EMF B Lecture Notes: (Revised 2022), Peter Akuon, PhD - Waves and Signals

I. E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS B (EMF B):

A. References
1. Engineering Electromagnetics, 5th Edition 1989, William H. Hayt, Jr: Tata McGraw Hill Edition
2. Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd Edition, 2014, R. Meenakumari, R. Subasri, New Age Int’l (NAI) Pub
3. Electricity and Magnetism, Prantosh Chakraborty, NAI Pub
4. Elements of Electromagnetics, N. O. Sadiku
B. Course Outline
1. Magnetostatic Fields: Biot-Savart and Ampere’s law and Concepts
2. Magnetic Field Effects on Materials: Classification, Boundaries, H -Circuits
3. Energy and Electromagnetic Induction
4. Maxwell’s Equations and EM Wave for Propagation

1
 2

Summary:
 3

II. M AGNETOSTATIC F IELDS : F REE - SPACE

Concepts
A magnetostatic field is produced when charges are moving with a constant velocity. Examples are magnetisation
currents in permanent magnets or conduction currents in wires.

Main Laws
1. Biot-Savart’s law
2. Ampere’s circuital law

1. Biot-Savart’s law

~ at a point, P due to
The magnetic field intensity, dH
current element Id~l is

~ = Id~l sin(α)
dH ~an [A/M ] (1)
4πR2
where α is the angle between the differential current
element and the line joining the point P to the element,
~
and since ~aR = R
R:

~ = Id~l × ~aR Id~l × R

~
(2)
dH 2
= 3
4πR 4πR

Fig. 1.1 Biot Savart Law

The direction of dH~ is determined by the R-H rule where

the R-H thumb points in the direction of current, the
~.
fingers encircle the wire in the direction of dH

Conventionally, the direction of magnetic field intensity

H or I is represented by a small circle enclosing a dot,
 , when out of page or enclosing a cross, ⊗ , when into
the page.

Fig. 1.2 Thumb and Screw Rules

The following current distributions will be considered:

a) Line current
b) Surface current
c) Volume current
 4

2. Ampere’s circuital law

~ about any closed path is exactly equal to the direct current enclosed
It states that the line integral of H
by that path, such that:
I Z
~ · d~l = Ienc =
H J~ · dS
~ (3)

where J~ is the current density

dS is the differential surface area of the path
The closed path is referred to as an Amperian path. By applying Stoke’s law, the differential form of
Ampere’s circuital law is written as
Z Z
Ienc = J~ · dS
~= ~ · dS
(5 × H) ~ (4)

~ = J~.
since 5 × H
~
Magnetic Field Intensity, H

Example: H around different shapes

Magnetic Field intensity around a straight conductor

a) Let a point P be in the neighbourhood of a straight conductor carrying current, I . Find the magnetic field
~ at P .
intensity, H
Solution

Biot-Savart’s law:

~ = Id~l sin(θ3 ) (5)

dH ~an
4πR2

The magnetic field being along the z−direction.

We see from the figure:
R2 = (l1 − x)2 + d20
then

~ = Idx sin(θ3 )
dH ~az
4π[(l1 − x)2 + d20 ]
Z l=L (6)
~ Idx sin(θ3 )
H= 2 2 ~
az
l=0 4π[(l1 − x) + d0 ]

Fig. 1.3 H-Field around a straight wire

 5

Integrate by substitution,

• tan θ3 = l1d−x
0

• l1 − x = d0 cot θ3
• dx = d0 cosec2 (θ)3 dθ
• (l1 − x)2 = d20 cot2 θ3
Denominator: R2 = (l1 − x)2 + d20 = d20 (1 + cot2 θ3 )
1 + cot2 (θ) = cosec2 (θ)

Change limits as θ3 varies from θ1 to (π − θ2 )

π−θ2
I(d0 cosec2 (θ3 )dθ) sin(θ3 )
Z
~ =
H ~az
θ1 4π[d20 cosec2 (θ3 )]
Z π−θ2
I
= sin θ3 dθ ~az
4πd0 θ1 (7)
I
= [− cos θ3 ]π−θ
θ1
2
~az
4πd0
I
= [cos θ1 + cos θ2 ] ~az
4πd0
~ field is
(b) If the conductor is infinitely long, then both θ1 and θ2 approach zero. The H
expressed as:

~ = I
H [cos θ1 + cos θ2 ] ~az
4πd0
I
= [cos (0) + cos (0)] ~az
4πd0
(8)
I
= [2] ~az
4πd0
I
= ~az
2πd0
(c) Given a flexible wire, design a circular loop of wire carrying a current of I [A], with a radius a [m] by
~ at the center of the circle.
determining an expression for the magnetic field intensity H

Id~l × ~aR
~ =
dH , d~l = adφ~aφ , R
~ = a~aρ
4πR2
Iadφ~aφ × ~aρ
= 2
Z 2π4πa (9)
~c = I
H dφ~az
0 4πa
I
= ~az
2a

Fig. 1.4 H-Field at the center of a circle

(d)(i) Repeat the design by turning the wire into a regular hexagonal shape, where the distance between the
opposite sides is equal to the diameter of the circle.
(ii) Hence, state the shape that gives more H~ at the center.
 6

~ = I [cos A + cos B], d = 2a, A = B = 600

H
4πa
I I
= [2 cos 600 ] =
4πa 4πa
(10)
For the six sides,

~ hx = 6 × I = 1.5I ~az
H (11)
4πa πa

Fig. 1.5 H-Field at the center of a hexagon

(e)(i) Determine the H−field at the center of an equilateral triangle with sides b[m] and height, h[m].
√
~ = I 0 h b 3
H [cos A + cos B], tan (60 ) = , h=
4π(h/3) (b/2) 2
I 2I cos 30 0
0
= √ [2 cos 30 ] = √
b 3
4π( 6 ) 4π( b 6 3 )
(12)
For the 3 sides,
0 0
~ tr = 3 × 2I cos√30 = 6I cos√30 ~az
H (13)
4π( b 6 3 ) 4π( b 6 3 )

Fig. 1.6 H-Field at the center of an equilateral

Example:
Consider a region with cylindrical symmetry where the conductivity is given by σ = 1.5e−150ρ k[S/m]. An electric
~ = 30~z [V /m].
field is present in the region of E
a) Find the current density, J : (J~ = σ E)
~ ~ .
b) Find the total current crossing the surface (ρ < ρ0 ) and z = 0: (I = J~ · d~s)
R

(ds = ρdρdφ)
~: ( H ~ · d~l = Iencl )
H
c) Calculate the magnetic field, H
 7

~
Magnetic Flux Density, B

~ (W b/m2 ) or tesla is written as: B

B ~ = µ0 H
~
where µ0 = 4π × 10 −7 [H/m] is the permeability of free-space,

the magnetic flux, ψ (Wb) through a surface, S is given as

~ · dS~
R
ψ= SB

Magnetic Scalar Potential, Vm

H~ = − 5 Vm → 5 × (− 5 Vm ) = 5 × H ~ = 0 i.e. (curl of a Gradient of F~ = 0)

5 × (5F~ ) = 0: Identity
~ = J~
But note that for Ampere’s circuital law, 5 × H
Therefore, the magnetic field intensity can ONLY be related to scalar magnetic potential in
the region where the current density is zero.
H~ = − 5 Vm (J~ = 0)

Gauss Law of Magnetostatics

• Conservation of magnetic flux

It is not possible to have isolated magnetic poles or charges, therefore the total flux through
aH closed surface in a magnetic field is ZERO.
~ ~
S B · dS = 0
The magnetic field is conservative.

