CHAPTER FOUR

DC MACHINCES
Dc machines can work as generators, motors & brakes. In the generator mode the machine is
driven by a prime mover (such as a steam turbine or a diesel engine) with the mechanical power
converted into electrical power. In the motor mode, the machine drives a mechanical load with
the electrical power supplied converted into mechanical power. In the brake mode, the machine
decelerates on account of the power supplied or dissipated by it and, therefore, produces a
mechanical braking action.
 Construction of Dc Machines
The dc machines used for industrial applications have essentially three major parts:
a) Field system (stator); b) Armature (Rotor) and c) commutator All the components of the dc
machine are illustrated in cut-away view of figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 cut-away view of DC machines

1.shaft; 2.end-bearings; 3. Commutator; 4. brushes; 5.armature; 6. main-pole; 7.main-pole field
winding; 8.frame; 9.end-shield; 10.ventilator; 11.basement; 12.bearings.
Field System: The field system is located on the stationary part of the machine called stator.
The field system is designated for producing magnetic flux and, therefore, provides the necessary
excitation for operation of machine. Figure 4.2 shows that the main flux  paths which starts
from a North pole, crosses the air gap and then travels down to the armature core. There, it
divides into two equal (2) halves, each half enter the nearby South Pole so as to complete the
flux. Each flux line crosses the air-gap twice. Some flux lines may not enter the armature; this
flux, called the leakage flux, is not shown in Figure 4.2.

1
 Figure 4.2 Flux paths in a 6-pole dc machines
The stator of dc machines comprises of
1. Main poles: These poles are designed to produce the main magnetic flux
2. Frame: These provide support for the machine. In many machines the frame is also a part
of the magnetic circuit.
3. Interpoles:These poles are designed to improve commutation conditions to ensure
sparkles operation of machine.

Figure 4.3 Main-pole

Main-pole: Poles are made of sheet steel laminations of 1.0 to 1.2mm thickness (nowadays the
thickness becomes 0.4-0.5mm). The pole shoes support the field coils placed on the pole body
and also spread the total flux over a greater area, thereby reduce the air gap reluctance and giving
l
the desired flux distribution to limit saturation in the teeth of the armature. (  ) . The poles
A
are secured to the yoke by means of bolts.
Yoke (Frame): The stator of a dc machines consists of a frame or yoke, and poles which
support the field windings. The Frame or Yoke in addition to being a part of a magnetic circuit
serves as mechanical support for entire assembly.

2
Interlopes: In addition to the main poles, modern direct current machines are also provided
with interlopes with windings on them in order to improve commutation under loaded
conditions.They are arranged midway between the mains poles and are bolted to the yolk.
Armature: The armature is the rotating part (rotor) of the dc machine where the process of
electromechanical energy conversion takes pace. The armature is a cylindrical body, which
rotates between the magnetic poles. The armature and the field system are separated from each
other by an air gap. The armature consists of armature core with slots and armature winding
accommodated in slots.
The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in the uniform magnetic field and to
induce an alternating e.m.f in its winding. The armature core is normally made from high
permeability silicon-steel laminations of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness, which are insulated from one
another by varnish or ceramic insulation. The use of high grade steel is to keep hysteresis loss
low, which is due to cyclic change of magnetization caused by rotation of the core in the
magnetic field and to reduce the eddy current in the core which are induced by the rotation of the
core in the magnetic field.
Commutator: It is mounted on the rotor of a dc machine and it performs with help of brushes a
mechanical rectification of power: from ac to dc in case of generators and dc to ac in case of
motors. The ends of armature coils are connected to the commutator, which together with the
brushes rectifies the alternating e.m.f induced in the armature coils and helps in the collection of
current. It is cylindrically shaped and is placed at one end of the armature. The construction of
the commutator is quite complicated because it involves the combination of copper, iron and
insulating materials.
Brushes and Brush Holder: Brushes are needed to collect the current from the rotating
commutator or to lead the current to it. Normally brushes are made up of carbon and graphite, so
that while in contact with the commutator, the commutator surface is not spoiled. The brush is
accommodated in the brush holder where a spring presses it against the commutator with
pressure of 1.5 to 2.0 Ncm2 (see Figure 4.4). A twisted flexible copper conductor called pigtail
securely fixed in to the brush is used to make the connection between the brush and its brush
holder. Normally brush holders used in dc machines are of box type. The numbers of brush
holders usually equal to the number of main poles in dc machines.
Pressure
Pigtail adjusting lever

