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Mechanics Of Materials
LAB REPORT# 01
Submitted to: Eng. Wahad Ur Rehman
Submitted by: ZAIN ULLAH
Registration Number: 20PWMCT0761
Lab Report Rubrics:

Below Basic Student’s

Criteria Excellent (4) Proficient (3) Basic (2)
(1) Score
Report is
Report is as Report is
mostly as per the Sections/
per the disorganized
To organize the lab guidelines and Steps are not
guidelines. All and follows
report and practice most ordered and
sections/steps are some guidelines
the writing skills as sections/steps are Report is not
clearly organized but most of the
per the guidelines ordered well but as per the
in a logical guidelines are
requires minor guidelines
order. missing
improvements.
The report
completely
discusses the The report The report
The report
required discusses the is totally
discusses the
To discuss the actual experiment/lab experiment/lab irrelevant to
required
experiment/task work in own work but have the
experiment/lab
words with some irrelevant experiment/la
work
relevant information b work
additional
information
Calculations Most data
Calculations and data analysis and
and data analyses were performed observations
Calculation
To perform were performed accurately, but were recorded
s and data
calculations and data clearly, minor errors were adequately, but
analyses of lab
analysis concisely, and made both in with several
were missing
accurately, with calculations and significant
correct units. in applying errors or
correct units omissions.
Graphs, if
Graphs, if Major
necessary, were Graphs, if
To present results in necessary, were components of
drawn accurately necessary, were
the form of graphs drawn but lab were
and neatly and drawn adequately
inadequately. missing
were clearly

ZAIN ULLAH 20PWMCT0761

 labelled.
Lab 01: Introduction to Mechanics of material lab
Objective:-
 To have theoretical knowledge of mechanics of structure.
 To study analytical method for solving different types of mechanical
problems.
 On the basis of analytical modelling, analyze the mechanical structure.
 Experimentally analyze the mechanical structure.
 Basic knowledge of simulation software for mechanical structure analysis.
 Practical skills of equipment for performing MOM related experiments.
 To know about the sensors for measuring stress, strain, bending etc.
 To develop a Realtime mechanical structures examples and perform
different types of analysis on it.
 To learn technical writing.

Theory
Stress:-
Stress is the internal resistance offered by the body to the external load
applied to it per unit cross sectional area. Stresses are normal to the plane to which
they act and are tensile or compressive in nature.
 Now stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit area. Here we
use a symbol  to represent the stress.
 Here we are using an assumption that the total force or total load carried by
the rectangular bar is uniformly distributed over its cross – section. But the
stress distributions may be for from uniform, with local regions of high
stress known as stress concentrations.
 If the force carried by a component is not uniformly distributed over its
cross sectional area, A, we must consider a small area, ‘δA’ which carries a
small load ‘δP’, of the total force ‘P
Units:-
The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N / m2
(or Pa) MPa = 106 Pa GPa = 109 Pa KPa = 103 Pa Sometimes N / mm2 units are

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also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa. While US customary unit is pound
per square inch psi.
Normal stresses:- We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are
normal to the areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses.
Tensile or compressive Stresses:- The normal stresses can be either tensile or
compressive whether the stresses acts out of the area or into the area
Bearing Stress:- When one object presses against another, it is referred to a
bearing stress ( They are in fact the compressive stresses ).
Sign convections for Normal stress:-
 tensile +ve
 compressive –ve
Shear Stresses:-
Let us consider now the situation, where the cross – sectional area
of a block of material is subject to a distribution of forces which are parallel, rather
than normal, to the area concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of
the material, and are referred to as shear forces. The resulting stress is known as
shear stress.
Strain:-
It is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an
applied stress.

ε = strain

L = length after load is applied (mm)

L0 = original length (mm)

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Note: A material’s change in length (L – L0) is sometimes represented as δ.

 The stress-strain diagram provides valuable information about how much

force a material can withstand before permanent deformation or failure
occurs.

 Many materials exhibit a proportional relationship between stress and strain

up to certain point, referred to as the proportional limit, shown here as point
“A.” This stress-strain relationship is known as Hooke’s Law, and in this
region, the slope of the stress-strain curve is referred to as the modulus of

elasticity (aka Young’s modulus), denoted E.