By applying divergence theorem,

~ · dS
~= ~
H R
S B V 5 · BdV =0
↓↓
5·B~ =0

Deduction: The magnetic field has no source and it is solenoidal.

Example
Ex. 1
Determine if the vector field, F describes a magnetic field, given that
F(x, y) =< x2 y, 2y − xy 2 >.
Solution
For a magnetic field, 5 · F = 0
∂ ∂
5 · F(x, y) = ∂x (x2 y) + ∂y (2y − xy 2 )
= 2xy + 2 − 2xy
=2
↓↓
F doesn’t model a magnetic field

Magnetic Forces
Magnetic forces may be experienced in the following ways:
a) A moving charged particle in a magnetic field, B
b) A current element in an external magnetic field
c) Between two current elements
 8

Examples on Magnetic Forces

1. Force on a current Element

A charge dQ moving with velocity ~u, which produces a convection current element dQ~u, is equivalent to a
conduction current element Id~l, i.e.

Id~l = dQ~u
dF~ = Id~l × B
~

For a closed path, the force is given by

F~ = ~× B
~
H
L Idl

~ field that exerts a force on Id~l must be due to another element. e.g.
NOTE: The B

dF~2 = I1 d~l × B
~2

dF~21 = I2 d~l2 × B
~1

~ , it is easily shown that:

and by applying Biot-Savart’s law for dH

I2 d~l×~aR
dF~12 = I1 d~l1 × B
~ 2 = I1 d~l1 × µ
R
4πR2

In the case of two loops of filamentary current, the net force on loop 1 due to loop 2 is written as:
µI1 I2 d~l1 ×(d~l2 ×~a12 )
dF~12 =
H H
4π c1 c2 R2

2. Force between two current Elements

Example

Consider two current elements in space carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same x − direction.

The magnetic field produced by a long conductor is given

~ = I ~az , where d is the distance of any point P
as H 2πd
from the conductor.

↓↓
The field produced by conductor 1 at the location of
conductor 2 is given as

H~1 = I1 (−~az )
2πd
B~1 = µ2πd
0 I1
(−~az )
Then conductor 2 is placed in the field of conductor 1,
the force exerted on it is given as
F~1 = I~2 l × B~1
Fig. 1.7 Magnetic force due to two current
elements
 9

If the conductor is of length l = 1[m]

F~12 = I2 (−ax ) × B1 (−az )

µ0 I1 µ0 I1 I2
F~12 = I2 · 2πd (−ay ) = 2πd (−ay ) [N/M ]

Else: Place Conductor 1 in the B-field of 2

Show that
F~21 = µ02πd
I1 I2
(ay ) [N/M ]

F~21 = I1 (−ax ) × B2 (az )

µ0 I2 µ0 I1 I2
F~21 = I1 · 2πd (ay ) = 2πd (ay ) [N/M ]

NOTE: Since we have F12 (−ay ), and F21 (ay ); there is a force of Attraction, when current is in the same
direction. [C2 joins C1 and C1 joins C2].

NOTE
If the direction of only I2 is reversed, the direction of force will reverse, thus a force of Repulsion.

F~120 = I2 (ax ) × B1 (−az )

µ0 I1 µ0 I1 I2
F~120 = I2 · 2πd (ay ) = 2πd (ay ) [N/M ]

Also:
F~20 1 = I1 (−ax ) × B2 (−az )
µ0 I2 µ0 I1 I2
F~20 1 = I1 · 2πd (−ay ) = 2πd (−ay ) [N/M ]

NOTE: Since we have F120 (ay ), and F20 1 (−ay ); there is a force of Repulsion, when current is in the opposite
direction.

Further Example on Magnetic Force on materials

(ii) Determine the force between two parallel circular coaxial coils of radius R [m], which are a small distance,
d [m] apart in free space and carry currents I1 and I2 , respectively. Each of the coils has a single turn only. (xxx
marks)
Solution

Treat the coils as parallel wires carrying current

I1 I2
FD = µ0 (14)
2πd

The net force around the diameter is given as, 2πR(FD )

I1 I2 R
F = (2πR)(µ0 ) = (µ0 I1 I2 )( ) (15)
2πd d

Fig. 1.8 Force on Two single turn Coils

 10

Lorentz’ Equation of Force

~ + ~u × B)
F = Q(E ~

(i) Explain why a magnetic force produced by a charge moving at a constant velocity cannot exert a force on
the charge.

~ and cannot perform work to increase the kinetic energy of the charge.
The force is perpendicular to both ~u and B

(ii) Consider a rectangular loop carrying a current I2 which is placed parallel to an infinitely long filamentary
wire carring current I1 . The closest side of the loop is r[m] away from the wire and it is w[m] wide and h[m]
high. Derive and explain the forces around the wire.
For infinitely long wire:
~ 1 = µ1 I1 ~aφ
B 2πr

F~1 = I2 d~l2 × B ~ 1 = I2 h dz~az × µ0 I1

R R
z=0 2πr ~ aφ
= − µ02πr
I1 I2 h
~aρ (attractive)

Fl = (F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 )
Similarly,
µ0 I1 I2 h
F~3 = 2π(r+w) ~aρ (repulsive)
R (r+w) µ0 I1
F~2 = I2 r=r dr~aρ × 2πr ~ aφ
µ0 I1 I2
= 2π ln ( r+w
r )~
az (parallel)

Fig. 1.9 Force on a loop

F~4 = −F~2
µ 0 I1 I2 h 1
F~l = F~1 + F~3 = 2π [ r − 1
(r+w) ] (−~aρ )

Further examples on H ~
1. A two wire transmission line circuit consists of two parallel conductors 1 and 2, which are 1[cm] in diameter
and spaced 1[m] apart. They carry current of I1 = +80[A] and I2 = −80[A], respectively. Determine:
~ at each surface of the conductors,
i) Magnetic field intensity, H
~
ii) H at the midway between the conductors

2. Given a vector field, F~ (x, y, z) = (ex~i − 6yz~j + y 2 z~k), find the divergence at a point, P (0, −2, 2). Comment
on the significance of the result.

