remittances back to his family likewise may become excluded from his family
if they learn that he has been trafficked into forced labour. Such child victims of
trafficking may have very limited possibilities of accessing and enjoying their human
rights, including survival rights, if returned to their homes.

28. In asylum cases involving child victims of trafficking, decision makers will need
to pay particular attention to indications of possible complicity of the child’s parents,
other family members or caregivers in arranging the trafficking or consenting to it. In
such cases, the State’s ability and willingness to protect the child must be assessed

54
See, for instance, Ogbeide v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, No. HX/08391/2002, U.K.
IAT, 10 May 2002 (unreported); Li and Others v. Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, IMM-932-00,
Canada, Federal Court, 11 Dec. 2000, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b18d3682.html.
55
See UNHCR, Guidelines on Victims of Trafficking. See also UNICEF, Guidelines on the Protection of
Child Victims of Trafficking, Oct. 2006, http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/0610-
Unicef_Victims_Guidelines_en.pdf, which make reference to refugee status for children who have been
trafficked.
56
These reasons include, but are not limited to, bonded child labour, debt repayment, sexual exploitation,
recruitment by armed forces and groups, and irregular adoption. Girls, in particular, may be trafficked
for the purpose of sexual exploitation or arranged marriage while boys may be particularly at risk of
being trafficked for various forms of forced labour.
57
For a definition of the scope of “trafficking”, see the following international and regional instruments:
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children,
Supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 15 Nov. 2000,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4720706c0.html, in particular Art. 3; Council of Europe Convention
on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, CETS No. 197, 3 May 2005
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/43fded544.html.
58
For a detailed analysis of the human rights framework relating to the trafficking of children, see
UNICEF, Implementation Handbook, op cit., in particular pp. 531–542.
59
UNHCR, Guidelines on Victims of Trafficking, op cit., paras. 17–18.

12
carefully. Children at risk of being (re-)trafficked or of serious reprisals should be
considered as having a well-founded fear of persecution within the meaning of the
refugee definition.

29. In addition to trafficking, other worst forms of labour, such as slavery, debt
bondage and other forms of forced labour, as well as the use of children in prostitution,
pornography and illicit activities (for example, the drug trade) are prohibited by
international law. 60 Such practices represent serious human rights violations and,
therefore, would be considered persecution, whether perpetrated independently or as
part of a trafficking experience.

30. International law also proscribes labour likely to harm the health, safety or
morals of a child, also known as “hazardous work”. 61 In determining whether labour is
hazardous, the following working conditions need to be considered: work that exposes
children to physical or mental violence; work that takes place underground, under
water, at dangerous heights or in confined spaces; work that involves dangerous
equipment or manual handling of heavy loads; long working hours and unhealthy
environments. 62 Labour performed by a child under the minimum age designated for
the particular kind of work and deemed likely to inhibit the child’s education and full
development is also prohibited according to international standards. 63 Such forms of
labour could amount to persecution, as assessed according to the particular child’s
experience, his/her age and other circumstances. Persecution, for example, may arise
where a young child is compelled to perform harmful labour that jeopardizes his/her
physical and/or mental health and development.

iii. Female genital mutilation

31. All forms of FGM 64 are considered harmful and violate a range of human
65
rights, as affirmed by international and national jurisprudence and legal doctrine.
Many jurisdictions have recognized that FGM involves the infliction of grave harm
amounting to persecution. 66 As the practice disproportionately affects the girl child, 67 it
can be considered a child-specific form of persecution. For further information about
FGM in the context of refugee status determination, see UNHCR Guidance Note on
Refugee Claims relating to Female Genital Mutilation. 68

iv. Domestic violence against children

60
ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, Art. 3 (a–c).
61
Ibid., Art. 3(d).
62
Ibid., Art. 4 in conjunction with ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation, 1999, R190,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ddb6ef34.html, at 3 and 4.
63
ILO Minimum Age Convention, Art. 2.
64
FGM comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other
injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. See further, OHCHR, UNAIDS et al.,
Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement, Feb. 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47c6aa6e2.html.
65
These include the right to life, to protection from torture, and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, to
protection from physical and mental violence and the right to the highest attainable standard of health.
66
See, for instance, Mlle Diop Aminata, 164078, Commission des Recours des Réfugiés (hereafter
“CRR”), France, 17 July 1991, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b7294.html; Khadra Hassan
Farah, Mahad Dahir Buraleh, Hodan Dahir Buraleh, Canada, IRB, 10 May 1994,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b70618.html; In re Fauziya Kasinga, 3278, U.S. Board of
Immigration Appeals (hereafter “BIA”), 13 June 1996,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47bb00782.html.
67
FGM is mostly carried out on girls up to 15 years of age, although older girls and women may also be
subjected to the practice.
68
UNHCR, Guidance Note on FGM, op cit.

13
32. All violence against children, including physical, psychological and sexual
violence, while in the care of parents or others, is prohibited by the CRC. 69 Violence
against children may be perpetrated in the private sphere by those who are related to
them through blood, intimacy or law. 70 Although it frequently takes place in the name of
discipline, it is important to bear in mind that parenting and caring for children, which
often demand physical actions and interventions to protect the child, is quite distinct
from the deliberate and punitive use of force to cause pain or humiliation. 71 Certain
forms of violence, in particular against very young children, may cause permanent
harm and even death, although perpetrators may not aim to cause such harm. 72
Violence in the home may have a particularly significant impact on children because
they often have no alternative means of support. 73

33. Some jurisdictions have recognized that certain acts of physical, sexual and
mental forms of domestic violence may be considered persecution. 74 Examples of such
acts include battering, sexual abuse in the household, incest, harmful traditional
practices, crimes committed in the name of honour, early and forced marriages, rape
and violence related to commercial sexual exploitation. 75 In some cases, mental
violence may be as detrimental to the victim as physical harm and could amount to
persecution. Such violence may include serious forms of humiliation, harassment,
abuse, the effects of isolation and other practices that cause or may result in
psychological harm. 76 Domestic violence may also come within the scope of torture
and other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment. 77 A minimum level of
severity is required for it to constitute persecution. When assessing the level of severity
of the harm, a number of factors such as the frequency, patterns, duration and impact
on the particular child need to be taken into account. The child’s age and dependency
on the perpetrator as well as the long-term effects on the physical and psychological
development and well-being of the child also need to be considered.

v. Violations of economic, social and cultural rights

34. The enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is central to the child’s
survival and development. 78 The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has stated
that

