1 Partial Derivatives

Suppose we let x vary while keeping y fixed (y = b) in f (x, y), we got a function g(x) = f (x, b). If g has a
derivative at a, we call it the partial derivative of f with respect to x at (a,b). We have

g(a + h) − g(a)
g ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h

f (x + h, b) − f (x, y)
fx (x, y) = lim
h→0 h
and so it become
f (x, y + h) − f (x, y)
fy (x, y) = lim
h→0 h

To compute partial derivatives, we have the following rule.

■ Rule for Finding Partial Derivatives of z = f (x, y)

1. To find fx , regard y as a constant and differentiate f (x, y) with respect to x.
2. To find fy , regard x as a constant and differentiate f (x, y) with respect to y.

+ EXAMPLE. If f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y 2 , find fx (2, 1) and fy (2, 1). Holding y constant and differentiating
with respect to x, we get

fx (x, y) = 3x2 + 2xy 3

fx (2, 1) = 3 · 22 + 2 · 2 · 13 = 16

Do the same with y

fy (x, y) = 3x2 y 2 − 4y
fy (2, 1) = 3 · 22 · 12 − 4 · 1 = 8

Interpretations of Partial Derivatives

■ The equation f (x, y) represent a surface S. By fixing y = b,

we got the curve C1 (the trace of S in the pane y = b).
■ Notice that C1 is the graph of g(x) = f (x, b), so the slope of
its tangent T1 is g ′ (a) = fx (a, b).

1
 + EXAMPLE. If f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y 2 , find fx (1, 1) and fy (1, 1)
and interpret these numbers as slopes.
We have

fx (x, y) = −2x fy (x.y) = −4y

fx (1, 1) = −2 fy (1, 1) = −4

The vertical plane y = 1 intersects f (x, y) in the parabola z = 2−x2 ,

y = 1 (C1 ). The slope of the tangent line to this parabola at the
point (1, 1, 1) is fx (1, 1) = −2.

!
x δf δf
+ EXAMPLE. If f (x, y) = sin , calculate and .
1+y ∂x ∂y

■ Using the Chain Rule for functions of one variable, we have

     
∂f x ∂ x x 1
= cos · = cos ·
∂x 1+y ∂x 1 + y 1+y 1+y
     
δf x ∂ x x x
= cos · = − cos ·
∂y 1+y ∂y 1 + y 1+y (1 + y)2

+ EXAMPLE. Find ∂z/∂x and ∂z/∂y of z is defined as follow

x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz = 1

■ First differentiate implicitly with respect to x, treat y as a constant.

∂z ∂z
3x2 + 3z 2 + 6yz + 6xy =0
∂x ∂x
Solving this for ∂z/∂x, we obtain

∂z y 2 + 2xz
=− 2
∂x z + 2xy
Similarly, implicit differentiation with respect to y gives

∂z y 2 + 2xz
=− 2
∂y z + 2xy

Functions of More Than Two Variables

Regarding y and z as constants and differentiating with respect to x.

f (x + h, y, z) − f (x, y, z)
fx (x, y, z) = lim
h→0 h
+ EXAMPLE. Find fx , fy , and fz if f (x, y, z) = exy ln z.

Holding y and z constant and differentiating with respect to x, we have

fx = yexy ln z

Similarly,
exy
fy = xexy ln z and fz =
z

2
Higher Derivatives

If f is a function of 2 variables, then fx and fy are also functions of 2 variables. So we can consider the
second partial derivatives of f , that is (fx )x , (fx )y , (fy )x , and (fy )y .

∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fx )x = fxx = f11 = = =
∂x ∂x ∂x2 ∂x2
2
∂2z
 
∂ ∂f ∂ f
(fx )y = fxy = f12 = = =
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fy )x = fyx = f21 = = =
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fy )y = fyy = f22 = = =
∂y ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y 2

Thus fxy (or ∂ 2 f /∂y ∂x) means that we first differentiate with respect to x and then with respect to y.
+ EXAMPLE. Find the second partial derivatives of

f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y 2

SOLUTION We find that

fx (x, y) = 3x2 + 2xy 3 fy (x, y) = 3x2 y 2 − 4y

Therefore
∂ ∂
fxx = (3x2 + 2xy 3 ) = 6x + 2y 3 fxy = (3x2 + 2xy 3 ) = 6xy 2
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
fyx = (3x2 y 2 − 4y) = 6xy 2 fyy = (3x2 y 2 − 4y) = 6x2 y − 4
∂x ∂y

Clairaut’s Theorem Suppose f is defined on a disk D that contains the point (a, b). If the functions
fxy and fyx are both continuous in D, then

fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b)

Partial derivatives of order 3 or higher can also be defined

 2 
∂ ∂ f ∂3f
fxyy = (fxy )y = =
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂x

and using Clairaut’s Theorem it can be shown that fxyy = fyxy = fyyx .
+ EXAMPLE. Calculate fxxyz if f (x, y, z) = sin 3x + yz.
SOLUTION.

fx = 3 cos (3x + yz)

fxx = −9 sin (3x + yz)
fxxy = −9z cos (3x + yz)
fxxyz = −9 cos (3x + yz) + 9yz sin (3x + yz)

Partial Differential Equations

Laplace’s equation.
∂2u ∂2u
+ =0
∂x2 ∂y 2

2 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations

As we zoom in toward a point on a surface of a differentiable function, the surface looks more and more like
a plane (its tangent plane) and we can approximate it by a linear function of 2 variables.

