Reproductive System Reviewer

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Thirteenth Edition
Global Edition
Chapter 16
The Reproductive
System
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

The Reproductive System (1 of 2)
• Gonads—primary sex organs
– Testes in males
– Ovaries in females
• Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete
hormones
– Sperm—male gametes
– Ova (eggs)—female gametes
• Remaining structures are accessory reproductive organs

The Reproductive System (2 of 2)
• Reproductive systems
– Produce offspring via gametes
– Sperm and egg fuse to form a zygote
– Female uterus houses the embryo, and later the fetus,
until birth

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive
System (1 of 2)
• Testes
• Duct system
– Epididymis
– Ductus (vas) deferens
– Urethra

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive
System (2 of 2)
• Accessory organs
– Seminal glands (vesicles)
– Prostate
– Bulbourethral glands
• External genitalia
– Penis
– Scrotum

Figure 16.2a Male Reproductive Organs (1 of 4)

Figure 16.2b Male Reproductive Organs (1 of 4)

Testes (1 of 2)
• Each testis is connected to the trunk via the spermatic
cord, which houses:
– Blood vessels
– Nerves
– Ductus deferens
• Coverings of the testes
– Tunica albuginea—capsule that surrounds each testis
– Septa—extensions of the capsule that extend into the
testis and divide it into lobules

Figure 16.1 Sagittal Section of the
Testis and Associated Epididymis (1 of 3)

Testes (2 of 2)
• Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous tubules
– Tightly coiled structures
– Function as sperm-forming factories
– Empty sperm into the rete testis
• Sperm travels from the rete testis to the epididymis
• Interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules produce
androgens such as testosterone

Duct System (1 of 6)
• The duct system transports sperm from the body and
includes:
– Epididymis
– Ductus deferens
– Urethra

• Epididymis
– Highly convoluted tube 6 m (20 f t) long
eters ee
– Found along the posterior lateral side of the testis

– First part of the male duct system
– Temporary storage site for immature sperm
– Sperm mature as they journey through the epididymis
– During ejaculation, sperm are propelled to the ductus
deferens


• Ductus (vas) deferens
– Runs from the epididymis via the spermatic cord
through the inguinal canal and arches over the urinary
bladder
▪ Ampulla—end of the ductus deferens, which
empties into the ejaculatory duct
▪ Ejaculatory duct—passes through the prostate to
merge with the urethra
– Moves sperm by peristalsis into the urethra

• Ductus (vas) deferens
– Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of the
ductus deferens create peristaltic waves to squeeze
sperm forward
– Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens prevents
transportation of sperm (form of birth control)
▪ Promotes sterility
▪ Male retains secondary sex characteristics

• Urethra
– Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip
of the penis
– Carries both urine and sperm
– Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct

• Urethra regions
1. Prostatic urethra—surrounded by prostate gland
2. Membranous urethra—prostatic urethra to penis
3. Spongy (penile) urethra—runs the length of the penis
to the external urethral orifice
• Ejaculation causes the internal urethra sphincter to close
– Prevents urine from passing into the urethra
– Prevents sperm from entering the urinary bladder



Accessory Glands and Semen (1 of 5)
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate
• Bulbourethral glands

• Seminal vesicles
– Located at the base of the bladder
– Produce a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
that contains:
▪ Fructose (sugar)
▪ Vitamin C
▪ Prostaglandins
▪ Other substances that nourish and activate sperm
– Duct of each seminal vesicle joins that of the ductus
deferens on each side to form the ejaculatory duct

• Prostate
– Encircles the upper (prostatic) part of the urethra
– Secretes a milky fluid
▪ Helps to activate sperm
▪ Fluid enters the urethra through several small ducts

• Bulbourethral glands
– Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
– Produce a thick, clear mucus
▪ Mucus cleanses the spongy (penile) urethra of
acidic urine prior to ejaculation
▪ Mucus serves as a lubricant during sexual
intercourse



• Semen
– Milky white mixture of sperm and accessory gland
secretions
– Components of accessory gland secretions
▪ Liquid portion acts as a transport medium to dilute
sperm
▪ Sperm are streamlined cellular “tadpoles”
▪ Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
▪ Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic
environment of vagina
▪ Semen inhibits bacteria

External Genitalia (1 of 4)
• Scrotum
• Penis

• Scrotum
– Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen that houses
the testes
– Viable sperm cannot be produced at normal body
temperature
– Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal body
temperature


• Penis
– Male organ of copulation that delivers sperm into the
female reproductive tract
– Regions of the penis
▪ Shaft
▪ Glans penis (enlarged tip)
▪ Prepuce (foreskin)
– Folded cuff of skin around proximal end
– Often removed by circumcision