… the right to survival and development can only be implemented in a holistic

69
CRC, Arts. 19, 37.
70
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3b00f25d2c.html, Art. 2(a).
71
See CRC, General Comment No. 8 (2006): The Right of the Child to Protection from Corporal
Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading Forms of Punishment (Arts. 19; 28, Para. 2; and 37, inter
alia), CRC/C/GC/8, 2 Mar. 2007 (hereafter “CRC, General Comment No. 8”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/460bc7772.html, paras. 13–14, 26.
72
UN study on violence against children, op. cit., para. 40.
73
See further UNICEF, Domestic Violence Against Women and Girls, Innocenti Digest No. 6, 2000,
http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest6e.pdf.
74
See UNHCR, Handbook for the Protection of Women and Girls, Feb. 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47cfc2962.html, pp. 142–144. See also, for instance, Rosalba
Aguirre-Cervantes a.k.a. Maria Esperanza Castillo v. Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S.
Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, 21 Mar. 2001, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f37adc24.html.
75
UN Commission on Human Rights, Human Rights Resolution 2005/41: Elimination of violence against
women, E/CN.4/RES/2005/41, 19 Apr. 2005, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/45377c59c.html,
para. 5.
76
CRC, General Comment No. 8, op cit., para. 11. See also UN study on violence against children, op.
cit., para. 42; UNICEF, Domestic Violence Against Women and Girls, op cit., pp. 2–4.
77
CRC, General Comment No. 8, op cit., para. 12; Human Rights Council, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, A/HRC/7/3, 15
Jan. 2008, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47c2c5452.html, paras. 45–49.
78
CRC, Art. 6.2.

14
 manner, through the enforcement of all the other provisions of the Convention,
including rights to health, adequate nutrition, social security, an adequate
standard of living, a healthy and safe environment, education and play. 79

While the CRC and the 1966 Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
contemplate the progressive realization of economic, social and cultural rights, these
instruments impose various obligations on States Parties which are of immediate
effect. 80 These obligations include avoiding taking retrogressive measures, satisfying
minimum core elements of each right and ensuring non-discrimination in the enjoyment
of these rights. 81

35. A violation of an economic, social or cultural right may amount to persecution

where minimum core elements of that right are not realized. For instance, the denial of
a street child’s right to an adequate standard of living (including access to food, water
and housing) could lead to an intolerable predicament which threatens the
development and survival of that child. Similarly, a denial of medical treatment,
particularly where the child concerned suffers from a life-threatening illness, may
amount to persecution. 82 Persecution may also be established through an
accumulation of a number of less serious violations. 83 This could, for instance, be the
case where children with disabilities or stateless children lack access to birth
registration and, as a result, are excluded from education, health care and other
services. 84

36. Measures of discrimination may amount to persecution when they lead to

consequences of a substantially prejudicial nature for the child concerned. 85 Children
who lack adult care and support, are orphaned, abandoned or rejected by their parents,
and are escaping violence in their homes may be particularly affected by such forms of
discrimination. While it is clear that not all discriminatory acts leading to the deprivation
of economic, social and cultural rights necessarily equate to persecution, it is important
to assess the consequences of such acts for each child concerned, now and in the
future. For example, bearing in mind the fundamental importance of education and the
significant impact a denial of this right may have for the future of a child, serious harm

79
CRC, General Comment No. 7: Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood, CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1, 20
Sep. 2006 (hereafter “CRC, General Comment No. 7”)
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/460bc5a62.html, para. 10.
80
See CESCR, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1, of the
Covenant), E/1991/23, 14 Dec. 1990, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4538838e10.html, para. 1;
CRC, General Comment No. 5, para. 6.
81
See UN Commission on Human Rights, Note verbale dated 86/12/05 from the Permanent Mission of
the Netherlands to the United Nations Office at Geneva addressed to the Centre for Human Rights
("Limburg Principles"), 8 Jan. 1987, E/CN.4/1987/17 at B.16, 21–22,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/48abd5790.html; International Commission of Jurists, Maastricht
Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 26 Jan. 1997,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/48abd5730.html, at II.9 and 11.
82
See, for instance, RRT Case No. N94/04178, N94/04178, Australia, Refugee Review Tribunal
(hereafter “RRT”), 10 June 1994, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b6300.html.
83
UNHCR, Handbook, para. 53. See also Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v. Oh, 2009 FC
506, Canada, Federal Court, 22 May 2009, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a897a1c2.html, at 10.
84
See Case of the Yean and Bosico Children v. The Dominican Republic, IACtHR, 8 Sep. 2005,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/44e497d94.html. Two girls of Haitian origin were denied the right to
nationality and education because, among other matters, they did not have a birth certificate; Case of
the "Juvenile Reeducation Institute" v. Paraguay, IACtHR, 2 Sep. 2004,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17bab62.html. The Court found that failure to provide severely
marginalized groups with access to basic health-care services constitutes a violation of the right to life
of the ACHR. See also, CRC, General Comment No. 7, para. 25; CRC, General Comment No. 9
(2006): The Rights of children with disabilities, CRC/C/GC/9, 27 Feb. 2007 (hereafter “CRC, General
Comment No. 9”), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/461b93f72.html, paras. 35–36.
85
UNHCR, Handbook, para. 54.

15
could arise if a child is denied access to education on a systematic basis. 86 Education
for girls may not be tolerated by society, 87 or school attendance may become
unbearable for the child due to harm experienced on racial or ethnic grounds. 88

b) Agents of persecution

37. In child asylum claims, the agent of persecution is frequently a non-State actor.
This may include militarized groups, criminal gangs, parents and other caregivers,
community and religious leaders. In such situations, the assessment of the well-
foundedness of the fear has to include considerations as to whether or not the State is
unable or unwilling to protect the victim. 89 Whether or not the State or its agents have
taken sufficient action to protect the child will need to be assessed on a case-by-case
basis.

