Modelling and equipment of

enterprises
2022/2023 Academic Year
3 credits (2/0/1)

Senior Lecture: Aliya Temirkhan

 Introduction
Overview Chemical Process Equipment
Outline technologies
Process fluid mechanics
Basic relationship in fluid mechanics
Fluid flow equipment.
Introduction
• The chemical processing industry is where raw (bulk) materials undergo chemical
conversion during their processing into finished products or products of value to other
industries.
• The chemical processing industry includes those manufacturing facilities whose
products result from:
• Chemical reactions between organic or inorganic materials, or both,
• Separation, or purification of a natural product, extraction, with or without the aid of
chemical reactions,
• The preparation of specifically formulated mixtures of materials, either natural or
synthetic.
• While the chemical processing industry is primarily the realm of the chemical process
engineer and the chemist, it also involves a wide range of other scientific, engineering,
and economic specialists.
Overview. Chemical Processing
• Chemical processing is a way of making changes to chemical compounds. Chemical processing is
done to change the chemical structure of raw (bulk) materials to obtain products of value to other
industries / in daily life.
• These products include agrochemicals, petrochemicals, oleochemicals, ceramics, polymers,
rubber, fragrances, flavors, and explosives.
• Chemical processing plants use specialized equipment and technology in the manufacturing
process that can withstand the most demanding requirements and rigorous operating conditions.
• The extreme conditions in chemical processing facilities place exceptional demands on equipment
to stand up to heat, pressure, stress, and corrosion over a working life that can span decades.
• Chemical solids processing unit operations are everywhere in chemical processing plants, yet most
chemical engineers are not equipped to deal with particle technology process problems.
• Chemical process definition = Method or changing one or more chemicals or chemical
compounds. This process can occur by itself or be caused by an outside force and involves a
chemical reaction.
Process Fluid Mechanics
• What you WIll learn
• The basic relationships for fluid flow—mass, energy, and force balances
• The primary types of fluid flow equipment—pipes, pumps, compressors, valves
• How to design a system for incompressible and compressible frictional flow of fluid in pipes
• How to design a system for frictional flow of fluid with submerged objects
• Methods for flow measurement
• How to analyze existing fluid flow equipment
• How to use the concept of net positive suction head (NPSH) to ensure safe and
• appropriate pump operation
• The analysis of pump and system curves
• How to use compressor curves and when to use compressor staging
Basic relationship in fluid mechanics
• General controle volume
Mass Balance

(1)

(2)

(3) (4)
System with
multiple
inputs and
outputs
Mechanical Energy Balance

(5)

(6) (7)

(8)
(9)

(10)

(11)
Force Balance

(12)

(13)
Fluid flow
equipment. Pipes
• Pipes and their associated fittings that are used to transport fluid through a
chemical plant are usually made of metal. For noncorrosive fluids under
conditions that are not of special concern, carbon steel is typical.
• Pipes are sized using a nominal diameter and a schedule number. The higher
the schedule num- ber, the thicker the pipe walls, making pipes with a higher
schedule number more suitable for higher- pressure operations. The nominal
diameter is a number such as 2 in; however, there is no dimension of the pipe
that is actually 2 in until the diameter reaches 14 in. For pipes with a diameter
of 14 in or larger, the nominal diameter is the outside diameter. Pipes
typically have integer nominal diameters; however, for smaller diameters,
they can be in increments of 0.25 in. At larger diameters, the nominal
diameters may only be even integer values. Table 1 shows the dimensions of
schedule pipe.
Table 1. Dimention of
standard Steel Pipe
Fluid flow equipment. Valves.
• Valves are found in piping systems. Valves are about the only way to regulate
anything in a chemi- cal process. Valves serve several functions. They are used
to regulate flowrate, reduce pressure by adding resistance, or to isolate (turn
flow on/off ) equipment.
• Two common types of valves are gate valves and globe valves. Figure 1 shows
illustrations of several common types of valves.
• Gate valves are used for on/off control of fluid flow. The flow path through a
gate valve is roughly straight, so when the valve is fully open, the pressure drop
is very small. However, gate valves are not suitable for flowrate regulation
because the flowrate does not change much until the “gate” is almost closed.
There are also ball valves, in which a quarter turn opens a flow channel, and
they can also be used for on/off regulation.
Figure 1. Common types of valves (a) gate, (b) globe),
© swing check (addopted from Couper et.al.[2012])
Fluid flow
equipment. Pumps
• Pumps are used to transport liquids, and pumps can be damaged by the
presence of vapor, a phenomenon.
• The two major classifications for pumps are positive displacement and
centrifugal.
• Positive-displacement pumps are often called constant-volume pumps
because a fixed amount of liquid is taken into a chamber at a low pressure
and pushed out of the chamber at a high pressure. The chamber has a fixed
volume, hence the name.
• In centrifugal pumps, which are a common workhorse in the chemical
industry, the pressure is increased by the centrifugal action of an impeller. An
impeller is a rotating shaft with blades, and it might be tempting to call it a
propeller because an impeller resembles a propeller.
Figure 2. (a) Inner
working of positive-
displacement pump,
(b) inner working of
centrifugal pump
(addopted Couper
et.al.[2012])
Fluid Flow
Equipment.
Compressors
Figure 3. Inner working of compressors: (a ) centrefugfal, (b)
axial (addopted Couper et.al.[2012])
Plant Design
2022/2023 Academic Year
3 credits (2/0/1)