 The modulus of elasticity is essentially a measure of stiffness and is one of
the factors used to calculate a material’s deflection under load.
 Just beyond the proportional limit is the elastic limit, at which point the
material transitions from elastic behavior, where any deformation due to
applied stress is reversed when the force is removed, to plastic behavior,
where deformations caused by stress remain even after the stress is removed.
For many materials, the proportional limit and the elastic limit are the same

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 or nearly equal. (In the stress-strain curve shown here, the proportional limit
and the elastic limit are assumed to be the same.)

 As long as the applied stresses are below the proportional limit, stress-strain
relationships are the same whether the material is under tension or
compression.

 The yield point, shown here as point “C,” is the point where strain increases
faster than stress (referred to as “strain hardening”), and the material
experiences some amount of permanent deformation.

 For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, or whose yield
point is difficult to determine, an offset yield strength — shown here as
point “B” — is used. Offset yield strength is the stress that will cause a
specified amount of permanent strain (typically 0.2 percent). It is found by
drawing a line that crosses the X (strain) axis at 0.002 and runs parallel to
the stress-strain line (slope = E). The point where this line intersects the
stress-strain curve is the offset yield point.

 Finally, at point “D,” where the curve begins to fall, the material’s ultimate
tensile strength has been reached. This point denotes the maximum stress
that can be applied to a material in tension before failure occurs.

 The term “strength” can be used with various material properties (tensile
strength, yield strength, shear strength, etc.). But regardless of the property
being described, “strength” typically refers to a material’s resistance to
failure, either through fracture or excessive deformation.

 Note that in the discussion above, the original cross-sectional area and
length (before any deformation had taken place) were used to calculate stress
and strain, respectively. Thus, the diagram is referred to as an “engineering
stress-strain diagram.” But as a material deforms, its cross-sectional area and
length change. A stress-strain diagram that takes the instantaneous values of
cross-sectional area and length to determine stress and strain is referred to as
a “true stress-strain diagram.”

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  For most applications, the engineering stress-strain diagram is sufficient,
since the differences between the engineering and true versions are very
small below the material’s yield point.

Torsion:-

A torsion force is a load that is a applied to a material through torque.

The torque that is applied creates a shear stress. If a torsion force is large enough, it
can cause a material to undergo a twisting motion during elastic and plastic
deformation. Torsion force is commonly measured in foot-pounds or Newton-
meters.

 Mechanical parts such as shafts are so often placed under forces of torsion
that material selection is a key consideration to prevent failure.
 Torsion forces can be found in many different instances. A screwdriver used
to twist a screw into place has a shaft that is undergoing a torsion force.
Suspension bridges can be subjected to torsion forces when gusts of wind
blow them back and forth. Drive shafts, or any type of shaft subjected to
circumferential motion, can be exposed to torsion forces.

 The amount of torsion force a material can handle is often calculated using a
torsion test, which monitors the amount of force applied in torsion as well as
the degrees of rotation that have occurred.

 Ductile materials are able to plastically deform when subjected to torsion

forces. Hard, brittle materials may be able to withstand higher torsion forces,
but they are less likely to deform prior to final fracture.

Apparatus:-
 spring test operator.
 Torsion Testing Machine.
 Free Vibration Apparatus.
 Strain gauge trainer.
 Shearing Force and Bending Moment apparatus.
 Reaction of Beam apparatus.
 Universal Testing Machine.
 Extension of Spring apparatus.
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 compression of spring apparatus.
 Rubber and Shear apparatus.

Relevant Theory:-

1. Spring test operator:-

The Testometric AT-S and CT- S models are a range
of dedicated spring testers based on the AT and CT Universal testing machines.
They have internal capacity to store controlled test methods for several thousand
spring types. The system applies a fixed compression force to the spring and
secondary load cells measure the lateral forces induced to produce vector diagrams
for the spring in the carriage to ensure correct leveling characteristics. The large
full colour display shows a real time load deflection plot of each test and displays,
test results including free length, load at various deflection, deflections at various
loads, various spring rates etc. Machines are available from 100N to 600kN.