38. The assessment will depend not only on the existence of a legal system that
criminalizes and provides sanctions for the persecutory conduct. It also depends on
whether or not the authorities ensure that such incidents are effectively investigated
and that those responsible are identified and appropriately punished. 90 Hence, the
enactment of legislation prohibiting or denouncing a particular persecutory practice
against children, in itself, is not sufficient evidence to reject a child’s claim to refugee
status. 91

39. The child’s access to State protection also depends on the ability and
willingness of the child’s parents, other primary caregiver or guardian to exercise rights
and obtain protection on behalf of the child. This may include filing a complaint with the
police, administrative authorities or public service institutions. However, not all children
will have an adult who can represent them as is the case, for example, where the child
is unaccompanied or orphaned, or where a parent, other primary caregiver or guardian
is the agent of persecution. It is important to remember that, due to their young age,
children may not be able to approach law enforcement officials or articulate their fear or

86
See RRT Case No. V95/03256, [1995] RRTA 2263, Australia, RRT, 9 Oct. 1995,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17c13a2.html, where the Tribunal found that “discriminatory
denial of access to primary education is such a denial of a fundamental human right that it amounts to
persecution.” at 47.
87
See Ali v. Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, IMM-3404-95, Canada, IRB, 23 Sep. 1996,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b18e21b2.html, which concerned a 9 year-old girl from
Afghanistan. The Court concluded that "Education is a basic human right and I direct the Board to find
that she should be found to be a Convention refugee."
88
Decisions in both Canada and Australia have accepted that bullying and harassment of school children
may amount to persecution. See, for instance, Decision VA1-02828, VA1-02826, VA1-02827 and VA1-
02829, VA1-02828, VA1-02826, VA1-02827 and VA1-02829, Canada, IRB, 27 Feb. 2003,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b18e03d2.html, para. 36; RRT Case No. N03/46534, [2003]
RRTA 670, Australia, RRT, 17 July 2003, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17bfd62.html.
89
See CRC, Art. 3, which imposes a duty on States Parties to ensure the protection and care of children
in respect of actions by both State and private actors; ACHR, Arts. 17 and 19; African Charter, Arts.
1(3), 81. See also UNHCR, Handbook, para. 65; UNHCR, Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution,
para. 19; Advisory Opinion on Juridical Condition and Human Rights of the Child, No. OC-17/02,
IACtHR, 28 Aug. 2002, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4268c57c4.html.
90
See, for instance, Velásquez Rodríguez Case, Series C, No. 4, IACtHR, 29 July 1988, para. 174
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/40279a9e4.html; M.C. v. Bulgaria, Application No. 39272/98,
ECtHR, 3 Dec. 2003, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47b19f492.html. See also UN Committee on
the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, General Recommendations Nos. 19 and 20, adopted
at the Eleventh Session, 1992 (contained in Document A/47/38), A/47/38, 1992,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/453882a422.html, para. 9; UN Commission on Human Rights, The
due diligence standard as a tool for the elimination of violence against women: Report of the Special
Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Yakin Ertürk,
E/CN.4/2006/61, 20 Jan. 2006, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/45377afb0.html.
91
UNHCR, Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution, para. 11.

16
complaint in the same way as adults. Children may be more easily dismissed or not
taken seriously by the officials concerned, and the officials themselves may lack the
skills necessary to interview and listen to children.

c) The 1951 Convention grounds

40. As with adult claims to refugee status, it is necessary to establish whether or

not the child’s well-founded fear of persecution is linked to one or more of the five
grounds listed in Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention. It is sufficient that the
Convention ground be a factor relevant to the persecution, but it is not necessary that it
be the sole, or even dominant, cause.

Race and nationality or ethnicity

41. Race and nationality or ethnicity is at the source of child asylum claims in many
contexts. Policies that deny children of a particular race or ethnicity the right to a
nationality or to be registered at birth, 92 or that deny children from particular ethnic
groups their right to education or to health services would fall into this category. This
Convention ground would apply similarly to policies that aim to remove children from
their parents on the basis of particular racial, ethnic or indigenous backgrounds.
Systematic targeting of girls belonging to ethnic minorities for rape, trafficking, or
recruitment into armed forces or groups also may be analysed within this Convention
ground.

Religion

42. As with an adult, the religious beliefs of a child or refusal to hold such beliefs
may put him/her at risk of persecution. For a Convention ground to be established, it is
not necessary that the child be an active practitioner. It is sufficient that the child simply
be perceived as holding a certain religious belief or belonging to a sect or religious
group, for example, because of the religious beliefs of his/her parents. 93

43. Children have limited, if any, influence over which religion they belong to or
observe, and belonging to a religion can be virtually as innate as one’s ethnicity or
race. In some countries, religion assigns particular roles or behaviour to children. As a
consequence, if a child does not fulfil his/her assigned role or refuses to abide by the
religious code and is punished as a consequence, s/he may have a well-founded fear
of persecution on the basis of religion.

44. The reasons for persecution related to a child’s refusal to adhere to prescribed
gender roles may also be analysed under this ground. Girls, in particular, may be
affected by persecution on the basis of religion. Adolescent girls may be required to
perform traditional slave duties or to provide sexual services. They also may be
required to undergo FGM or to be punished for honour crimes in the name of religion. 94
In other contexts, children - both boys and girls - may be specifically targeted to join
armed groups or the armed forces of a State in pursuit of religious or related
ideologies.

92
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3712c.html, Art. 15;
ICCPR, Arts 24(2) and (3); CRC, Art. 7.
93
UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 6: Religion-Based Refugee Claims under Article
1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees,
HCR/GIP/04/06, 28 Apr. 2004 (hereafter, “UNHCR, Guidelines on Religion-Based Persecution”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4090f9794.html.
94
Ibid, para. 24.

17
Political opinion

45. The application of the Convention ground of “political opinion” is not limited to
adult claims. A claim based on political opinion presupposes that the applicant holds, or
is assumed to hold, opinions not tolerated by the authorities or society and that are
critical of generally accepted policies, traditions or methods. Whether or not a child is
capable of holding a political opinion is a question of fact and is to be determined by
assessing the child’s level of maturity and development, level of education, and his/her
ability to articulate those views. It is important to acknowledge that children can be
politically active and hold particular political opinions independently of adults and for
which they may fear being persecuted. Many national liberation or protest movements
are driven by student activists, including schoolchildren. For example, children may be
involved in distributing pamphlets, participating in demonstrations, acting as couriers or
engaging in subversive activities.

46. In addition, the views or opinions of adults, such as the parents, may be
imputed to their children by the authorities or by non-State actors. 95 This may be the
case even if a child is unable to articulate the political views or activities of the parent,
including where the parent deliberately withholds such information from the child to
protect him/her. In such circumstances, these cases should be analysed not only
according to the political opinion ground but also in terms of the ground pertaining to
membership of a particular social group (in this case, the “family”).