3
 Tangent Planes
Suppose surface S of z = f (x, y) has continuous first partial deriva-
tives, let P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ∈ S.
■ C1 and C2 be the curves obtained by intersecting the vertical
planes y = y0 and x = x0 with S.
■ Let T1 and T2 be the tangent lines to the curves C1 and C2 at P .
Then the tangent plane to the surface S at the point P contains
T1 and T2 . In fact, it consists of all possible tangent lines at P .
■ We know the plane has an equation of the form

A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0

By dividing this by C and letting a = −A/C and b = −B/C,

z − z0 = a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 )

The tangent plane’s intersection with the plane y = y0 must be the tangent line T1 .

z − z0 = a(x − x0 ) where y = y0

This is a line with slope a = fx (x0 , y0 ). Similarly, z − z0 = b(y − y0 ), and b = fy (x0 , y0 ).

Definition : Equation of Tangent Plane

Suppose f has continuous partial derivatives. An equation of the tangent plane to the surface z = f (x, y)
at the point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is

z − z0 = fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )

+ EXAMPLE. Find the tangent plane to the elliptic paraboloid z = 2x2 + y 2 at the point (1, 1, 3).

fx (x, y) = 4x fy (x, y) = 2y
fx (1, 1) = 4 fy (1, 1) = 2

Then the equation of the tangent plane at (1, 1, 3) is

z − 3 = 4(x − 1) + 2(y − 1)
z = 4x + 2y − 3

By zooming toward the point (1, 1) on a contour map, we see that

the more we zoom in, the more the level curves look like equally
spaced parallel lines.

4
 Linear Approximations
The equation of the tangent plane of f (x, y) = 2x2 + y 2 at
the point (1, 1, 3) is z = 4x + 2y − 3. Therefore, the linear Eg: At the point (1.1, 0.95), the linear
function of 2 variables approximation gives
L(x, y) = 4x + 2y − 3 f (1.1, 0.95) ≈ 4(1.1) + 2(0.95) − 3 = 3.3
is the linearization of f at (1, 1) and the approximation True value: f (1.1, 0.95) = 2(1.1)2 +
(0.95)2 = 3.3225.
f (x, y) ≈ 4x + 2y − 3

is the linear approximation or tangent plane approximation

of f at (1, 1).

Definition

The linearization of f at (a, b). L(x, y) = f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b)
The linear approximation of f at (a, b). f (x, y) ≈ f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b)

What if fx and fy are not continuous?


 xy
if (x, y) ̸= (0, 0)

f (x, y) = x2 + y 2

0 if (x, y) = (0, 0)


Even though fx (0, 0) = fy (0, 0) = 0, but they are not continuous.

The linear approximation would be f (x, y) ≈ 0, but f (x, y) = 12 at
all points on the line y = x. So we define it as follow.

Definition : Differentiable

If z = f (x, y), then f is differentiable at (a, b) if ∆z can be expressed as

∆z = fx (a, b)∆x + fy (a, b)∆y + ε1 ∆x + ε2 ∆y

where ε1 and ε2 → 0 as (∆x, ∆y) → (0, 0) .

Pretty ..dumb.

Theorem. If fx and fy exist near (a, b) and are continuous at (a, b), then f is differentiable at (a, b).

+ EXAMPLE. Show that f (x, y) = xexy is differentiable at (1,0) and find its
linearization there. Approximate f(1.1, -0.1).
The partial derivatives are

fx (x, y) = exy + xyexy fx (x, y) = x2 exy

fx (1, 0) = 1 fy (1, 0) = 1

Both fx and fy are continuous, so by the above Theorem, we got f differ-

entiable. The linearization is

L(x, y) = f (1, 0) + fx (1, 0)(x − 1) + fy (1, 0)(y − 0)

=x+y

So f (1.1, −0, 1) ≈ 1.1 − 0.1 = 1, actual value: 0.98542.

5
 Differentials
■ For y = f (x), we define dx an independent variable. And dy =
f ′ (x) dx, represents the change in height when x changes dx.
■ For a differentiable z = f (x, y), we define the differentials dx and dy
to be independent variables.

Definition : Total differential

Then the differential dz (the total differential), is defined as follow.

∂z ∂z
dz = fx (x, y) dx + fy (x, y) dy = dx + dy
∂x ∂y

If we take dx = ∆x = x − a and dy = ∆y = y − b, then f (x, y) ≈ f (a, b) + dz.