• Penis
– Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile
tissue around the urethra
– Erections occur when this erectile tissue fills with
blood during sexual excitement
▪ Serves as male organ of copulation



Male Reproductive Functions
• Chief roles of the male in the reproductive process
– Produce sperm
– Produce a hormone, testosterone

Spermatogenesis (1 of 5)
• Sperm production
– Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
– Millions of sperm are made every day
• Sperm are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the
testis
– Spermatogonia (primitive stem cells) begin the
process by dividing rapidly
– During puberty, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
is secreted in increasing amounts

Concept Link 1
Recall that FSH is a tropic hormone that, in males, targets the
testes and stimulates sperm production (Chapter 9, p. 332).

Figure 16.3 Spermatogenesis

• Each division of a spermatogonium stem cell produces:
– Type A daughter cell, a stem cell, that continues the
stem cell population
– Type B daughter cell, which becomes a primary
spermatocyte, destined to undergo meiosis and form
four sperm

• Meiosis
– Special type of nuclear division that differs from mitosis
– Occurs in the gonads
– Includes two successive divisions of the nucleus
(meiosis I and II)
– Results in four daughter cells (gametes)

• Gametes are spermatids with 23 chromosomes
– 23 chromosomes are half the usual 46 found in
other body cells
– 23 is known as the haploid number (n)—half the
genetic material as other body cells
• Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes, n) with an egg
(23 chromosomes, n) creates a zygote (2n, or 46
chromosomes)

Figure 16.4 The Human Life Cycle

• Spermiogenesis
– Spermatids are nonmotile and not functional as sperm
– A streamlining process is needed to strip excess
cytoplasm from a spermatid and modify it into a sperm
– A sperm has three regions: head, midpiece, tail
– Acrosome sits anterior to the sperm head (nucleus)
– The entire process of spermatogenesis, including
spermiogenesis, takes 64 to 72 days

Figure 16.5a Structure of Sperm

Figure 16.5b Structure of Sperm

Testosterone Production (1 of 2)
• During puberty:
– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) begins prodding
seminiferous tubules to produce sperm
– Luteinizing hormone (LH) begins activating the
interstitial cells to produce testosterone

Testosterone Production (2 of 2)
• Testosterone
– Most important hormonal product of the testes
– Stimulates reproductive organ development
– Underlies sex drive
– Causes secondary sex characteristics
▪ Deepening of voice
▪ Increased hair growth
▪ Enlargement of skeletal muscles
▪ Increased bone growth and density

Figure 16.6 Hormonal Control of Testosterone
Release and Sperm Production (1 of 6)






Anatomy of the Female Reproductive
System
• Ovaries
• Duct system
– Uterine (fallopian) tubes
– Uterus
– Vagina
• External genitalia

Figure 16.8a The Human Female
Reproductive Organs (1 of 3)

Ovaries (1 of 3)
• Ovaries
– Produce eggs (ova) and hormones (estrogen and
progesterone)
– Each ovary houses ovarian follicles consisting of:
▪ Oocyte (immature egg)
▪ Follicle cells—layers of different cells that surround
the oocyte

Figure 16.7 Sagittal Section of a Human Ovary
Showing the Developmental Stages of an Ovarian
Follicle (1 of 2)

Ovaries (2 of 3)
• Ovarian follicles
– Primary follicle—contains an immature oocyte
– Vesicular (Graafian) follicle—growing follicle with a
maturing oocyte
– Ovulation—the follicle ruptures when the egg is
mature and ready to be ejected from the ovary;
occurs about every 28 days
– The ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus
luteum

Ovaries (3 of 3)
• Ovary support
– Suspensory ligaments secure the ovaries to the
lateral walls of the pelvis
– Ovarian ligaments anchor ovaries to the uterus
medially
– Broad ligaments, a fold of peritoneum, enclose and
hold the ovaries in place


Figure 16.8b The Human Female

• Uterine (fallopian) tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina

• Uterine (fallopian) tubes
– Form the initial part of the duct system
– Receive the ovulated oocyte from the ovaries
– Usual site for fertilization
– Empty into the uterus
– Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine tubes
– Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament

• Uterine (fallopian) tube structure
– Infundibulum
▪ Distal, funnel-shaped end
– Fimbriae
▪ Fingerlike projections of the infundibulum
▪ Receive the oocyte from the ovary
▪ Cilia located inside the uterine tube transport the
oocyte


• Uterus
– Situated between the urinary bladder and rectum
– Size and shape of a pear, in a woman who has never
been pregnant
– Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized egg