47. The grounds of (imputed) political opinion and religion may frequently overlap in
child asylum claims. In certain societies, the role ascribed to women and girls may be
attributable to the requirements of the State or official religion. The authorities or other
agents of persecution may perceive the failure of a girl to conform to this role as a
failure to practice or to hold certain religious beliefs. At the same time, failure to
conform could be interpreted as holding an unacceptable political opinion that
threatens fundamental power structures. This may be the case particularly in societies
where there is little separation between religious and State institutions, laws and
doctrines. 96

Membership of a particular social group

48. Children’s claims to refugee status most often have been analysed in the
context of the Convention ground of “membership of a particular social group”,
although any of the Convention grounds may be applicable. As stated in UNHCR’s
Guidelines

[a] particular social group is a group of persons who share a common

characteristic other than their risk of being persecuted, or who are perceived
as a group by society. The characteristic will often be one which is innate,
unchangeable, or which is otherwise fundamental to identity, conscience or
the exercise of one’s human rights. 97

95
See Matter of Timnit Daniel and Simret Daniel, A70 483 789 & A70 483 774, U.S. BIA, 31 Jan. 2002
(unpublished, non-precedent setting decision). The Court found that the notion “that the respondents
were too young to have an actual political opinion is irrelevant; it is enough that the officials believed
that they supported the EPLF.”
96
UNHCR, Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution, op. cit. para. 26.
97
UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 2: ‘Membership of a Particular Social Group’ within
the context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of
Refugees, HCR/GIP/02/02, 7 May 2002, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3d36f23f4.html, para. 11.

18
49. Although age, in strict terms, is neither innate nor permanent as it changes
continuously, being a child is in effect an immutable characteristic at any given point in
time. A child is clearly unable to disassociate him/herself from his/her age in order to
avoid the persecution feared. 98 The fact that the child eventually will grow older is
irrelevant to the identification of a particular social group, as this is based on the facts
as presented in the asylum claim. Being a child is directly relevant to one’s identity,
both in the eyes of society and from the perspective of the individual child. Many
government policies are age-driven or age-related, such as the age for military
conscription, the age for sexual consent, the age of marriage, or the age for starting
and leaving school. Children also share many general characteristics, such as
innocence, relative immaturity, impressionability and evolving capacities. In most
societies, children are set apart from adults as they are understood to require special
attention or care, and they are referred to by a range of descriptors used to identify or
label them, such as “young”, “infant”, “child”, “boy”, “girl” or “adolescent”. The
identification of social groups also may be assisted by the fact that the children share a
common socially-constructed experience, such as being abused, abandoned,
impoverished or internally displaced.

50. A range of child groupings, thus, can be the basis of a claim to refugee status
under the “membership of a particular social group” ground. Just as “women” have
been recognized as a particular social group in several jurisdictions, “children” or a
smaller subset of children may also constitute a particular social group. 99 Age and
other characteristics may give rise to groups such as “abandoned children”, 100 “children
with disabilities”, “orphans”, or children born outside coercive family planning policies or
of unauthorized marriages, also referred to as “black children”. 101 The applicant’s family
may also constitute a relevant social group. 102

51. The applicant’s membership in a child-based social group does not necessarily
cease to exist merely because his/her childhood ends. The consequences of having
previously belonged to such a social group might not end even if the key factor of that

98
See Matter of S-E-G-, et al., 24 I&N Dec. 579 (BIA 2008), U.S. BIA, 30 July 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4891da5b2.html, which noted that “we acknowledge that the
mutability of age is not within one’s control, and that if an individual has been persecuted in the past on
account of an age-described particular social group, or faces such persecution at a time when that
individual’s age places him within the group, a claim for asylum may still be cognizable.” (p. 583); LQ
(Age: Immutable Characteristic) Afghanistan v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2008]
U.K. AIT 00005, 15 Mar. 2007, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47a04ac32.html, finding that the
applicant, “although, assuming he survives, he will in due course cease to be a child, he is immutably a
child at the time of assessment” at 6; Decision V99-02929, V99-02929, Canada, IRB, 21 Feb. 2000,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b18e5592.html, which found that “[t]he child's vulnerability arises
as a result of his status as a minor. His vulnerability as a minor is an innate and unchangeable
characteristic, notwithstanding the child will grow into an adult.”
99
In In re Fauziya Kasinga, op. cit., it was held that “young women” may constitute a particular social
group.
100
In V97-03500, Canada, Convention Refugee Determination Division, 31 May 1999, it was accepted that
abandoned children in Mexico can be a particular social group. (A summary is available at
http://www2.irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/decisions/reflex/index_e.htm?action=article.view&id=1749). See also RRT
Case No. 0805331, [2009] RRTA 347, Australia, RRT, 30 April 2009,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a2681692.html, where the Tribunal held that the applicant’s (a
two-year old child) particular social group was “children of persecuted dissidents”.
101
This has been affirmed in several decisions in Australia. See, for instance, Chen Shi Hai, op. cit. and
more recently in RRT Case No. 0901642, [2009] RRTA 502, Australia, RRT, 3 June 2009,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a76ddbf2.html.
102
See Aguirre-Cervantes, op. cit., where the Court found that “[f]amily membership is clearly an
immutable characteristic, fundamental to one's identity”, and noted that “[t]he undisputed evidence
demonstrates that Mr. Aguirre's goal was to dominate and persecute members of his immediate
family.”

19
identity (that is, the applicant’s young age) is no longer applicable. For instance, a past
shared experience may be a characteristic that is unchangeable and historic and may
support the identification of groups such as “former child soldiers” 103 or “trafficked
children” for the purposes of a fear of future persecution. 104

52. Some of the more prominent social groupings include the following:

i. Street children may be considered a particular social group. Children living

and/or working on the streets are among the most visible of all children, often
identified by society as social outcasts. They share the common characteristics
of their youth and having the street as their home and/or source of livelihood.
Especially for children who have grown up in such situations, their way of life is
fundamental to their identity and often difficult to change. Many of these
children have embraced the term “street children” as it offers them a sense of
identity and belonging while they may live and/or work on the streets for a range
of reasons. They also may share past experiences such as domestic violence,
sexual abuse, and exploitation or being orphaned or abandoned. 105

ii. Children affected by HIV/AIDS, including both those who are HIV-positive and
those with an HIV-positive parent or other relative, may also be considered a
particular social group. The fact of being HIV-positive exists independently of
the persecution they may suffer as a consequence of their HIV status. Their
status or that of their family may set them apart and, while manageable and/or
treatable, their status is by and large unchangeable. 106

iii. Where children are singled out as a target group for recruitment or use by an
armed force or group, they may form a particular social group due to the
innate and unchangeable nature of their age as well as the fact that they are
perceived as a group by the society in which they live. As with adults, a child
who evades the draft, deserts or otherwise refuses to become associated with
an armed force may be perceived as holding a political opinion in which case
the link to the Convention ground of political opinion may also be established. 107

d) Internal “flight” or “relocation” alternative

53. An assessment of the issue of internal flight alternative contains two parts: the
relevance of such an inquiry, and the reasonableness of any proposed area of internal