Brush holder
Spring

Brush

Figure 4.4 Brush and brush holder

4.1 Armature reaction and commutation

3
I. Armature Reaction
By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the
distribution of flux under main poles. In other words armature reaction is meant the effect of
armature ampere-turns upon the value and the distribution of the magnetic flux entering and
leaving the armature core. The armature magnetic field has two effects:
1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux &
2. It cross –magnetizes or distorts it

Let us illustrate (demonstrate) these two effects of armature reaction for 2-pole d.c generator. For
better understanding let us see three cases.
Case-I: Figure 4.5 shows the distribution of magnetic flux when there is no current (Ia=0) in the
armature conductors,. For this case
a) The distribution magnetic flux symmetrical with respect to the polar axis.
b) The magnetic neutral axis or place (M.N.A.) coincides with geometrical neutral axis or
plane (G.N.A)
M.N.A may be defined as the axis along which no-emf is produced in the armature conductors
because they move parallel to the lines of flux
or M.N.A. is the axis which is perpendicular to the flux passing through the armature.
In this case, brushes are always placed along M.N.A and the mmf (Fm) producing the main flux
is directed perpendicular to M.N.A.

o Fm
Generator
rotation
Field Flux due to
field current only

Polar-axis
M.N.A
G.N.A

Figure 4.5 Magnetic flux distribution due to the main field poles only
Case-II: Figure 4.6, shows the field (or flux) set up by the armature conductors alone, when
current carrying the field coils being unexcited (If = 0). The direction of the armature current is
the same as it would be when the generator is loaded & determined by Fleming’s Right-hand
rule. Under this case, the magnetic fields, which are set up by armature conductor are
symmetrical to G.N.A. and the mmf of the armature conductor (depending on the strength of Ia)
is shown separately both in magnitude and direction by the Vector OFa which is parallel to
G.N.A

4
 o

Generator
rotation
Fa

Field Flux due to

field current only

Polar-axis

M.N.A
G.N.A
.
Figure 4.6 Magnetic flux distribution due to the armature excitation only
In the above two cases, we considered the main mmf and armature mmf separately, as if they
existed independently, which is not the case in practice under actual load conditions. The two
cases exist simultaneously in generator as will be shown in case III.
Case-III: Figure 4.7 shows the combination of case I & II. In this case the main flux through the
armature is no longer uniform and symmetrical about the pole-axis, rather it has been distorted.
The flux is seen to be crowded at the trailing pole tips but weakened or thinned out at the leading
pole tips (the pole tip which is first met during rotation by armature conductors are known as the
leading pole tip and the other as trailing pole tip). In figure 4.7 is shown the resultant mmf OFR
which is found by vectorally combining OFm and OFa.

o Fm

Fa FR
A

Generator
.N.

rotation

wM

Trailing
pole-tip
Ne

N S
A
.N.