~ = (2~i − 3~j − 4x~k) [A/m]

3. Determine the current density that is associated with the magnetic field given by, H

1. A two wire transmission line circuit consists of two parallel conductors 1 and 2, which are 1[cm] in diameter
and spaced 1[m] apart. They carry current of I1 = +80[A] and I2 = −80[A], respectively. Determine:
~ at each surface of the conductors,
i) Magnetic field intensity, H
~
ii) H at the midway between the conductors
 11

Solution 1.
Sketch the fields: they are directed upwards at a point P in the middle
H~ 1 = I1 ~az
2πr1
H~ 2 = I2 ~az
2πr2
H~ = (H~1 + H ~ 2)
i) The field at each surface
H~ = I [ 1 + 1 ]~az
2π r1 r2
H~ = I [ 1 + 1 ]~az
2π 0.5/100 1
H~ = 8 [kA/m]
π

ii) Field at midway between 1 and 2

r1 = r2 = 0.5[m]
H~ = I [ 1 + 1 ]~az
2π r1 r2
H~ = I [ 1 + 1 ]~az
2π 0.5 0.5
H~ = 160 [A/m]
π

2. Given a vector field, F~ (x, y, z) = ex~i − 6yz~j + y 2 z~k , find the divergence at a point, P (0, −2, 2). Comment
on the significance of the result.

Solution 2.
5 · F~ (x, y, z) = ∂x
∂ ∂
(ex ) + ∂y ∂
(−6yz) + ∂x (y 2 z)
x
= e − 6z + y 2

5 · F~ (0, −2, 2) = e0 − 6(2) + (−22 )

= 1 − 12 + 4 = −7
Inward flow of charge density at the point.

~ = (2~i − 3~j − 4x~k) [A/m]

3. Determine the current density that is associated with the magnetic field given by, H

Solution 3.

J~ = (5 × H)
~
Determinant:

~i ~j ~z
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 − 3 − 4x

∂
= [ ∂y (−4x) − ∂ ~ ∂
− [ ∂x (−4x) − ∂ ~ ∂
(−3) − ∂ ~
∂z (−3)]i ∂z (2)]j + [ ∂x ∂y (2)]k

J~ = (5 × H)
~ = +4~j [A/M 2 ]
 12

Further Example on B ~
a) Three wires sit at the corners of a square, all carrying currents of In [A] into the page, where n denotes the nth
corner. Sketch and calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field at the other corner of the square, point P located
at the bottom right corner, if the length of each side of the square is R [cm].

b) Three wires sit at the corners of a square, all carrying currents of 4[A] into the page. Calculate the magnitude
of the magnetic field at the other corner of the square, point P located at the bottom right corner, if the length of
each side of the square is 0.5[cm].

c) Three wires sit at the corners of a square, where two wires carry currents of 4[A] into the page, while the current
in the wire at the northeast corner carries equal magnitude out of the page. Sketch and calculate the magnitude of
the magnetic field at the other corner of the square, point P located at the bottom right corner, if the length of
each side of the square is 0.5[cm].
 13

Summary:
 14

III. E FFECTS OF M AGNETIC F IELDS ON M ATERIAL M EDIA

A. Magnetization on Materials
Magnetic Dipole
A magnetic field produced by a small current loop or bar magnet in a distant vicinity.
Magnetic dipole moment, m ~ is given as:
~ = Iπa2~an
m
~an is the direction of m
~ , which is given by RH thumb/screw rule.

Magnetization
It refers to the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, where M ~ is the magnetic
polarisation density of the medium.
In a material medium, M ~ 6= 0,
~ ~
B = µ0 (H + M ) ~
~ depends linearly on H
For linear material, M ~
M~ = χm H ~
, where,
χm → magnetic susceptibility of the medium
It refers to the measure of the sensitivity of a material to magnetic field.
B~ = µ0 (1 + χm )H~ = µH ~
~
B = µ0 µr H ~
µr = (1 + χm )
In magnetic screening, shields are made up of very strong magnetic materials with infinite
permeability such as steel and iron: B ~ = µ0 µ r ( H
~ +M~)

Magnetic materials are classified as follows:

• Non-magnetic materials: χm = 0 (µr = 1): e.g. free-space, air
• Dia-magnetic materials: small −ve χm = 0 (µr ≤ 1): e.g. Lead, Copper, N a+ Cl
• Para-magnetic materials: small +ve χm = 0 (µr ≥ 1): e.g. µr = 10, Tungsten, K
• Ferro-magnetic materials: very large +ve χm = 0 (µr >> 1): e.g. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel

At low temperatures, the ferro-magnetic materials are non-linear. As a result, B~ = µ0 µr H

~
does not hold since µr ∝ B .
Also, super-conductors are diamagnetic and contain very little magnetic fields.

(Negative magnetic permeability is considered when a material, in response to an imposed

magnetic field, forms a magnetic dipole that is in the opposite direction to the imposed field.)
 15

B − H curve provides the relationship between the B ~ and

~
H fields. The relationship is non-linear for ferro-magnetic
materials.
• There is no B ~ and H ~ fields when the ferro-magnetic
material is unmagnetized.
• The initial magnetization curve, OP is produced as H ~
increases due to current from 0 to H ~ max .
• Saturation occurs at point P .
• When H ~ is then decreased, B ~ lags H ~ . The lag is
referred to as hysteresis.
• A permanent flux density, B ~ r remains even when H ~ is
~
reduced to zero. The retentivity field, Br is a percentage
of H~ max
• When the direction of current is reversed, H ~ increases
~ ~
negatively and B becomes zero as H becomes H ~ c , the
Fig. 2.1 B-H Curves coersive f ield intensity .
• Further icrease in H in the negative direction to reach
Q and and a reverse in its direction to reach P gives a
closed curve called hysteresis loop.
Application Areas
• The area of the hysteresis loop gives the energy loss per unit volume during one cycle of the periodic magnetization
of the ferromagnetic material. Energy is lost in the form of heat. E.g. A tall and narrow loop implies a limited loss.
• Magnetic storage: Rectangular hysteresis loops are utilized in computers for magnetic storage.
• The shape of the hysteresis loop is applied in the design of Motors, Transformers and Generators

Soft materials: These materials have narrow and smaller hysteresis areas and find applications in transf ormers
and motors since there is low energy losses through heat. They possess low coercivity, Hc and low retentivity, βr .