• Uterine support
– Broad ligament suspends the uterus in the pelvis
– Round ligament anchors the uterus anteriorly
– Uterosacral ligament anchors the uterus posteriorly

• Regions of the uterus
– Body—main portion
– Fundus—superior rounded region above where uterine
tube enters
– Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina

• Layers of the uterus
– Endometrium
▪ Inner layer (mucosa)
▪ Site of implantation of a fertilized egg
▪ Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menstruation
or menses)
– Myometrium is the middle layer of smooth muscle
that contracts during labor
– Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum) is the outermost
serous layer of the uterus

• Vagina (birth canal)
– Passageway that extends from cervix to exterior of
body and is located between urinary bladder and
rectum
– Serves as the canal that allows a baby or menstrual
flow to leave the body
– Female organ of copulation
– Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
– Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured



External Genitalia and Female
Perineum (1 of 6)
• The female external genitalia, or vulva, includes:
– Mons pubis
– Labia
– Clitoris
– Urethral orifice
– Vaginal orifice
– Greater vestibular glands

Figure 16.9 External Genitalia of the
Human Female (1 of 2)

Perineum (2 of 6)
• Mons pubis
– Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
– Covered with pubic hair after puberty

Perineum (3 of 6)
• Labia—skin folds
– Labia majora
▪ Hair-covered skin folds
▪ Enclose the labia minora
▪ Also encloses the vestibule
– Labia minora—delicate, hair-free folds of skin

Perineum (4 of 6)
• Clitoris
– Contains erectile tissue
– Corresponds to the male penis
– The clitoris is similar to the penis in that it is:
▪ Hooded by a prepuce
▪ Composed of sensitive erectile tissue
▪ Swollen with blood during sexual excitement
– The clitoris lacks a reproductive duct

Perineum (5 of 6)
• Vestibule
– Enclosed by labia majora
– Contains external openings of the urethra and vagina
• Greater vestibular glands
– One is found on each side of the vagina
– Secretions lubricate vagina during intercourse

Perineum (6 of 6)
• Perineum
– Diamond-shaped region between the anterior
ends of the labial folds, anus posteriorly, and
ischial tuberosities laterally

Figure 16.9 External Genitalia of the
Human Female (2 of 2)

Female Reproductive Functions
and Cycles
• The total supply of eggs is determined by the time a
female is born
• Ability to release eggs begins at puberty with the onset
of the menstrual cycle
• Reproductive ability ends at menopause (in female’s
fifties)

Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle (1 of 6)
• Oogenesis is the process of producing ova (eggs) in a
female
– Oogonia are female stem cells found in a developing
fetus
– Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
that are surrounded by cells that form primary follicles
in the ovary

• Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary
follicles to mature each month
• Cyclic monthly changes constitute the ovarian cycle

• Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle
– First meiotic division produces a larger secondary
oocyte and a smaller first polar body
– A vesicular follicle contains a secondary oocyte
(maturation from a primary follicle takes about 14 days)
• Ovulation of a secondary oocyte occurs with the release of
luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Secondary oocyte is released and surrounded by a corona
radiata

• Meiosis is completed after ovulation only if sperm
penetrates the oocyte
– Ovum is produced
– Two additional polar bodies are produced
• Once ovum is formed, the 23 chromosomes can be
combined with the 23 chromosomes of the sperm to form
the fertilized egg (zygote)
• If the secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a sperm, it
dies and does not complete meiosis to form an ovum

Figure 16.11 Ovulation

• Mature follicles that are not ovulated will deteriorate
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Triggers ovulation
– Causes the ruptured follicle to transform into a corpus
luteum

• Meiosis differences between males and females
– Males—produces four functional sperm
– Females—produces one functional ovum and three
tiny polar bodies
• Sex cell size and structure differences between sperm
and eggs
– Sperm are tiny, motile, and equipped with nutrients in
seminal fluid
– Egg is large, is nonmotile, and has nutrient reserves
to nourish the embryo until implantation

Figure 16.10 Events of Oogenesis

Hormone Production by the Ovaries (1 of 2)
• Estrogens are produced by follicle cells
– Cause secondary sex characteristics
▪ Enlargement of accessory organs of the female
reproductive system
▪ Development of breasts
▪ Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
▪ Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips
and breasts
▪ Widening and lightening of the pelvis
▪ Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)

Hormone Production by the Ovaries (2 of 2)
• Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum
– Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
– Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary
sex characteristics
– Other major effects
▪ Helps maintain pregnancy
▪ Prepares the breasts for milk production
– Placenta is the major source of progesterone by the
second month of pregnancy