103
In Lukwago v. Ashcroft, Attorney General, 02-1812, U.S. Court of Appeals for the 3rd Circuit, 14 May
2003, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47a7078c3.html, the Court found that “membership in the
group of former child soldiers who have escaped LRA captivity fits precisely within the BIA’s own
recognition that a shared past experience may be enough to link members of a ‘particular social
group’.”
104
UNHCR, Guidelines on Victims of Trafficking, para. 39. See also, RRT Case No. N02/42226, [2003]
RRTA 615, Australia, RRT, 30 June 2003, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17c2b02.html, which
concerned a young woman from Uzbekistan. The identified group was “Uzbekistani women forced into
prostitution abroad who are perceived to have transgressed social mores.”
105
See, for instance, Matter of B-F-O-, A78 677 043, U.S. BIA, 6 Nov. 2001 (unpublished, non-precedent
decision). The Court found that the applicant, who was an abandoned street child, had a well-founded
fear of persecution based on membership in a particular social group. See also, LQ (Age: Immutable
Characteristic) Afghanistan v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, op. cit. The Tribunal found
that the applicant’s fear of harm as an orphan and street child “would be as a result of his membership
in a part of a group sharing an immutable characteristic and constituting, for the purposes of the
Refugee Convention, a particular social group”, at 7.
106
See further, CRC, General Comment No. 3: HIV/AIDS and the Rights of the Child, 17 Mar. 2003,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4538834e15.html.
107
UNHCR, Handbook, paras. 169–171; UNHCR, Guidelines on Religion-Based Persecution, paras. 25–
26.

20
relocation. 108 The child’s best interests inform both the relevance and reasonableness
assessments.

54. As in the case of adults, internal relocation is only relevant where the applicant
can access practically, safely and legally the place of relocation. 109 In particular with
regard to gender-based persecution, such as domestic violence and FGM which are
typically perpetrated by private actors, the lack of effective State protection in one part
of the country may be an indication that the State may also not be able or willing to
protect the child in any other part of the country. 110 If the child were to relocate, for
example, from a rural to an urban area, the protection risks in the place of relocation
would also need to be examined carefully, taking into account the age and coping
capacity of the child.

55. In cases where an internal flight or relocation alternative is deemed relevant, a

proposed site of internal relocation that may be reasonable in the case of an adult may
not be reasonable in the case of a child. The “reasonableness test” is one that is
applicant-specific and, thus, not related to a hypothetical “reasonable person”. Age and
the best interests of the child are among the factors to be considered in assessing the
viability of a proposed place of internal relocation. 111

56. Where children are unaccompanied and, therefore, not returning to the country
of origin with family members or other adult support, special attention needs to be paid
as to whether or not such relocation is reasonable. Internal flight or relocation
alternatives, for instance, would not be appropriate in cases where unaccompanied
children have no known relatives living in the country of origin and willing to support or
care for them and it is proposed that they relocate to live on their own without adequate
State care and assistance. What is merely inconvenient for an adult might well
constitute undue hardship for a child, particularly in the absence of any friend or
relation. 112 Such relocation may violate the human right to life, survival and
development, the principle of the best interests of the child, and the right not to be
subjected to inhuman treatment. 113

57. If the only available relocation option is to place the child in institutional care, a
proper assessment needs to be conducted of the care, health and educational facilities
that would be provided and with regard to the long-term life prospects of adults who
were institutionalized as children. 114 The treatment as well as social and cultural

108
UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 4: "Internal Flight or Relocation Alternative" Within
the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of
Refugees, HCR/GIP/03/04, 23 July 2003, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f2791a44.html.
109
Ibid, para. 7.
110
Ibid, para. 15.
111
Ibid, para. 25. See further factors in the CRC, General Comment No. 6, para. 84, on Return to Country
of Origin. Although drafted with a different context in mind, these factors are equally relevant to an
assessment of an internal flight/relocation alternative.
112
See, for instance, Elmi v. Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, Canada, Federal Court, No. IMM-
580-98, 12 Mar. 1999, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17c5932.html.
113
CRC, Arts. 3, 6 and 37. See also Mubilanzila Mayeka and Kaniki Mitunga v. Belgium, Application No.
13178/03, ECtHR, 12 Oct. 2006, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/45d5cef72.html, which concerned
the return (not internal relocation) of an unaccompanied five-year old girl. The Court was “struck by the
failure to provide adequate preparation, supervision and safeguards for her deportation”, noting further
that such “conditions was bound to cause her extreme anxiety and demonstrated such a total lack of
humanity towards someone of her age and in her situation as an unaccompanied minor as to amount
to inhuman treatment [violation of article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights]”, paras. 66,
69.
114
See CRC, General Comment No. 6, para. 85. See also Inter-Agency Guiding Principles, op cit., which
notes that institutional care needs to be considered a last resort, as “residential institutions can rarely
offer the developmental care and support a child requires and often cannot even provide a reasonable

21
perceptions of orphans and other children in institutionalized care needs to be
evaluated carefully as such children may be the subject of societal disapproval,
prejudice or abuse, thus rendering the proposed site for relocation unreasonable in
particular circumstances.

e) The application of exclusion clauses to children

58. The exclusion clauses contained in Article 1F of the 1951 Convention provide
that certain acts are so grave that they render their perpetrators undeserving of
international protection as refugees. 115 Since Article 1F is intended to protect the
integrity of asylum, it needs to be applied “scrupulously”. As with any exception to
human rights guarantees, a restrictive interpretation of the exclusion clauses is
required in view of the serious possible consequences of exclusion for the individual. 116
The exclusion clauses are exhaustively enumerated in Article 1F, and no reservations
are permitted. 117

59. In view of the particular circumstances and vulnerabilities of children, the

application of the exclusion clauses to children always needs to be exercised with great
caution. In the case of young children, the exclusion clauses may not apply at all.
Where children are alleged to have committed crimes while their own rights were being
violated (for instance while being associated with armed forces or armed groups), it is
important to bear in mind that they may be victims of offences against international law
and not just perpetrators. 118

60. Although the exclusion clauses of Article 1F do not distinguish between adults
and children, Article 1F can be applied to a child only if s/he has reached the age of
criminal responsibility as established by international and/or national law at the time of
the commission of the excludable act. 119 Thus, a child below such minimum age cannot
be considered responsible for an excludable act. 120 Article 40 of the CRC requires

standard of protection”, p. 46.