Hard materials: These materials have wide and bigger hysteresis areas and find applications in credit cards,
computer disk drives and audio recording . They possess higher coercivity, Hc which makes it hard to erase the
memory.

B. Boundary Conditions for Magnetic Fields

State and Demonstrate the Conditions

Magnetic boundary conditions are the conditions that H ~

and B~ must satisfy between two different media.
~ · dS
~ = 0, and
H
Gauss’ law for magnetic fields: B
Ampere’s Circuital law: H~ · d~l = I are used for deriving
the boundary conditions.

Fig. 2.2 Magnetic Boundary

 16

a)
R Consider a pillbox shape of a negligible height
B.dS = B1 .S + B2 .S = 0
−B1 cos(θ1 ) · S + B2 cos(θ2 ) · S = 0 → note field
direction change: ⊗, 
B1 cos(θ1 ) = B2 cos(θ2 )
(B1 )n = (B2 )n
Condition i) Normal component of magnetic induction is
continuous across the boundary

Fig. 2.3 Pill Box

b) Consider a differential length of negligible height

R
H · dl = H1 dl + H2 dl = 0 → the path does not enclose
any current
Rd
~ 1 · d~l + f H~ 2 · d~l + e H~ XY · d~l + c H~ XY · d~l
R R R
0= c H e d f
−H1 sin(θ1 ) · l + H2 sin(θ2 ) · l = 0 → note field direction
change (c → d and e → f )
H1 sin(θ1 ) = H2 sin(θ2 )
(H1 )t = (H2 )t
Condition ii) Tangential component of magnetic field is
continuous across the boundary

Fig. 2.4 Rectangular Loop

Derive the Law:
B1 cos(θ1 ) = B2 cos(θ2 )
H1 sin(θ1 ) = H2 sin(θ2 )
By dividing:
1 sin(θ1 ) 1 sin(θ2 )
µ1 cos(θ1 ) = µ2 cos(θ2 )

↓↓
µ1 tan(θ1 )
=
µ2 tan(θ2 )
Deduce the Law:
If µ1 > µ2 ; θ1 > θ2 , then in passing from a medium of higher to one of lower
permeability, the lines of magnetic induction bend towards the normal.

C. Inductance and Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields

Inductor
It refers to a conductor that is designed in a unique shape in order to store magnetic energy.
Examples:
Toroids, rectangular solenoids, coaxial transmission lines, parallel-wire transmission lines

~ , which causes a flux Ψ = ~ · dS

~
R
A closed conducting path carrying carrent I , produces a magnetic field B S B
to pass through each turn of the circuit.
For N identical turns, the flux linkage λ is given as:
 17

λ = NΨ
For a linear medium that sorrounds the circuit, the flux linkage is proportional to the current that produces it and
is given as:
λ = kI = LI
L → inductance of the circuit, which is the constant of proportionality.

Inductance
It refers to the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage λ to the current through the conductor.
L = λI = NIΨ [W b/A] or [H]

Self-inductance occurs when the flux linkages are produced by the inductor itself.

Mutual-inductance occurs when there is flux linkage produced in a circuit due to current in another circuit.
Given, Ψ11 , Ψ12 , Ψ21 , Ψ22
Ψ11 → Rself-inductance in circuit 1
Ψ12 = S1 B ~ 2 · dS
~ → flux through circuit 1 due to I2 in circuit 2
~ ~ →flux through circuit 2 due to I1 in circuit 1
R
Ψ21 = S2 B1 · dS
Ψ22 → self-inductance in circuit 2

↓↓
M12 = λI122
= N1IΨ2 12
M21 = I1 = N2IΨ1 21
λ21

Self-inductance of circuits 1 and 2

L1 = λI11
1
= N1I1Ψ1
L2 = λI22
2
= N2I2Ψ2
where
Ψ1 = (Ψ11 + Ψ12 )
Ψ2 = (Ψ22 + Ψ21 )

Fig. 2.5 Mutual Inductance

Energy Stored In Magnetic Fields

solenoid
• thin wire wound into a coil that produces a magnetic field when an electric current is passed through it

toroid
• donut-shaped coil closely wound around that is one continuous wire

The magnetic field strength inside a solenoid is B = µ0 nI (inside a solenoid)

where n is the number of loops per unit length of the solenoid. The field inside is very uniform in magnitude
and direction.

The magnetic field strength inside a toroid is B = µ2πr

oN I
(within the toroid),
where N is the number of windings. The field inside a toroid is not uniform and varies with the distance as 1/r.

1 B2
a) Consider a toroidal solenoid and show that energy density stored in a magnetic field is given as Ev =
2 µ0
 18

1) Self-inductance of an infinitely long solenoid

The field inside the toroid is given as:
H = NlmI (H = 2πdI
)
lm → mean circumference
N → number of turns
a [m] → radius of coil
A = πa2 [m2 ] → area
Ψ = B × A = ( µNlI×Am
)

Flux linkage,
2
λ = N Ψ = N · ( µNlI×A
m
) = ( µN lmI×A )

Inductance, L of infinitely long solenoid is given as:

2
L = λI = ( µNlm×A ) [H]
When a current flowing through an inductance L changes an e.m.f. is induced in it to oppose the change in the
current and the applied voltage overcomes the induced e.m.f., if the change in current is to be maintained. Let the
current increase from 0 to I[A], in t seconds, then the work done in establishing the current in the inductive circuit
is given as:
E = P R× t
t
E = − 0 e.i dt
e → induced e.m.f
i → instantaneous current
But,
di
e = −L
dt
Rt Rt di
RI
E = − 0 e.i dt = − 0 (−L dt ) i dt = i=0 Li di = 21 LI 2
↓↓
Stored energy of the magnetic field. It is equivalent to the energy released when the current
is brought down to zero again.
↓↓
2 2 2
E = 21 LI 2 = 12 ( µNlm A )I 2 = 12 µ( Nl2I )(Alm )
m
since H = NlmI
↓↓
E = 12 µH 2 (Alm )
Energy volume density:
Ev = AlEm = 12 µH 2

In terms of B :

1 1 B2 1 B2
Ev = µ0 H 2 = µ0 =
2 2 µ20 2 µ0
b) Show that the lifting power of an electromagnet with cross-sectional area, A, when the south pole is moved
1 B2
dx[m] at a velocity, ~u, is given as: Pm = × A~u
2 µ0
 19

Increase in stored energy is given as:

E = Ev × V olume
2
= 12 Bµ × (Adx)
Work done, W : W = F × dx
↓↓
2
W = F × dx = 12 Bµ × (Adx)
↓↓
2
F = 12 Bµ × (A)
↓↓
Power, Pm = Force × Velocity
↓↓

1 B2
Pm = × A~u
2 µ0
 20

Summary:

Materials are classified as paramagnetic, diamagnetic, or ferromagnetic, depending on how they behave in an
applied magnetic field.