Senior Lecture: Aliya Temirkhan

 Frictional pipe flow.
Calculating frictional loss.
Outline Fluidized beds.
Flow rate measurement.
Performance of fluid flow equipment.
Frictional pipe flow
Calculating Frictional
Losses
 Friction term is

where L is the pipe length, D is the pipe diameter, and f is the Fanning
friction factor. (The Fanning friction factor is typically used by chemical
engineers. There is also the Moody friction factor, which is four times
the Fanning friction factor. Care must be used when obtaining friction
factor values from different sources. It is even more confusing, since
the plot of friction factor versus Reynolds number is called a Moody
plot for both friction factors.) The friction factor is a function of the
Reynolds number (Re = Dvρ/µ, where µ is the fluid viscosity), and its
form depends on the flow regime (laminar or turbulent), and for
turbulent flow, f is also a function of the pipe roughness factor (e, a
length that represents small asperities on the pipe wall; values are
given at the top of Figure 6), which is a tabulated value.
Figure 6. Moody plot
for the Fanning friction
factor in pipes
 (15)

(16)

(17) (18)
 (19)

where us is the superficial velocity (based on pipe diameter, not particle

diameter), Dp is the particle diameter (assumed spherical here; corrections are
available for nonspherical shape), and ε is the packing void fraction, which is the
volume fraction in the packed bed not occupied by solids.
Incompressible Flow
Single pipe system
Incompressible flow problems fall into three
categories:
• Any parameter unknown in the mechanical energy balance other
than velocity (flowrate) or diameter
• Unknown velocity (flowrate)
• Unknown diameter

(20)
Incompressible Flow
Multiple pipe systems
Figure 7. Multiple pipe
systems: (a) pipes pf
different diameters is series;
(b) pipes of different
diameters in parallel
 (21)
For pipes in series, the
mass flowrate is constant
and the pressure (22)
differences are additive:

For pipes in parallel, the (23)

mass flowrates are
additive and the
pressure differences are (24)
equal:
Compressible Flow
For isothermal flow of an ideal gas, the density
is expressed as (25)

where M is the molecular weight, and the integral can be evaluated.

For adiabatic, reversible flow of an ideal gas, the temperature in Equation (25) is
expressed in terms of pressure to evaluate the integral in Equation (5) using a
relationship obtained from thermodynamics:

where (26)

(27)

where Cp and Cv are the constant pressure and constant volume heat capacities,
respectively. The results are expressed in terms of the superficial mass velocity, G.
For isothermal, turbulent flow, the result, presented without derivation, is

(28)

which can be solved for an unknown pressure, superficial mass velocity (G), diameter (by
expressing superficial mass velocity in terms of diameter), or length. For isothermal,
laminar flow, the result is

(29)
Equation (29) is a quadratic in G, or if G is known, any other variable can be found. For
adiabatic, turbulent flow, the result is

(30)

For compressible flow in packed beds, the Ergun equation, Equation (1.19), is used for
the friction term, and the pressure term in the mechanical energy balance is integrated
assuming either isothermal or adiabatic flow. For isothermal flow, the result is

(31)

where subscript 1 is upstream and subscript 2 is downstream.

Choked Flow
In evaluating the flow of compressible fluids, there exists a limit for the
maximum velocity of the fluid (gas), that is, the speed of sound in the
fluid.