115
UNHCR’s interpretative legal guidance on the substantive and procedural standards for the application
of Art. 1F is set out in UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 5: Application of the
Exclusion Clauses: Article 1F of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees,
HCR/GIP/03/05, 4 Sep. 2003, (hereafter: “UNHCR, Guidelines on Exclusion”)
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f5857684.html; UNHCR, Background Note on the Application of
the Exclusion Clauses: Article 1F of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 4 Sep.
2003, (hereafter “UNHCR, Background Note on Exclusion”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3f5857d24.html; UNHCR, Statement on Article 1F of the 1951
Convention, July 2009, (hereafter “UNHCR, Statement on Article 1F”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4a5de2992.html, and UNHCR, Handbook, paras. 140–163.
116
UNHCR, Guidelines on Exclusion, para. 2; UNHCR Background Note on Exclusion, para. 4. UNHCR,
Handbook para. 149. See also ExCom Conclusions No. 82 (XLVIII), Safeguarding Asylum, 17 Oct.
1997, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae68c958.html, para. (v); No. 102 (LVI) 2005, General
Conclusion on International Protection, 7 Oct. 2005,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/43575ce3e.html, para. (i); No. 103 (LVI), Conclusion on the
Provision on International Protection Including Through Complementary Forms of Protection, 7 Oct.
2005, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/43576e292.html, para. (d).
117
UNHCR, Guidelines on Exclusion, para. 3; UNHCR, Background Note on Exclusion, para. 7.
118
The Paris Principles state: “Children who are accused of crimes under international law allegedly
committed while they were associated with armed forces or armed groups should be considered
primarily as victims of offences against international law; not only as perpetrators. They must be
treated in accordance with international law in a framework of restorative justice and social
rehabilitation, consistent with international law which offers children special protection through
numerous agreements and principles,” para. 3.6. It should also be noted that the prosecutor for the
SCSL chose not to prosecute children between the ages of 15 and 18 years given that they themselves
were victims of international crimes.
119
UNHCR, Guidelines on Exclusion, para. 28.
120
UNHCR, Background Note on Exclusion, para. 91. If the age of criminal responsibly is higher in the

22
States to establish a minimum age for criminal responsibility, but there is no universally
recognized age limit. 121 In different jurisdictions, the minimum age ranges from 7 years
to higher ages, such as 16 or 18 years, while the Statutes of the Special Court for
Sierra Leone 122 and the International Criminal Court 123 set the cut-off age at 15 years
and 18 years respectively.

61. In view of the disparities in establishing a minimum age for criminal

responsibility by States and in different jurisdictions, the emotional, mental and
intellectual maturity of any child over the relevant national age limit for criminal
responsibility would need to be evaluated to determine whether s/he had the mental
capacity to be held responsible for a crime within the scope of Article 1F. Such
considerations are particularly important where the age limit is lower on the scale but is
also relevant if there is no proof of age and it cannot be established that the child is at,
or above, the age for criminal responsibility. The younger the child, the greater the
presumption that the requisite mental capacity did not exist at the relevant time.

62. As with any exclusion analysis, a three-step analysis needs to be undertaken if

there are indications that the child has been involved in conduct which may give rise to
exclusion. 124 Such an analysis requires that: (i) the acts in question be assessed
against the exclusion grounds, taking into account the nature of the acts as well as the
context and all individual circumstances in which they occurred; (ii) it be established in
each case that the child committed a crime which is covered by one of the sub-clauses
of Article 1F, or that the child participated in the commission of such a crime in a
manner which gives rise to criminal liability in accordance with internationally applicable
standards; and (iii) it be determined, in cases where individual responsibility is
established, whether the consequences of exclusion from refugee status are
proportional to the seriousness of the act committed. 125

63. It is important to undertake a thorough and individualized analysis of all

circumstances in each case. In the case of a child, the exclusion analysis needs to take
into account not only general exclusion principles but also the rules and principles that
address the special status, rights and protection afforded to children under international
and national law at all stages of the asylum procedure. In particular, those principles
related to the best interest of the child, the mental capacity of children and their ability
to understand and consent to acts that they are requested or ordered to undertake
need to be considered. A rigorous application of legal and procedural standards of
exclusion is also critical. 126

country of origin than in the host country, this should be taken into account in the child’s favour.
121
The Committee on the Rights of the Child urged States not to lower the minimum age to 12 years and
noted that a higher age, such as 14 or 16 years, “contributes to a juvenile justice system which […]
deals with children in conflict with the law without resorting to judicial proceedings”; see, CRC, General
Comment No. 10 (2007): Children's Rights in Juvenile Justice, CRC/C/GC/10, 25 Apr. 2007,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4670fca12.html, para. 33. See also UN General Assembly, United
Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice ("The Beijing Rules"),
A/RES/40/33, 29 Nov. 1985, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/
3b00f2203c.html, which provides that the “beginning of that age should not be fixed at a too low an age
level bearing in mind the facts of emotional, mental and intellectual maturity”, Art. 4.1.
122
UN Security Council, Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 16 Jan. 2002, Art. 7.
123
ICC Statute, Art. 26.
124
For further information on exclusion concerning child soldiers, see UNHCR, Advisory Opinion From the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Regarding the International
Standards for Exclusion From Refugee Status as Applied to Child Soldiers, 12 Sep. 2005 (hereafter
“UNHCR, Advisory Opinion on the Application of Exclusion Clauses to Child Soldiers”),
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/440eda694.html.
125
UNHCR, Statement on Article 1F, p. 7.
126
For a detailed analysis on procedural issues regarding exclusion, see UNHCR, Guidelines on
Exclusion, paras. 31–36 and UNHCR, Background Note on Exclusion, paras. 98–113.