Paramagnetic materials have partial alignment of their magnetic dipoles with an applied magnetic field. This is
a positive magnetic susceptibility. Only a surface current remains, creating a solenoid-like magnetic field. Their
magnetic dipoles align partially in the same direction as the applied magnetic field; when this field is removed, the
material is unmagnetized

Diamagnetic materials exhibit induced dipoles opposite to an applied magnetic field. This is a negative magnetic
susceptibility.

Ferromagnetic materials have groups of dipoles, called domains, which align with the applied magnetic field.
However, when the field is removed, the ferromagnetic material remains magnetized, unlike paramagnetic materials.
This magnetization of the material versus the applied field effect is called hysteresis.
 21

IV. T IME VARYING E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS

• Electrostatic Fields: Static electric charges, Q

dQ
• Magnetoststic Fields: Motion of electric charges with uniform velocity, I = dt
d2 Q
• Time-Varying Fields: Accelerated charges, dI dt = dt2 → waves

A static magnetic field produces no flow of current.

A time varying field produces an induced voltage (e.m.f.), in a closed circuit, which causes a flow of current.

H• An electrostatic field, Ee is conservative and cannot maintain a steady current in a closed circuit:
L Ee · dl = IR = 0
• An e.m.f. produced field, Ef is non-conservative and maintains a steady current
From Faraday’s law,
Let Ve.m.f. = − dΨ ~ · d~s
R
dt ,R where Ψ = B
~ · d~l = − d ~ s
H
= LE dt S B · d~
↓↓
Both electric and magnetic fields are present and inter-related.
Faraday’s law
Induced emf is created in a closed loop due to a change in magnetic flux through the loop
Induced emf
Short-lived voltage generated by a conductor or coil moving in a magnetic field
Magnetic flux
Measurement of the amount of magnetic field lines through a given area

A. Faraday’s Law of EM Induction

The e.m.f., Ve.m.f. [V ] in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux linkage by the
circuit. i.e.
Ve.m.f. = dλ dΨ
dt = −N dt

B. Lenz’s Law
The induced magnetic field produced by the induced current will oppose the original magnetic field. This is
because the induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it.
• Electric fields can be produced from electric charges or e.m.f. produced fields.
• EMF produced fields convert non-electric energy into electrical energy and they include:
Batteries, Fuel Cells, Generators

C. Maxwell’s Equations
State Maxwell’s equations for time-varying electromagnetic fields in integral form and explain their physical
significance.

• The dot product of the field densities and the cross product of the field intensities.
• The cross product of electric field produces time-varying magnetic field
• The cross product of magnetic field produces time-varying electric field
 22

Point Form Integral Form Significance

~ s = ρv ~ s · d~s = ρv · dv
H R
5·D D Gauss’s law, Electrostatics
~s = 0 ~
H
5·B
H Bs · d~s = 0 ∂ R Gauss’s law, Magnetostatics
5×E ~ s = − ∂ B~ E~ · d~l = − ~ s · d~s
B Faraday’s law
dt
~ H s R dt ~
5×H ~ s = Js + ∂D ~ s · d~l = (Js + ∂ D Ampere’s circuital law
dt H dt ) · d~
s

D. Electromagnetic Potential
Start from Maxwell’s third EM equation and show that the potential gradient of time-varying fields is given as
~
~ = − 5 V − ∂A
E
∂t
~.
• It is desired to deduce the relationship between electric scalar potential, V and vector magnetic potential, A
rd
From the 3 law:

~ s = − ∂B ~
5×E dt
~
As B = 5 × A ~
↓↓
5×E ~ s = − ∂ (5 × A) ~
dt
~ ∂ ~
5 × Es + dt (5 × A) = 0
5 × (E~ s + ∂ A~ ) = 0
dt
From the vector identity 5 × 5Φ = 0
Let Φ → potential V ,
5Φ = E ~ + ∂ A~ = − 5 V
∂t

~
~ = − 5 V − ∂A
E
∂t

E. Variation of Magnetic Flux

The variation of the magnetic flux may happen in the following ways:
1. Stationary loop in a time-varying B-field
2. A time-varying loop in a stationary B-field
3. A time-varing loop area in a time-varying B-field

CASE A: Stationary loop in a time-varying B-field

In this case:
H
~ · d~l =
R ~
∂B
Vemf = L E s ∂t · d~s
This is referred to as Transformer e.m.f
Applying Stoke’s theorem: (The Curl integral function over a surface equal the dot-product
in length)
R ~
~ s = s ∂∂tB · d~s
H
s (5 × E) · d~
↓↓
~
5×E ~ s = − ∂ B →→ Time varying B-field is not conservative
dt

CASE B: Moving Loop in a Static B-field

 23

Force: F~ = QE ~
~ is given as
For a charge moving with a uniform velocity, ~u, the magnetic field, B
F~ = Q~u × B~
↓↓
E~ m = F~ = ~u × B~
QH
~ · d~l
~ m · d~l = (~u × B)
H
Vemf = E l l

This is referred to as Motional e.m.f: Motors, Generators, Alternators

For a conductor of length l[m]:
Z
Vemf = E ~ m · d~l = uBl sin θ

where, θ is the angle between the direction/point of motion and the magnetic field
orientation.
By
H applying Stoke’sRtheorem:
~ ~ · d~s
s (5 × Em ) · d~
s = s 5 × (~u × B)
↓↓
5×E ~ m = 5 × (~u × B)
~
Example
A straight conductor of length l = 17 [cm] moves perpendicularly to its axis at a velocity of 35 [m/s] in a uniform
magnetic field of flux density 0.76 [T ]. Determine the e.m.f induced given that the direction of motion is:
a) normal to the field
b) parallel to the field
c) at an angle of 420 to the orientation of the field

Solution
V = uBl sin (θ)

Case (a) : θ = 900 : V = (35 × 0.76 × 0.17 × sin [90]) → maximum

Case (b) : θ = 00
Case (c) : θ = 420

CASE C: Moving Loop in a Time-Varying B-field

In this case,
H both motional
R ∂ B~ and transformer emf will exist.
Vemf = l E · dl = − s ∂t · d~s + l (~u × B) · d~l
~ ~ ~
H

By applying Stoke’s theorem:

~
5×E ~ = − ∂ B + 5 × (~u × B)~
∂t

Displacement Current

~ = J~, show that the modified form of the law

Starting from Ampere’s Circuital law for Electrostatics, 5 × H
~
~ = J~ + ∂ D
for time-varying field is given as 5 × H
∂t
 24