This phenomenon of choked flow occurs because the change in

downstream pressure must propagate upstream for the change in flow
to occur. The speed at which this propagation occurs is the speed of
sound. Thus, when the gas velocity is at the speed of sound, any
further decrease in downstream pressure cannot be propagated
upstream, and the flow cannot increase further.
The relationships for critical flow in pipes under turbulent flow conditions are as follows:

(32)

Isothermal flow
(33)

(34)
Adiabatic flow

(35)
Other Flow
Situations
Flow past
submerged objects
 Objects moving in fluids and fluids moving past stationary, submerged
objects are similar situations that are described by the force balance. When
an object is released in a stationary fluid, it will either fall or rise, depending
on the relative densities of the object and the fluid.

(36)

For a sphere, the mass is

(37)

where Ds is the sphere diameter, and the volume is defined in Equation (37).
The drag force on an object is defined as
(38)

where CD is a drag coefficient that may be thought of as an analog to

the friction factor, Aproj is the projected area normal to the direction of
flow, and u is the velocity of the object relative to the fluid.

The terminal velocity is

(39)
Stokes law, which is a theoretical result, states that the drag force in
Equation (36) is defined as
(40)

(41)
Experimental data are usually used as a means to determine the drag
coefficient. There are curve fits for the intermediate region, between creeping
flow and the constant value observed for 1000 < Re < 200,000. Haider and
Levenspiel (1989) provide a curve fit to the data for all values of Re < 200,000
and there are results are plotted in Figure 8 :

(42)

(43)

(44)
Drag coefficient dependence on
Reynolds number from Haider
and Levensliel (1989), Equation
(42). The dotted, straight lines is
creeping flow asymptote.

(45)
For nonspherical particles, the determination of the drag coefficient and
terminal velocity is more complicated. A major challenge is how to account
for particle shape. One method is to define the shape in terms of sphericity.
Sphericity is defined as
(46)

Haider and Levenspiel (1989) have provided a curve fit for previously
published experimental data, which were taken for regular geometric shapes.
The drag coefficient for different sphericities is illustrated in Figure 1.9, and
the curve-fit equation is
(47)
 Figure 9. Drag coefficient dependence on
Reynolds number and sphericity from
Haider and Levenspiel (1989), Equation (47)

The equivalent expression in terms of D* and ut* is given as

(48)
Other Flow
Situations
Fluidized Bed
Figure 10. Plot illustrating
constant value of pressure
drop above minimum
fluidization velosity
 The frictional force equals the weight of the bed, and the pressure drop remains
constant. Quantitatively

(49)

(50)

where the subscript mf signifies minimum fluidization and hmf is the height of the bed at minimum fluidization,
which for a packed bed was called the length of the bed, L.
At the instant a which fluidization begins, the frictional pressure drop is equal to that of a packed bed.
Combining Equation (19), which is the frictional loss in a packed bed and equals −∆Pfr/ρ, and Equation (49)
yields
Rearranging Equation (50) and defining two dimensionless groups that characterize
the fluid flow in a fluidized bed,
(51)

(52)

where Equation (51) is the particle Reynolds number, which characterizes the flow
regime, and Equation (52) defines the Archimedes number, which is the ratio of
gravitational forces/viscous forces, yields

(53)

(54)
If the void fraction at minimum fluidization, which must be measured, and/or the
sphericity are not known, Wen and Yu (1966) recommend using

(55)

(56)

and Equation (1.54) reduces to

(57)

Since the volume of solid particles remains constant, it is possible to relate the bed
height and void fraction at different levels of fluidization

(58)
• Figure 11. Flow regime map for
gas-solid fluidization (addopted
from Kunii and Levenspiel [1991])
Other Flow
Situations
Flowrate
Measurement
• Figure 12. Typical devices
used to measure flowrate
The control volume is fluid between an upstream point, labeled 1, and a
point in the obstruction, labeled 2. For turbulent flow, the mechanical
energy balance written between these two points is

(59)

The friction term is dropped at this point but is incorporated into the
problem through a discharge coefficient, Co. From Equation (1.3), u1 is
expressed in terms of u2, the cross-sectional areas, and then the
diameters; and solving for the velocity in the obstruction yields

(60) (61)
Figure 13. Orifice discharge
coefficient (Miller [1983])
Figure 14. Illustration of rotameter
Figure 15. Illustration of general
manometer situation

(62)