Leading
Resultant Flux
wM

pole-tip
 distribution
G.N.A
Ne

Figure 4.7 combined magnetic flux distribution due to armature and field

5
 The new position of M.N.A which is always perpendicular to the resultant mmf vector OFR is
shown in Figure 4.8. Due to the shift of M.N.A, say through an angle , brushes are also shifted
so as to lie along the new positions of M.N.A. Due to this brush shift (or forward, leads), the
armature conductors and hence the armature current is redistributed, i.e. some armature
conductors, which were earlier under the influence of N-pole, come under the influence of S-pole
and vice-versa. Let us see this condition with help of Figure 4.8.
Now the armature mmf is now represented by vector Fa that is no vertical but is inclined by angle
 to the left (Figure 4.8). This vector can be resolved into two rectangular components, Fd
parallel to polar axis and Fc perpendicular to this axis, we find that
1. Component Fc is at right angle to the vector OFm (Figure 4.8) representing the main mmf
it produces distortion in the main field and is hence called the cross-magnetizing or
distorting component of the armature Reaction.
2. Component Fd is in direct opposition to OFm, which represents the main mmf. It exerts a
demagnetizing influence on the main pole flux. Hence, it is called the demagnetizing or
weakening component of the armature reaction.
From the above discussion we can conclude that:
1. The flux across the air gap is no longer uniform, but weakens under the leading pole tips
and strengthened under the trailing pole tips. (The pole tip which is first met during
rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip and the other as trailing
pole tip).Due to this the resultant mmf given rise to decreases flux. So that emf in the
armature under loaded conditions is somewhat less than that of under no-load conditions.
2. The brushes should be shifted in the direction of rotation to avoid a heavy short-circuit
current and sparking at brushes.
3. The field distortion cause, an increase in the iron losses as compared its no-load value
because of increases peak value of flux density in the tooth.
.A.
M.N

X X
X

N X S
X

Fd

θ
Fa FC

Figure 4.8 the demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing components of armature mmf

II. COMMUTATION
The armature conductors carry current in one direction when they are under the influence of N-
pole and in opposite direction when they are under S-pole. So when the conductors come under
the influence of the S-pole from the influence of N-pole, the direction of flow of current in them
is reversed. This reversal of current in a coil will take place when the two commutator segments

6
to which the coil is connected are being short circuited by brush. The process of reversal of
current in a coil is termed as commutation. The period during which the coil remains short-
circuited is called commutation period, Tc. This commutation period is very small of the order of
0.001 to 0.003s.
If the current reversal i.e. the changes from+ I to ZERO and then to –I is completed by the end of
short circuit or commutation period, the commutation is Ideal. If current reversal is not
completed by that time, then sparking is produced between the brush and the commutator, which
results in progressive damage to both.
Let us discuss the process of commutation in more detail with help of Figure 4.9 where ring
winding has been used for simplicity.
Motion Motion
A B C A B C

I I

2I I I
a b c a b c

2I 2I
(a) (b)
Motion
A B C

I I

2I
a b c

Spark
2I
(c)
Figure 4.9 commutation process
In Figure 4.9 (a) Coil B carries current in clock wise direction but it is about to be short circuited,
because brush is about to come in touch with commutator segment “a”.
Figure 4.9 (b) shows the coil B in the middle of its short-circuited period and it is observed that
current can reach the brush with out passing through coil B, so coil B has no current.
Figure 4.9(c) depicts the moment when coil B is almost at the end of commutation or short-
circuit period and the current in the coil has to be reversed.
During the period of short circuit, period of commutation, the current in the short-circuited coil
should be reversed to full value. Rapid reversal of current in the short circuited coil does not
attain its full value in the reverse direction by the end of short circuit. The failure of current in
the short-circuited coil to reach the full value in reverse direction by the end of short circuit is the
7
basic cause of sparking at the commutator ( as shown in Figure c current jump from
commentator segment “ b” to brush in the form of an arc). The reason for sparking at brushes of
dc machine is due to reactance voltage (self-inducted emf), which sets-up by rapid reversal of
current in the armature coil and tend to delay the current reversal in the coil.
Because coil B has some inductance L, the change of current ∆I in a time ∆t induce a voltage

L I
t

in the coil. According Lenz’s law, the direction of this voltage is opposite to the change
∆I that is causing it. As a result, the current in the coil does not completely reverse by the time
the brushes move from segment b to a.