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64. Based on the above, the following considerations are of central importance in
the application of the exclusion clauses to acts committed by children:

i. When determining individual responsibility for excludable acts, the issue of

whether or not a child has the necessary mental state (or mens rea), that
is, whether or not the child acted with the requisite intent and knowledge to
be held individually responsible for an excludable act, is a central factor in
the exclusion analysis. This assessment needs to consider elements such
as the child’s emotional, mental and intellectual development. It is important
to determine whether the child was sufficiently mature to understand the
nature and consequences of his/her conduct and, thus, to commit, or
participate in, the commission of the crime. Grounds for the absence of the
mens rea include, for example, severe mental disabilities, involuntary
intoxication, or immaturity.

ii. If mental capacity is established, other grounds for rejecting individual

responsibility need to be examined, notably whether the child acted under
duress, coercion, or in defence of self or others. Such factors are of
particular relevance when assessing claims made by former child soldiers.
Additional factors to consider may include: the age at which the child
became involved in the armed forces or group; the reasons for which s/he
joined and left the armed forces or group; the length of time s/he was a
member; the consequences of refusal to join the group; any forced use of
drugs, alcohol or medication; the level of education and understanding of
the events in question; and the trauma, abuse or ill-treatment suffered. 127

iii. Finally, if individual responsibility is established, it needs to be determined

whether or not the consequences of exclusion from refugee status are
proportional to the seriousness of the act committed. 128 This generally
involves a weighing of the gravity of the offence against the degree of
persecution feared upon return. If the applicant is likely to face severe
persecution, the crime in question needs to be very serious in order to
exclude him/her from refugee status. Issues for consideration include any
mitigating or aggravating factors relevant to the case. When assessing a
child’s claim, even if the circumstances do not give rise to a defence, factors
such as the age, maturity and vulnerability of the child are important
considerations. In the case of child soldiers, such factors include ill-
treatment by military personnel and circumstances during service. The
consequences and treatment that the child may face upon return (i.e.
serious human rights violations as a consequence of having escaped the
armed forces or group) also need to be considered.

127
Decisions in France have recognized that children who committed offences, which should in principle
lead to the application of the exclusion clauses, may be exonerated if they were in particularly
vulnerable situations. See, for instance, 459358, M.V.; Exclusion, CRR, 28 Apr. 2005,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/43abf5cf4.html; 448119, M.C, CRR, 28 Jan. 2005,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4b17b5d92.html. See also, MH (Syria) v. Secretary of State for the
Home Department; DS (Afghanistan) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2009] EWCA Civ
226, Court of Appeal (U.K.), 24 Mar. 2009, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49ca60ae2.html, para.
3. For detailed guidance on grounds rejecting individual responsibility, see, UNHCR Guidelines on
Exclusion, paras. 21–24. UNHCR, Background Note on Exclusion, paras. 91–93. UNHCR, Advisory
Opinion on the Application of Exclusion Clauses to Child Soldiers, op cit. pp. 10–12.
128
For detailed guidance on proportionality see UNHCR, Guidelines on Exclusion, para. 24; UNHCR,
Background Note on Exclusion, paras. 76–78.

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IV. PROCEDURAL AND EVIDENTIARY ISSUES

65. Due to their young age, dependency and relative immaturity, children should
enjoy specific procedural and evidentiary safeguards to ensure that fair refugee status
determination decisions are reached with respect to their claims. 129 The general
measures outlined below set out minimum standards for the treatment of children
during the asylum procedure. They do not preclude the application of the detailed
guidance provided, for example, in the Action for the Rights of Children Resources
Pack, 130 the Inter-Agency Guiding Principles on Unaccompanied and Separated
Children and in national guidelines. 131

66. Claims made by child applicants, whether they are accompanied or not, should
normally be processed on a priority basis, as they often will have special protection and
assistance needs. Priority processing means reduced waiting periods at each stage of
the asylum procedure, including as regards the issuance of a decision on the claim.
However, before the start of the procedure, children require sufficient time in which to
prepare for and reflect on rendering the account of their experiences. They will need
time to build trusting relationships with their guardian and other professional staff and
to feel safe and secure. Generally, where the claim of the child is directly related to the
claims of accompanying family members or the child is applying for derivative status, it
will not be necessary to prioritise the claim of the child unless other considerations
suggest that priority processing is appropriate. 132

67. There is no general rule prescribing in whose name a child’s asylum claim
ought to be made, especially where the child is particularly young or a claim is based
on a parent’s fear for their child’s safety. This will depend on applicable national
regulations. Sufficient flexibility is needed, nevertheless, to allow the name of the
principal applicant to be amended during proceedings if, for instance, it emerges that
the more appropriate principal applicant is the child rather than the child’s parent. This
flexibility ensures that administrative technicalities do not unnecessarily prolong the
process. 133

68. For unaccompanied and separated child applicants, efforts need to be made as
soon as possible to initiate tracing and family reunification with parents or other family
members. There will be exceptions, however, to these priorities where information
becomes available suggesting that tracing or reunification could put the parents or

129
The relevant applicable age for children to benefit from the additional procedural safeguards elaborated
in this section is the date the child seeks asylum and not the date a decision is reached. This is to be
distinguished from the substantive assessment of their refugee claim in which the prospective nature of
the inquiry requires that their age at the time of the decision may also be relevant.
130
Action for the rights of children, ARC Resource Pack, a capacity building tool for child protection in and
after emergencies, produced by Save the Children, UNHCR, UNICEF, OHCHR, International Rescue
Committee and Terre des Hommes, 7 Dec. 2009, http://www.savethechildren.net/arc.
131
See, for instance, U.K. Asylum Instruction, Processing an Asylum Application from a Child, 2 Nov.
2009,
http://www.bia.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/asylumprocessguidance/special
cases/guidance/processingasylumapplication1.pdf?view=Binary; U.K. Border Agency Code of Practice
for Keeping Children Safe from Harm, Dec. 2008, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4948f8662.html;
Finland, Directorate of Immigration, Guidelines for Interviewing (Separated) Minors, Mar. 2002,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/430ae8d72.html; U.S. Guidelines For Children's Asylum Claims, op
cit.; Canada, IRB, Guidelines Issued by the Chairperson Pursuant to Section 65(4) of the Immigration
Act: Guideline 3 - Child Refugee Claimants: Procedural and Evidentiary Issues, 30 Sep. 1996, No. 3,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b31d3b.html.
132
UNHCR, Procedural Standards for Refugee Status Determination Under UNHCR's Mandate, 20 Nov.
2003, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/42d66dd84.html, pages 3.25, 4.21–4.23.
133
This is especially relevant in relation to claims, such as FGM or forced marriage, where parents flee
with their child in fear for his/her life although the child may not fully comprehend the reason for flight.

25
other family members in danger, that the child has been subjected to abuse or neglect,
and/or where parents or family members may be implicated or have been involved in
their persecution. 134

69. An independent, qualified guardian needs to be appointed immediately, free of

charge in the case of unaccompanied or separated children. Children who are the
principal applicants in an asylum procedure are also entitled to a legal
representative. 135 Such representatives should be properly trained and should support
the child throughout the procedure.