+ EXAMPLE.
(a) If z = f (x, y) = x2 + 3xy − y 2 , find the differential dz.
(b) If x changes from 2 to 2.05 and y changes from 3 to 2.96, comppare
the values of ∆z and dz.
SOLUTION
(a) Applying the formula,

∂z ∂z
dz = dy = dx + dy = (2x + 3y) dx + (3x − 2y) dy
∂x ∂y

(b) Putting x = 2, dx = ∆x = 0.05, y = 3, dy = ∆y = −0.04, we get

dz = [2(2) + 3(3)]0.05 + [3(2) − 2(3)](−0.04) = 0.65

The increment of z is

∆z = f (2.05, 2.96) − f (2, 3)

= [(2.05)2 + 3(2.05)(2.96) − (2.96)2 ] − [22 + 3(2)(3) − 32 ]
= 0.6449

ˆ Notice that ∆z ≈ dz but dz is easier to compute.

Functions of Three or More Variables

Linear approximation. f (x, y, z) ≈ f (a, b, c) + Σfx (a, b, c)(x − a)

∂w ∂w ∂w
Total differential. dw = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z

6
3 The Chain Rule
Definition : The Chain Rule (Case 1)

Suppose that z = f (x, y) is differentiable, where x = g(t) and y = h(t) are both differentiable. Then z
is a differentiable function of t and
dz ∂f dx ∂f dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

+ EXAMPLE. If z = x2 y + 3xy 4 , where x = sin 2t and y = cos t, find

dz/dt when t = 0.
The Chain Rule gives

dz ∂f dx ∂f dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= (2xy + 3y 4 )(2 cos 2t) + (x2 + 12xy 3 )(− sin t)

When t = 0, x = sin 0 = 0 and y = cos 0 = 1. Therefore


dz 
= (0 + 3)(2 cos 0) + (0 + 0)(−0) = 6
dt 

t=0

Definition : The Chain Rule (Case 2)

Suppose that z = f (x, y) is differentiable, where x = g(s, t) and y = h(s, t) are differentiable. We can
hold the the other variable fixed.

dz ∂f dx ∂f dy dz ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + = +
ds ∂x ds ∂y ds dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

+ EXAMPLE. If z = ex sin y, where x = st2 , and y = s2 t, find ∂z/∂s and ∂z/∂t.

Applying Case 2 of the Chain Rule, we get

∂z ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= + = (ex sin y)(t2 ) + (ex cos y)(2st)
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s
2 2
= t2 est sin (s2 t) + 2stest cos (s2 t)
∂z ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= + = (ex sin y)(2st) + (ex cos y)(s2 )
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t
2 2
= 2stest + s2 est cos s2 t

ˆ Note. s, t are independent variables, x, y are intermediate variables,

and z is the dependent variable.
For the gemeral version of n variables, it’s similar.

+ EXAMPLE. If g(s, t) = f (s2 − t2 , t2 − s2 ) and f is differentiable, show that g satisfies the equation

∂g ∂g
t +s =0
∂s ∂t
+ EXAMPLE. If z = f (x, y) has continuous second-order partial derivatives and x = r2 + s2 and y = 2rs, find
a. ∂z/∂r
b. ∂ 2 z/∂r2
SOLUTION.
a. The Chain Rule gives
∂z ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = (2r) + (2s)
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂x ∂y

7
 b. Applying the Product Rule, we get
!
∂2z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= 2r + 2s
∂r2 ∂r ∂x ∂y
! !
∂z ∂ ∂z ∂ ∂z
=2 + 2r + 2s
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y

Using the Chain Rule again (Figure 5), we have

! ! !
∂ ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y ∂2z ∂2z
= + = (2r) + (2s)
∂r ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂x ∂r ∂x2 ∂y∂x
!
∂ ∂z ∂2z ∂2z
= (2r) + (2s)
∂r ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y 2

Putting these into the previous equation,

∂2z ∂z dd2 z ∂2z ∂2z

=2 + 4r2 + 8rs + 4s2
∂r2 ∂x ∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2

Implicit Differentiation

Suppose F (x, y) = 0, y = f (x) is differentiable. If F is differentiable, apply Case 1 of the Chain Rule to
differentiate both sides with respect to x.

∂F dx ∂F dy
+ =0
∂x dx ∂y dx

∂F
dy Fx
= − ∂x = −
dx ∂F Fy
∂y

+ EXAMPLE. Find y ′ if x3 + y 3 = 6xy.

SOLUTION. F (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 6xy = 0 which gives

dy Fx 3x2 − 6y x2 − 2y
=− =− =−
dx Fy 3y 2 − 6x y 2 − 2x

Definition : Implicit Function Theorem

∂F ∂F
∂z ∂z ∂y
= − ∂x =−
∂x ∂F ∂y ∂F
∂z ∂z

∂z ∂z
+ EXAMPLE. Find and if x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz = 1.
∂x ∂y

SOLUTION. Let f (x, y, z) = x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz − 1, then we have

∂z Fx x2 + 2yz
=− =−
∂x Fz z 2 + 2xy
∂z Fy y 2 + 2xz
=− =−
∂y Fz z 2 + 2xy