Figure 4.10 Commutation in Coil B

4.2 Characteristics of D.C generator
The behavior of various types of dc generators can be studies by their characteristic. The three
most important characteristic curves of a dc generator are:
1. Magnetization characteristic or open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) -shows the
relationship between the field current If and the generated emf Eg at no load and at
constant given speed.
2. External characteristic-shows the relationship between the terminal voltage V
across the load and the current IL flowing in the external load circuit.
3. Internal characteristic–shows the relationship between the emf generated E (after
allowing for demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) at load and the armature
current Ia.
Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
The emf generated in the armature winding of a dc machine under no load condition is given by
P NZ
Eg 
60 a
P, Z and a are constants for a particular generator, hence at constant given speed.
Eg  
The generated emf is directly proportional to the flux per pole (speed being constant), which
in turns depends upon the field current If

8
The characteristic curve plotted between generated emf Eg and the field current If at constant
speed of rotation is called the magnetization curve or O.C.C. of the dc generator. The
magnetization characteristics of a separately excited generator or shunt generator can be obtained
as explained below.
A

winding
Field
source
Dc
G V

Figure 4.11 Circuit diagram for determination of magnetization characteristics

Figure 4.11 shows the connections of the generator and the field for determination of O.O.C. A
potentiometer arrangement has been made to supply the field winding so that the field current
can be varied over a wide range by moving the contact K. Ammeter indicate the field current and
voltmeter indicate the generated emf. The field current is increased in steps from zero to
maximum and the corresponding value of If and Eg are noted down at each step. On plotting
these results, a curve of the form shown in Figure 4.27 is obtained.
Eg
D
C
OA=Residual emf
(due to residual Magnetism)
B AB- Unsaturated Region
(Straight line)
BC- Knee of the curve
( Operating Region)

CD- Saturated Region

A
O Ish

Figure 4.12 Magnetization curve or O.C.C.

On analyzing the curve in Figure 4.12, it is observed that a small emf OA is generated by the
generator, even when the field current is zero. The reason for this generated emf is the residual
magnetism in the poles. This emf which is due to residual magnetism is normally 1 to 5% of the
normal voltage of the generator. The magnetization curve of a shunt generator and a series
generator can also be obtained in a similar manner. However, a shunt generator differs compared
to separately excited one, in the manner that the field current in shunt generator is due to the
generated emf only, where as the field current is independent of the generated emf in case of
separately.
This magnetization curve is of grate importance because it represents the saturation level in the
magnetic system of the dc machine for various value of the excitation mmf (current).
 Principle Operation of DC Generator
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The energy conversion is based on principle of dynamically induced emf, whenever a conductor

9
cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced in it (Faraday’s law). This emf causes a
current to flow if the conductor is closed. The basic essential parts of an electrical generator are
magnetic field and a conductor or conductors, which can so move as to cut the flux. Figure 4.13
shows the schematic diagram of a simple machine consists of a coil ABCD rotating in the
magnetic field of a strong permanent magnet or powerful electromagnet.The magnetic lines in
the space between N and S poles are directed from the North Pole N to the South Pole S as
shown in figure 4.13. The ends of the coil ABCD are connected to two copper rings R1 and R2,
fixed on the shaft. Two brushes B1 and B2 connected to the external load circuit make contact
with the copper rings R1 and R2 respectively.

B C C B

N S N S

A D D A

+ +
R1 R1
B1 B1
_ _
R2 R2
B2 B2

Load Load

(a) (b)
Figure 4.13 (a) and (b) Schematic diagram of a simple dc generator

Let the coil be rotated in an ACW, with constant surface speed v[ms] in relation to the magnetic
field . According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, an emf will be induced in the
rotating coil and is given by e  Blv volts .As l and v are constant for particular case, then
e  cons tan t  B volts
Hence under the given conditions, the change in the magnitude of induced e.m.f with time
depends upon the magnetic flux density distribution under the poles. It may be assumed
neglecting harmonics it is a sine wave distribution. The direction of the induced emf in this case
can be determined by Fleming’s right hand rule as shown in Figure below. Hence the conductor
AB of the coil ABCD moves downward and CD moves upward, the direction of the induced emf
in the coil is along DCBA as shown in figure 4.13(a). The current in the external remains the
same half a revolution of the coil starting from its vertical position.

10
 
ν


S N
S N

Motion
Motion

Flux
e Flux
EMF

emf

Figure 4.14 Right-hand rule to determine the direction of induced emf.