Figure 1.2: Spring Test Operator

2. Torsion Testing Machine:-

Torsion tests twist a material or test component
to a specified degree, with a specified force, or until the material fails in torsion.
The twisting force of a torsion test is applied to the test sample by anchoring one
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end so that it cannot move or rotate and applying a moment to the other end so that
the sample is rotated about its axis. The rotating moment may also be applied to
both ends of the sample but the ends must be rotated in opposite directions. The
forces and mechanics found in this test are similar to those found in a piece of
string that has one end held in a hand and the other end twisted by the other. The
three common forms that torsion testing take include failure, proof and operational.
A torsion test for failure requires that the test sample be twisted until it breaks and
is designed to measure the strength of the sample. A proof test is designed to
observe the material under a specified torque load over a set period of time.

Figure 1.3: Torsion Testing Machine

3. Free Vibration Apparatus:-

This apparatus is used for studying a wide

range of vibration experiments namely, pendulums, mass-spring, free and forced
vibration, lateral vibration, torsional vibration, vibration with and without
damping.

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 Figure 1.4: Free vibration Apparatus

4. Strain Gauge trainer:-

Stresses and strains and compare measured by the

strain gauges. The bending system uses gauges to measure direct tensile and
compression strain. The torsion system shows the use of shear/torque strain
gauges. Bench mounted bending system to test tension, torsion and bending to
illustrate how resistance strain gauges work and methods of measuring strains in
different structures Can be used to demonstrate Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio

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 Figure 1.5: Strain Gauge Trainer

5. Shearing Force and Bending Moment apparatus:-

The rigid, aluminium

beam is cut into two unequal lengths, creating a ‘cut’ section. Each beam is then
simply supported on vertical supports. Each support can be moved along the
beam section length creating varied support positions. At the ‘cut’ section, a
deep groove ball bearing in one beam runs within a block in the other beam.
This allows for both vertical movement (shear) and rotation (bending) to occur

Figure 1.6: Shearing Force and Bending Moment apparatus

6. Reaction of Beam Apparatus:-

Experimental determination of the reaction
forces in the supports of a simply supported beam under various loadings.
Measurement of loads and moments on a lever.Comparison with calculated results
and validation of the principle of equilibrium[6].

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 Figure 1.7: Reaction of Beam Apparatus

7. Universal Testing Machine:-

A Universal testing machine (UTM) is used to test the mechanical properties

(tension, compression etc.) of a given test specimen by exerting tensile,
compressive or transverse stresses. Different tests like peel test, flexural test,
tension test, bend test, friction test, spring test etc. can be performed with the help
of UTM. UTM can be used to test a wide variety of materials like concrete, steel,
cables, springs, steel wires and chains, slings, links, rope, winches, steel ropes, etc
[7].

Figure 1.8: Universal Testing Machine

8. Extension of Spring Apparatus or Compression of Spring Apparatus:-

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 A steel, powder coated wall housing has a spring support at its top and a
through hole at its lower end. A loop ended extension spring is hooked over the
spring support and its remaining loop secured to a Load hanger [8].

Figure 1.9: Extension of Spring Apparatus or Compression of Spring

Apparatus

9. Rubber and Shear Apparatus:-

 To determine the variation of rotation with applied load.
 To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain.
 To find the modulus of rigidity of the rubber cylindrical block [9].

Figure 1.10: Rubber and Shear Apparatus

References

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] https://www.directindustry.com/.

[4 https://www.essom.com/, "essom," [Online]. Available: https://www.essom.com/.

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[5 http://www.ayva.com/, "ayva," [Online]. Available: http://www.ayva.com/.

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[7 http://infinitetech.com.my/, "infinitetech," [Online]. Available: http://infinitetech.com.my/.

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[8 https://theconstructorsgrouppk.com/, "theconstructorsgrouppk," [Online]. Available:

] https://theconstructorsgrouppk.com/.

[9 https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=BQsyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=eng-old-
] naja.com&source=bl&ots=AbGU5K3NkM&sig=ACfU3U1Eo8JNngPBAMaPC_ctvZBY4XFw2A&hl=en&sa
=X&ved=2ahUKEwjetIG-0Iz3AhVuwQIHHYyqABEQ6AF6BAgNEAM, "books.google," [Online].
Available: https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=BQsyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=eng-
old-
naja.com&source=bl&ots=AbGU5K3NkM&sig=ACfU3U1Eo8JNngPBAMaPC_ctvZBY4XFw2A&hl=en&sa
=X&ved=2ahUKEwjetIG-0Iz3AhVuwQIHHYyqABEQ6AF6BAgNEAMhttps://books.google.com.pk/
books?id=BQsyBgAA.

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 END

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