~ = 5 · J~ = 0
The divergence of a Curl of any vector field is zero, i.e. 5 · (5 × H)
But,
from the equation of continuity:
5 · J~ = − ∂ρ∂t 6= 0
v

↓↓ It implies existence of displacement current

5×H ~ = (J~ + J~d )
5 · (5 × H)~ = 0 = 5 · (J~ + J~d ) = 5 · J~ + 5 · J~d
↓↓
5 · J~d = − 5 ·J~ = −(− ∂ρ ∂t )
v

Gauss’s Law: (5 · D ~ = ρv )
~
5 · J~d = ∂t (5 · D)
∂ ~ = 5 · ∂D
∂t
↓↓
~
J~d = ∂∂tD

~
~ = (J~ + J~d ) = J~ + ∂ D EM wave propagation is ONLY possible due to J~d
5×H
∂t

Show that the displacement current in the dielectric of a parallel plate capacitor is equal to the conduction current
in the leads.
A
Capaitance: C = d

i) Conduction current, Q = CV

ic dt = CdV
ic = C dV
dt

A dV
ic = ( )
d dt

ii) Electric Field in the dielectric

E = Vd
D = E =  Vd
Derivative: ∂D
∂t =
 dV
d dt = Jd

iii) Displacement current

~
R
id = s Jd · d~
s
R ∂D~
= Rs ∂t · d~s
 dV
s = d dV  dV
R
= s ·
d dt d~ dt · s d~
s = d dt · Area, A

A dV
id = ( )
d dt
 25

Summary:
 26

V. E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVE P ROPAGATION

Waves are a means of transporting energy or conveying information.

Examples: TV signals, RADAR, Light rays

EM Energy has the following Characteristics:

a) Travel at a given velocity

b) Assume properties of waves
c) Radiate outwards from a source
Concepts:

1) From Maxwell’s two Curl equations, in the case of free-space, obtain a three dimensional
wave equation in either E~ or H~ , hence wave velocity in free-space.
2) Determine the intrinsic impedance of plane waves in good conductors, σ ≈ ∞
3) Explain the significance of Skin Depth of propagation at different frequencies
4) Determine the average wave power in terms of Poynting’s Vector:
~ ×H
a) p~R = E ~
b) s p~ · d~s

A. 3D WAVE Equation
Consider a perfect dielectric region free of charges (ρv = 0), for which µ and  are
constants.
Maxwell’s equations are modified as follows:
Modified Point Form
5·D ~ = ρv = 0, (charge-free)
5·B ~ =0
5×E ~ = − ∂ B~ = −µ ∂ H~
dt dt
~ = (Js + ∂ D~ ∂D~ ∂E~
5×H dt ) = dt =  dt (Js =0, dielectric)
Taking a curl on both sides
5 × (5 × H)~ = (5 × ∂ E~ ) : 5 × (5 × H) ~ = 5(5 · H)
~ − 52 H
~
dt

~
∂H
~ − 52 H
5(5 · H) ~ =  ∂ (5 × E)
~ ~ = 0, 5 × E
but, 5 · H ~ = −µ
∂t ∂t
↓↓
− 52 H~ =  ∂ (−µ ∂ H~ ) = −µ ∂ 2 H
~
∂t ∂t ∂t2
↓↓
2~ 2~
~ = µ ∂ H → 3D WAVE Equation→ 52 E
52 H ~ = µ ∂ E
∂t2 ∂t2

B. 1D WAVE Equation
If the wave is propagating in z− direction only, 1D Wave Equation is written as:

∂2H~ ~
∂2H ∂2E~ ∂2E~
2
= µ 2 → 1D WAVE Equation→ 2 = µ 2
∂ z ∂t ∂ z ∂t
 27

C. WAVE Velocity
~
∂2H ~
q
~ = µ ∂2H ~:
52 H → ∂t2 = 1
µ 52 H Let u = 1
µ
∂t2
~
∂2H ~ →
∂t2 = u2 52 H 3D Wave Equation

Wave Velocity:
u0 = õ10 0 ;
1
u0 = q −9
= 3 × 108 [m/s]
4π×10−7 × 10
36π

D. Wave Propagation
The imaginary part of a positive going wave can be written as follows:
~ + = A sin (ωt − βz)
E

where
A: is the amplitude of the wave, [m]
(ωt − βz): the phase of the wave in radians
ω : angular frequency, [rad/s]
β : wave number or phase constant, [rad/m]

The wave travels a distance of λ[m] in T [s] at a speed of u[m/s]:

λ=u×T
T = f1 : f → frequency in hertz.
u = fλ
ω = 2πf, β = ωu = 2πf u = (u
2π
)=λ
f
↓
2π
β= : a phase change of 2π radians for every wavelength of distance travelled.
λ

1) Wave Propagation in LOSSY Dielectric: In this medium, σ 6= 0, and it is partially

conducting. Power is lost due to such conduction.
We consider a linear, isotropic, homogeneous, lossy dielectric medium that is charge-free,
ρv = 0
From Maxwell’s 3rd equation, 5 × E ~ = −jω B~

Taking a Curl on both sides:

~ = 5 × (−jω B)
5 × (5 × E) ~ = 5 × (−jωµH)
~ = −jωµ(5 × H)
~

~ = (J~ + jω D)
From 4th Equation: 5 × H ~ = (σ E
~ + jωE)
~ = (σ + jω)E~
↓↓
~ = −jωµ(5 × H)
5 × (5 × E) ~ = −jωµ(σ + jω)E ~
↓↓
~ = − 52 E
5 × (5 × E) ~ = −jωµ(σ + jω)E ~ since 5 · E~ = 0 from

~ = 5(5 · E)
5 × (5 × E) ~ − 52 E~
2
Let γ = jωµ(σ + jω), then:
↓↓
~ = γ2E
52 E ~ , 52 H ~ = γ2H ~ : Helmholtz’s/ vector wave equations
 28

COMPONENTS OF A COMPLEX PROPAGATION CONSTANT

γ is a complex quantity defined as follows:
1.) γ = α + jβ
2.) γ 2 = jωµ(σ + jω) = jωµσ − ω 2 µ = ωµ(jσ − ω)
3.) γ 2 = (α + jβ)2 = α2 − β 2 + 2jαβ

Equating real and imaginary parts of (2) and (3):

4.) α2 − β 2 = −ω 2 µ; −α2 + β 2 = ω 2 µ
2αβ = ωµσ
From (3): p
5.) |γ 2 | = (α2 − β 2 )2 + (2αβ)2 = (α2 + β 2 )
From (2): √
6.) |γ 2 | = ωµ σ 2 + ω 2 2