Similarly, in the next half of the revolution, the direction of the induced emf is reversed and
hence the current flows from brush B2 to B1 as shown in Figure 4.13(b).The magnitude of current
in the external circuit also varies with time as per sine law; i.e. its magnitude is not constant with
time. If the machine has P poles and the armature rotates at N revolutions per minute, then the
PN
frequency of the induced emf in the armature is f  , Hz.
120
The above discussion clearly indicates that the e.m.f induced in the armature of a dc generator is
of alternating nature, alternating with frequency of f hertz depending upon the number of poles in
the machine and the speed of the armature.
However, the output voltage or the current of dc generator must be unidirectional and that too of
a constant value. Thus to compel the above alternating current to flow in one stipulated direction
through the external load circuit, the dc machine is furnished with a special device called the
commutator.
Figure 4.14 shows that the coil ABCD connected to a ring commutator split in two halves R 1 and
R2 well insulated from each other. The rings of the commutator are so arranged that during half
the revolution of the coil, each half ring remain in contact with a particular brush. Figure 4.14(a)
wile during the next half revolution, when the current is reversed, the same half ring is in contact
with other brush as shown in figure 4.14 (b).

11
 B C C B

N S N S

A D A
D

B1 B2 B1 B2

R1 R2 R2 R1

Load Load

(a) (b)
Figure 4.14 coil ABCD connected to a ring commutator
As a result, current in the external load circuit remains in the same direction. The nature of the
variation of current in the external load current with the rotation of the coil, i.e. with time, has
been shown in Figure 4.8. Such unidirectional current or emf which fluctuates between
maximum and zero values is quite inconvenient for practical purposes.
Current

0 900 1800 2700 3600 4500 5400

θ

Figure 4.8 Unidirectional current wave shape

 Types Of Dc Generators
The field winding and the armature winding can be interconnected in various ways to provide a
wide variety of performance characteristics. This can be taken as outstanding advantages of a dc
machines. A dc machine can work as an electromechanical energy converter only when its field
winding is excited with direct current, except for small dc machines employing permanent
magnets. According to the method of their field excitation dc generators are classified into the
Separately excited and Self excited. DC machines may have one or more field windings and
their method of excitation, determines the performance characteristics of the dc machine.

12
Separately Excited : Its field winding consists of several hundreds turns of fine wire and is
connected to a separate or external dc source i.e. field winding are energized from an
independent external sources of dc current. The voltage of the external dc source has no relation
with the armature voltage, i.e. the field winding energized from a separate supply, can be
designed for any convenient voltage.

+ IL
Important relationships
Ia i. Ia  I L
Shunt
Winding
L ii. E g  VL  I a Ra
o
Eg VL
+ Vdc _ a iii. Pdev  E g  I a
d
iv. Pdel  VL  I L
_

Figure 4.15 separately excited dc machines

Self Excitation: When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machines is said to
be a self excited dc machine. In these machines, the field poles must have a residual magnetism,
so that when the armature rotates, a residual voltage appears across the brushes. This residual
voltage should establish a current in the field winding so as to reinforce the residual flux.
According the connection of the field winding with the armature winding, a self-excited dc
machine can be sub-divided as follows:
Series Excitation
The field winding consists of a few turns of thick wire and is connected in series with the
armature. In other words, the series field current depends on the armature current and in view of
this; a series field may be called a current operated field.

+
Ise IL
Important relationships
Ia
i. I a  I se  I L
Series L
Winding
o ii. E g  VL  I a Ra  Rse 
Eg VL
a
iii. Pdev  E g  I a
d
iv. Pdel  VL  I L
_

Figure 4.16 Series excited dc machine

Shunt Excitation :The field winding consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is
connected in parallel (or in shunt) with the armature. Therefore the voltage across the armature
terminals and the shunt field is the same and it is for this reason that a shunt field may be called
voltage operated field.