70. The right of children to express their views and to participate in a meaningful
way is also important in the context of asylum procedures. 136 A child’s own account of
his/her experience is often essential for the identification of his/her individual protection
requirements and, in many cases, the child will be the only source of this information.
Ensuring that the child has the opportunity to express these views and needs requires
the development and integration of safe and child-appropriate procedures and
environments that generate trust at all stages of the asylum process. It is important that
children be provided with all necessary information in a language and manner they
understand about the possible existing options and the consequences arising from
them. 137 This includes information about their right to privacy and confidentiality
enabling them to express their views without coercion, constraint or fear of
retribution. 138

71. Appropriate communication methods need to be selected for the different

stages of the procedure, including the asylum interview, and need to take into account
the age, gender, cultural background and maturity of the child as well as the
circumstances of the flight and mode of arrival. 139 Useful, non-verbal communication
methods for children might include playing, drawing, writing, role-playing, story-telling
and singing. Children with disabilities require “whatever mode of communication they
need to facilitate expressing their views”. 140

72. Children cannot be expected to provide adult-like accounts of their experiences.

They may have difficulty articulating their fear for a range of reasons, including trauma,
parental instructions, lack of education, fear of State authorities or persons in positions
of power, use of ready-made testimony by smugglers, or fear of reprisals. They may be
too young or immature to be able to evaluate what information is important or to
interpret what they have witnessed or experienced in a manner that is easily
understandable to an adult. Some children may omit or distort vital information or be
unable to differentiate the imagined from reality. They also may experience difficulty

134
Family tracing and reunification have been addressed in a number of ExCom Conclusions, including
most recently in ExCom, Conclusion No. 107, para. (h)(iii). See also UNHCR, Guidelines on
Determining the Best Interests of the Child, op cit.; CRC, General Comment No. 6, para. 81.
135
“Guardian” here refers to an independent person with specialized skills who looks after the child’s best
interests and general well-being. Procedures for the appointment of a guardian must not be less
favourable than the existing national administrative or judicial procedures used for appointing
guardians for children who are nationals in the country. “Legal representative” refers to a lawyer or
other person qualified to provide legal assistance to, and inform, the child in the asylum proceedings
and in relation to contacts with the authorities on legal matters. See ExCom, Conclusion No. 107, para.
(g)(viii). For further details, see CRC, General Comment No. 6, paras. 33–38, 69. See also UNHCR,
Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum, op cit., p. 2 and paras. 4.2, 5.7, 8.3, 8.5.
136
CRC, Art. 12. The CRC does not set any lower age limit on children’s right to express their views freely
as it is clear that children can and do form views from a very early age.
137
CRC, General Comment No. 6, para. 25; CRC, General Comment No. 12, paras. 123–124.
138
CRC, Arts. 13, 17.
139
Separated Children in Europe Programme, SCEP Statement of Good Practice, Third edition, 2004,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/415450694.html, para. 12.1.3.
140
CRC, General Comment No. 9, para. 32.

26
relating to abstract notions, such as time or distance. Thus, what might constitute a lie
in the case of an adult might not necessarily be a lie in the case of a child. It is,
therefore, essential that examiners have the necessary training and skills to be able to
evaluate accurately the reliability and significance of the child’s account. 141 This may
require involving experts in interviewing children outside a formal setting or observing
children and communicating with them in an environment where they feel safe, for
example, in a reception centre.

73. Although the burden of proof usually is shared between the examiner and the
applicant in adult claims, it may be necessary for an examiner to assume a greater
burden of proof in children’s claims, especially if the child concerned is
unaccompanied. 142 If the facts of the case cannot be ascertained and/or the child is
incapable of fully articulating his/her claim, the examiner needs to make a decision on
the basis of all known circumstances, which may call for a liberal application of the
benefit of the doubt. 143 Similarly, the child should be given the benefit of the doubt
should there be some concern regarding the credibility of parts of his/her claim. 144

74. Just as country of origin information may be gender-biased to the extent that it
is more likely to reflect male as opposed to female experiences, the experiences of
children may also be ignored. In addition, children may have only limited knowledge of
conditions in the country of origin or may be unable to explain the reasons for their
persecution. For these reasons, asylum authorities need to make special efforts to
gather relevant country of origin information and other supporting evidence.

75. Age assessments are conducted in cases when a child’s age is in doubt and
need to be part of a comprehensive assessment that takes into account both the
physical appearance and the psychological maturity of the individual. 145 It is important
that such assessments are conducted in a safe, child- and gender-sensitive manner
with due respect for human dignity. The margin of appreciation inherent to all age-
assessment methods needs to be applied in such a manner that, in case of uncertainty,
the individual will be considered a child. 146 As age is not calculated in the same way
universally or given the same degree of importance, caution needs to be exercised in
making adverse inferences of credibility where cultural or country standards appear to
lower or raise a child’s age. Children need to be given clear information about the
purpose and process of the age-assessment procedure in a language they understand.
Before an age assessment procedure is carried out, it is important that a qualified
independent guardian is appointed to advise the child.

76. In normal circumstances, DNA testing will only be done when authorized by law
and with the consent of the individuals to be tested, and all individuals will be provided
with a full explanation of the reasons for such testing. In some cases, however, children
may not be able to consent due to their age, immaturity, inability to understand what
this entails or for other reasons. In such situations, their appointed guardian (in the
absence of a family member) will grant or deny consent on their behalf taking into
account the views of the child. DNA tests should be used only where other means for
verification have proven insufficient. They may prove particularly beneficial in the case
of children who are suspected of having been trafficked by individuals claiming to be

141
ExCom, Conclusion No. 107, para. (d).
142
Ibid, para. (g)(viii), which recommends that States develop adapted evidentiary requirements.
143
UNHCR, Handbook, paras. 196, 219.
144
Inter-Agency Guiding Principles, op. cit., p. 61.
145
ExCom, Conclusion No. 107, para. (g)(ix).
146
Ibid, para. (g)(ix); UNHCR, Guidelines on Policies and Procedures in Dealing with Unaccompanied
Children Seeking Asylum, op cit., paras. 5.11, 6.

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parents, siblings or other relatives. 147

77. Decisions need to be communicated to children in a language and in a manner

they understand. Children need to be informed of the decision in person, in the
presence of their guardian, legal representative, and/or other support person, in a
supportive and non-threatening environment. If the decision is negative, particular care
will need to be taken in delivering the message to the child and explaining what next
steps may be taken in order to avoid or reduce psychological stress or harm.

147
UNHCR, Note on DNA Testing to Establish Family Relationships in the Refugee Context, June 2008,
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/48620c2d2.html.

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