(63)
where

(64)
Figure 16. Unrecovered frictional loss in
different flow measuring devices
(Adapted from Cheremisinoff)
Performance of
fluid flow
equipment
Figure 17. Illustrations of (a) design
problem, (b) performance problem
(unknowns are indicated by italics for
each case)
Base-case ratios
The base-case ratio integrates the “best available” information from
the operating plant with design relationships to predict the effect of
process changes. It is an important and powerful technique with a wide
range of applications. The base-case ratio, X, is defined as the ratio of a
new-case system characteristic, x2, to the base-case system
characteristic, x1

X= x2 /x1 (65)
1. Ratios Related to Equipment Sizes (Leq, equivalent length; diameter,
D; surface area, A): Assuming that the equipment is not modified, these
values are constant, the ratios are unity, and these terms cancel out.
2. Ratios Related to Physical Properties (such as density, ρ; viscosity, µ):
These values can be functions of material composition, temperature,
and pressure. Only the functional relationships, not absolute values,
are needed. For small changes in composition, temperature, or
pressure, the properties often are unchanged, and the ratio is unity and
cancels out. An exception to this is gas-phase density.
3. Ratios Related to Stream Properties: These ratios usually involve
velocity, flowrate, concentration, temperature, and pressure.
Net positive Suction Head
There is a significant limitation on pump operation called net positive
suction head (NPSH). This is the head that is needed on the pump feed
(suction) side to ensure that liquid does not vaporize upon entering the
pump.
NPSH A = Pinlet – P* (66)

Equation (66) means that the available NPSH (NPSHA) is the difference between the
inlet pressure, Pinlet, and P*, which is the vapor pressure (bubble-point pressure for a
mixture). It is required that NPSHA ≥ NPSHR to avoid cavitation. Cavitation is avoided if
operation is to the left of the intersection of the two curves. It is physically possible to
operate to the right of the intersection of the two curves, but doing so is not
recommended because the pump will be damaged.
Figure 18. (a) NPSHA and NPSHR curves showing region of feasible operation, (b) how
physical parameters affect shape of NPSHA curve
(67)

(68)
Figure 19. Typical situation for
application of NPSH principles
Pump and system curves

(69)

Figure 20. Typical shape of pump

(70) curve for centrifugal pump
 Compressors. Compressor curves

The performance of centrifugal

compressors is somewhat analogous to
that of centrifugal pumps. A characteristic
performance curve, supplied by the
manufacturer, defines how the outlet
pressure varies with flowrate. However,
compressor behavior is far more complex
than that for pumps because the fluid is
compressible.

Figure 25. Performance curves for a

centrifugal compressor
Compressor Staging
There are two limiting cases for compressor behavior: isothermal and
isentropic. An actual compressor is neither isothermal nor isentropic;
however, the behavior lies between these two limiting cases. From the
general mechanical energy balance, compressor work is

(73)

(74)
For isentropic compression, the relationship from thermodynamics for
adiabatic, reversible, compression is

(75) (77)

(76) (78)
Performance of the feed section to process

Figure 26. Comparison of

isothermal and isentropic work for
compressors
Figure 27. Example of two-stage compressor configuration

(79)
Figure 28. Feed section to
phthalic anhydride process
Table 4. Partial Stream Table for Feed Section in Figure 27

Compressor C-201 operates at only one speed, and the equation for the compressor curve is

(80)
What you should have learned:
• How to write the mass balance for pipe flow
• How to apply the mechanical energy balance to pipe flow
• How to apply the force balance to flow around submerged objects
• The types of pipes and pipe sizing
• The types of pumps and compressors and their applicability
• The purpose of including valves in a piping system
• How to design and analyze performance of a system for frictional flow of fluid in pipes
• How to design a system for frictional flow of fluid with submerged objects such as packed
and fluidized beds
• Methods for flow measurement
• How to analyze existing fluid flow equipment
• What net positive suction head is and the limitations it places on piping system design
• How to analyze pump and system curves to understand the limitations of pumps
• Why compressors are staged
 Process heat transfer.
Basic heat-exchange relationship.
Heat-exchange equipment design and
characteristics.
LMTD correction factor for multiple shell and
Next Week tube pass.
Overall Heat transfer coefficients – resistances
in series
Estimation of individual heat transfer
coefficients and fouling resistances
Extended surface
Algorithm and worked examples for the design
of heat exchangers
Performance problems