13
 Ish IL Important relationships
+
Field V
Rheostat Ia i. I sh  sh
Rsh L
L
Eg VL
o ii. I a  I sh  I L
a
Shunt
d iii. E g  VL  I a Ra
Winding
iv. Pdev  E g  I a
_ v. Pdel  VL  I L

Figure 4.17 Shunt excited dc machine

Remember that series field and shunt field windings are characterized by low and high resistance
respectively. In some application, a shunt excited winding may be replaced by a separately
excited winding.
Compound Excitation:A compound excitation involves both series-exited winding and the
shunt-excited winding. From the view point of connections, a dc compound machine may have
short-shunt connection or a long shunt connection. In short shunt connection of Figure 4.12 (a)
the shunt field or voltage excited winding is connected across the armature terminals. In long-
shunt connection, the shunt field is connected across
 the series connection of the armature and series winding or
 the machine or line terminals as shown in Figure 4.12 (b).
However there is appreciable difference in the operating characteristics of short-shunt and long
shunt. The choice between the two types depends on mechanical considerations of connections
or reversing switches.
Important relationships
I se  I L
Ish IL
+ i.
Ia
E g  I a Ra V  I se Rse
Ise
L ii. I sh   L
o Rsh Rsh
Eg VL
iii. I a  I sh  I L
Shunt Series a
Winding Winding d
iv. E g  VL  I a Ra  I L Rse
_
v. Pdev  E g  I a

vi. Pdel  VL  I L
(a)

14
 Important relationships
Ish i. I a  I se
+ IL E g  I a Ra  Rse  VL
Ise ii. I sh  
Rsh Rsh
L
Shunt
Eg
Series
o iii. I a  I sh  I L
VL
E g  VL  I a Ra  Rse 
Winding Winding a
d iv.
Ia
_ v. Pdev  E g  I a
(b) vi. Pdel  VL  I L

Figure 4.18 DC compound machine connections for a) short-shunt and b) long shunt
In a compound machine, the magnetic flux produced by the shunt field is stronger than the series
field. When series field aids the shunt field, so that the resultant air gap flux per pole is increases,
then the machine is said to be cumulatively compounded. In Figure 4.19 (a) the direction of
arrows corresponds to the direction magnetic flux produced by shunt and series field windings.
As the two arrows are in the same direction in Figure 4.13 (a), this Figure is for a cumulatively
compounded dc machine.
+ +

Series Shunt Series Shunt

_ _

(a) (b)
Figure 4.19 compound excited dc machine (a) cumulative and b) differential
On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field so that the resultant air gap flux per pole
is decreased, the machine is called a differentially compounded dc machine as shown in figure
4.19(b).
 Emf Equation of Dc Generator
Let  = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots  Number of conductors per slot
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated emf, Eg= emf generated in one of the parallel path

15
 d
Average emf generated / conductor  , volt
dt
Now, flux cut / conductor in one revolution, d  P ,Wb
N
Number of revolution / second  , sec ond
60
Hence according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
d PN
emf generated / conductor   , volt
dt 60
For wave winding

Number of parallel path a = 2

Z
Number of conductors (in series) in one path 
2
PN Z ZPN
 emf generated / path    volt
60 2 2  60
For lap winding

Number of parallel path a = P

Z
Number of conductors (in series) in one path 
P
PN Z ZN
 emf generated / path    volt
60 P 60
In general, the Generated emf
ZN  P 
Eg     volt
60  a 

Where, a =2 for wave winding

a=P for lap winding
Eg  Ka  N
ZP
where, K a  is machine constant.
60  a
Example 4.1 A dc shunt generator supplies a load of 10 kW at 220 V through feeders of
resistance 0.1. The resistance of armature and shunt field windings is 0.05  and 100 
respectively. Calculate, (i) terminal voltage, (ii) shunt field current and (iii) generated emf.
Solution
i) Load supplied , Pdel = 10 kW
= 10  103 W
Voltage at the load terminals = 220 V
Thus load current,

16
 P 10  103
I L  del 
V 220
 45.5A
Resistance of the feeders = 0.1 
Voltage drop in the feeders = IL  0.1
= 45.5  0.1 = 4.55 V
Terminal voltage across the armature terminals, V = 220 + 4.55
= 224.55 V
ii) Shunt field current,

V' 224.55
I sh  
R sh 100
 2.25A
iii) Generated emf,

Eg  V'  Ia R a
 224.55  45.5  0.05
 226.82 V

17