Equating (5) and (6):

√
7.) (α2 + β 2 ) = ωµ σ 2 + ω 2 2

Add (4) to (7): √

2β 2 = ω 2 µ + ωµ σ 2 + ω 2 2
↓↓ q
8.) β = ω[ µ
p 2
2 (1 + ( ωσ2 2 + 1))]
q
α = ω[ µ
p σ2
2 (−1 + ( ω2 2 + 1))]
 29

2) Plane Waves in Good Conductors: A GOOD perfect conductor has σ >> ω. Hence
σ ≈ ∞,  = 0 r , µ = µ0 µr
Substituting in equation (8),
p ωµσ q 2πf µσ √
α=β= 2 = q 2 = πf µσ
q
(2πf )2
u = ωβ = √2πf
πf µσ
= πf µσ = 2ω
µσ
Also
u = ωβ → λ = fu = βf ω
= 2πf
βf
↓↓
2π
λ=
β

Intrinsic Impedance:

Considering P = V I :
From,
γ 2 = jωµ(σ + jω) = jωµσ − ω 2 µ
r
jωµ
η=
σ + jω
As σq >> ω, jω can be neglected
η = jωµ
pσ
|η| = ωµ σ
The magnetic field can be expressed in terms of an electric field such that,

~ = E0 e−αz cos (ωt − βz − θn )~ay

H
|η|

Example
In a free-space medium, the electric field is given as E(z, t) = A sin (ωt − βz)~ay [V /m].
Obtain the expression for the magnetic field and the propagation constant, γ at a frequency
of f = 32 [M Hz].
Solution
E(z, t) = A sin (ωt − βz)~ay [V /m]
Let the wave propagate in the z -direction
~ is along (−ax ) direction i.e. (~ay × ~ax ) = −~az and (~ay × −~ax ) = ~az
It follows that H

~
H(z, t) = E0
cos (ωt − βz)(−~ax ) [A/m]
q|η| q
jωµ
E0 = A, η = σ+jω ; σ ≈ 0 ; η = µ00 = 120π
~
H(z, t) = A cos (ωt − βz)(−~ax ) [A/m]
120π

For propagation constant: γ = (α + jβ) :

In free-space: α = 0; no attenuation, γ = jβ
2πf 6
ω
β= u = u = ( 2π×32×10
3×108 ) [rad/m]
 30

Example
A dielectric medium has a dielectric constant of r = 2.3. Its conduction current equals
displacement current at a 5G frequency of 3.5 [GHz]. Find the conductivity of the medium.
Solution
Jc = σE, Jd = ωD = ωE
Id = Ic , IFF, σE = ωE
σ = ω
σ = 2πf r 0
σ = (2π × 3.5 × 109 × 2.3 × 8.85 × 10−12 )

E. SKIN Depth
It refers to the distance, δ through which a wave amplitude decreases to a factor e−1 (37%)
in a conducting medium.
While a radio wave is propagating in a uniform conducting medium, 63% of current density
flows within the skin depth. The amplitudes are attenuated by a factor e−αz . This depth of
penetration (skin depth, δ ) is given as:
q
δ = πf1µσ

where
f : the frequency of the source/ carrier frequency, (Hz)
µ: magnetic permeability of tissue, (H/m)
σ : conductivity of the medium, (S/m)

Note: √ q q
E0 e−αδ = E0 e−1 → δ = α1 , α = πf µσ; δ = πf1µσ = µσω
2

Skin Effect and Skin Resistance

Propagation of waves in the skin depth results in skin effect, which leads to surface/skin
resistance, Rs [Ω/m2 ].
Skin resistance: Is the real part of the intrinsic impedance, η , of a good conductor.
r
jωµ
Given: η =
σ + jω
p ωµ 0
η= σ ∠45 : in good2 conductors, σ >> jω
2 α
α = πf µσ → µ = πf
r r σ
α2
ω( πf ) 0 = ω( α
2
) 0
√ α
η= σ
σ
∠ 45 πf
σ 2 ∠45 = 2 σ ∠450
√ √
2 0 2 0
η= σδ ∠45 = σδ (cos 45 + j sin 450 )

η = ( 1+j
σδ )
↓↓
1
Rs =
σδ
APPLICATION in EM shields
EM shields are made of conducting sheets that must be thicker than the skin depth. The
skin resistance increases with frequency, and therefore the effective area of wire decreases.
To solve this problem in high frequency applications, use wire of many strands to reduce
the skin effect.
 31

F. Average Power and Poynting’s Vector

State Poynting’s theorem and the significance of Poynting’s Vector
The rate at which EM waves transport energy can be estimated from Maxwell’s equations.

Poynting’s Theorem:
The net power flowing out of a given volume, V , is equal to the time rate of decrease in
the energy stored within the volume, minus conduction losses.

Poynting’s Theorem: Significance

• p~ = (E~ × H)
~ [w/m2 ] : Refers to the instantaneous power density vector assocoated with
theR EM field at a point. The power p~ is normal to E ~ and H~.
• s p~.d~s : The integration of p~ over a closed surface implies the net power flowing out of
that surface.
• There exists the rate of decrease of energy in both magnetic and electric fields.
• There is ohmic power dissipated.

Derivation:
5×E ~ = −µ ∂ H~
∂t
5×H ~ = σE ~ +  ∂ E~
∂t
Taking a dot product with E ~:
(1.)
~ · (5 × H)
E ~ = σE ~ ·E ~ · ∂ E~ = (σE 2 + E
~ + E ~ · ∂ E~ )
∂t ∂t
From the identity: 5 · (A~ × B)
~ =B ~ · (5 × A)
~ −A ~ · (5 × B)
~

Let A~=H ~ and B ~ =E ~

(2.)
~ × E)
5 · (H ~ =E ~ · (5 × H)
~ −H ~ · (5 × E)~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
E · (5 × H) = 5 · (H × E) + H · (5 × E) ~
From (1.) and (2.):
~ · ∂ E~ ) = 5 · (H
(σE 2 + E ~ × E) ~ +H ~ · (5 × E) ~ = 5 · (H
~ × E) ~ · (−µ ∂ H~ )
~ +H
∂t ∂t
↓↓
~ × E)
5 · (H ~ = (σE 2 + E ~ · ∂ E~ ) + µH~ · ( ∂ H~ )
∂t ∂t

2 ~ ~ ~ ~ 2
~ : ( ∂H ) = ∂(H · H) = 2H
~ and H
By interchanging E ~ · ∂H → H
~ · ( ∂ H ) = 1 ( ∂H )
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t 2 ∂t
~ × H)
~ = −σE 2 − E ~
~ · ∂ E − µH ~
~ · ( ∂H )
5 · (E ∂t ∂t
2 2
= −σE 2 − 21  ∂E 1 ∂H
∂t − 2 µ( ∂t )

Taking the volume integral:R

~ × H)
~ · dv = − ∂ 1 2 2 2
R R
v 5 · ( E ∂t v 2 [E + µH ] − v σE · dv

Applying divergence theorem:

I Z Z
~ · d~s = − ∂
~ × H)
5 · (E
1
[E 2 + µH 2 ] − σE 2 · dv
s ∂t v 2 v

whereR 1 ∂E 2
∂ ∂H 2
− ∂t v 2 [ ∂t + µ( ∂t )] → : Decrease in energy in both electric and magnetic fields

σE 2 · dv → : decrease in Ohmic power

R
− v
 32

Example
A very long and straight wire is oriented along the z axis and carries a current, I [A].
Use the concept of Poynting’s vector to show that the total current entering a unit length
of wire of resistance, R is given as p = I 2 R [W ].

Solution
The magnetic field intensity at the surface due to an infinite wire of radius, r is given as:
~ = I ~aφ
H
2πr
Also:
J~ = σ E
~

~ ~
~ = J ~az = I ~az
E
σ Aσ
Poynting’s Vector:
~ ×H
p~ = E ~
I I I I I2
p~ = Aσ ~az × 2πr ~aφ = Aσ 2πr (~
az × ~aφ ) = 2πrAσ (−~
aρ )

Total HPower:
H Cylindrical surface
P H= H p~ · d~s
I2
= (−~a ) · rdφdz~aρ
R 2π I 2 ρ
R l 2πrAσ
= z=0 φ=0 2πAσ · dφdz
I2
= 2πAσ × 2π × l

I2l l ρl
= Aσ = I 2 R [W ] since R = Aσ = A; ρ → resistivity

Example
~ t) = E0 e−αz cos (ωt − βz)~ax and
The electric field of an EM field is described by E(z,
the angle between the fields is θη . Use Poynting’s vector to show that the average power is
E2
given as p~av = 0 e−αz cos (θη ) · ~az [W/m2 ] .
2|η|
Solution

Since the E field is in the ~ax direction and the wave propagates in the z -direction, the
magnetic field is in the y -direction.
~
• H(z, t) = Eη0 e−αz cos (ωt − βz − θη )~ay
E02 −2αz
• p~(z, t) = η e cos (ωt − βz) cos (ωt − βz − θη )~az
Z
1
• p~av (z) = p~(z, t)dt
T
hR i
1 E02 −2αz T RT
• p~av (z) = T 2η e 0 cos (θη )dt + 0 cos (2ωt − 2βz − θη )dt
2
h i
1 E −2αz sin (4π−2βz−θη ) sin (0−2βz−θη ) 2π
• p~av (z) = T 2η e
0
cos (θη ) · T + 2ω − 2ω : T = ω

E02 −αz
p~av = e cos (θη ) · ~az [W/m2 ] .
2|η|

Further Examples
 33

Example
Determine if the vector field, F describes a magnetic field, given that F(x, y) =< x2 y, 2y −
xy 2 >.
Solution
For a magnetic field, 5 · F = 0
∂ ∂
5 · F(x, y) = ∂x (x2 y) + ∂y (2y − xy 2 )
= 2xy + 2 − 2xy
=2
↓↓
F doesn’t model a magnetic field
Example
Determine the existence of flow of electric charges at a point, (0, 2, −1) in the vector field,
F(x, y, z, ) = ex~i + 2yz~j − yz 3~k .
Solution
Determine the divergence at the point: 5 · F
∂ ∂ ∂
5 · F(x, y) = ∂x (ex ) + ∂y (2yz) + ∂z (yz 3 )
x
= e + 2z − 3yz 2

↓↓
5 · F(0, 2, −1) = e0 + 2(−1) − (3 · 2 · (−1)2 ) = 1 − 2 − 6 = −7
There is an inward flow of charge density at the point.
 34

VI. M AGNETIC C IRCUITS

Example of Devices that exploit Magnetic circuits
Transformers, Generators, Motors, Relays, Toroids

In the magnetic field, 5 · F~ = 0

A. ANALOGY of Magnetic Circuits and Electric Circuits

TABLE I
S UMMARY

Electric Magnetic
Resistance, R Reluctance,R
1 1
Conductance, G = R Permeance, P = R
Conductivity, σ Permeability,µ
R
Current, I Flux,Ψ = B · ds
Current Density, J = σE Flux Density,B = µH
~
Intensity, E ~
FieldP P P P Field Intensity,
P PH
Kirchoff’s Law: I = 0; V = RI Ψ = 0; F= R · Ψ
Ohm’s Law: V = E · l = IR Magnetomotive Force, Fm = ΨR = N I

B. Similarities
Kirchoff’s current and voltage laws can be applied to magnetic circuits, to nodes and loops.
Example with n elements:
a) Series
Ψ1 = Ψ2 = Ψ3 = · · · = Ψn
F = F1 + F2 + · · · + Fn

b) Parallel
Ψ = Ψ 1 + Ψ2 + Ψ3 + · · · + Ψn
F = F1 = F2 = · · · = Fn

C. Differences
a) Current, I flows in electric circuits, whereas magnetic flux, Ψ does not flow.

b) Conductivity, σ does not change with current density, J = σE in electric fields, whereas
~ , in the magnetic field.
permeability, µ varies with flux density, B
 35

Example

For an industrial application, a steel material in the form of a toroid of diameter D = 22 [cm]
and a circular cross-sectional radius of r = 1 [cm] is used to produce a flux of 0.55 [mW b]
through N = 250 turns of coil. If steel has relative permeability of µr = 1000, find the
current applied to coil.

Solution

l
KEY: R =
µA
Length of the toroid: l = πD = π × 22 × 10−2 =
Area, A = π × r2 = π × [1 × 10−2 ]2 =
l
Reluctance, R = µA ; µ = µ0 µr
Magnetomotive Force, F = N I = ΨR
↓↓
I = ΨR
N =? [A]

Quizz: Repeat the design if only a supply of 5 [A] is available to produce the same amount
of flux. Don’t change the dimensions of the toroid.

Example

A ferrite ring with a cross-sectional area of 3 [cm2 ] and a mean circumference of 30[cm]
is wound with 280 turns of wire and carrying a current of 0.75 [A]. Calculate the flux in
the ring if the relative permeability is given as, µr = 1500.

Solution

l
KEY: R =
µA
l 30×10−2
R= µA = 4π×10−7 ×1500×3×10−4 =

F = N I = 280 × 0.75 =

NI
Ψ= R =? [W b]