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle (1 of 5)
• Cyclic changes of the endometrium, about 28 days in
length
• Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries
• FSH and LH, from the anterior pituitary, regulate the
production of estrogens and progesterone by the
ovaries
• Ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle,
on day 14

• Stages of the menstrual cycle
– Menstrual phase
– Proliferative stage
– Secretory stage

• Days 0–4: menstrual phase
– Functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed off
– Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5 days
– By day 4, growing ovarian follicles are producing
more estrogen

• Days 5–14: proliferative stage
– Regeneration of functional layer of the endometrium
▪ Endometrium is repaired, thickens, and becomes
well vascularized
– Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage

• Days 15–28: secretory phase
– Levels of progesterone rise and increase the blood
supply to the endometrium
– If implantation does occur:
▪ Embryo produces a hormone that causes the corpus
luteum to continue producing its hormones
– If fertilization does not occur:
▪ Corpus luteum degenerates as LH blood levels
decline
▪ Lack of ovarian hormones causes endometrial cells
to die and menses to begin on day 28

Figure 16.12a Hormonal Interactions of
the Female Cycles

Figure 16.12b Hormonal Interactions of
the Female Cycles

Figure 16.12c Hormonal Interactions of
the Female Cycles

Figure 16.12d Hormonal Interactions of
the Female Cycles

Figure 16.7 Sagittal Section of a Human Ovary
Showing the Developmental Stages of an Ovarian
Follicle (2 of 2)

Mammary Glands (1 of 2)
• Present in both sexes, but function only in females
– Modified sweat glands
• Function is to produce milk to nourish a newborn
• Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogens) to
increase in size

Mammary Glands (2 of 2)
• Parts of the mammary gland that form the breast
– Areola—central pigmented area of the breast
– Nipple—protruding central area of areola
– Lobes—internal structures that radiate around nipple
– Lobules—located within each lobe and contain
clusters of alveolar glands
– Alveolar glands—produce milk when a woman is
lactating (producing milk)
– Lactiferous ducts—connect alveolar glands to nipple
– Lactiferous sinus—dilated portion where milk
accumulates

Figure 16.13a Female Mammary Glands

Figure 16.13b Female Mammary Glands

Mammography
• Mammography is X-ray examination that detects breast
cancers too small to feel
• American Cancer Society recommends mammography
annually for women between 45 and 54 years old and
every 2 years thereafter if the results are normal
• Breast cancer is often signaled by a change in skin
texture, puckering, or leakage from the nipple

Figure 16.14 Mammograms

Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
• Pregnancy—time from fertilization until infant is born
• Conceptus—developing offspring
– Embryo—period of time from fertilization until week 8
– Fetus—week 9 until birth
• Gestation period—from date of last period until birth
(approximately 280 days)

Figure 16.15 Diagrams Showing the Approximate
Size of a Human Conceptus From Fertilization to the
Early Fetal Stage

Accomplishing Fertilization (1 of 3)
• An oocyte is viable up to 24 hours after ovulation
• Sperm are viable up to 48 hours after ejaculation
– For fertilization to occur, sexual intercourse must occur
no more than 2 days before ovulation and no later than
24 hours after
• Sperm cells must make their way to the uterine tube for
fertilization to be possible
– Sperm cells are attracted to the oocyte by chemicals

Concept Link 2
Recall the concept of chemotaxis, in which cells move
toward or away from a stimulus (positive and negative
chemotaxis, respectively) (Chapter 12, p. 422).

• When sperm reach the oocyte:
– Enzymes break down the follicle cells of the corona
radiata around the oocyte
– Sperm undergo an acrosomal reaction
▪ Enzymes are released that digest holes in the
oocyte membrane
– Membrane receptors on the oocyte pull in the head of
the first sperm cell to make contact
– Oocyte undergoes second meiotic division to produce
an ovum and a polar body

Figure 16.16 Sperm and Oocyte During
Fertilization

• Fertilization occurs when the genetic material of a sperm
combines with that of an ovum to create a fertilized egg or
zygote

Events of Embryonic & Fetal
Development (1 of 8)
• Zygote
– First cell of a new individual
– The zygote is the result of the fusion of DNA from
sperm and ovum
– The zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions, known
as cleavage, 24 hours after fertilization
– The zygote journeys down the uterine tube, moving
toward the uterus

• Cleavage
– Rapid series of mitotic divisions that begins with
the zygote
– Provides a large number of cells to construct the
embryo
– 3 days after ovulation, the embryo reaches the
uterus and floats as a morula, a ball of 16 cells

• Blastocyst
– Hollow, ball-like structure of 100 cells or more
– Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to
induce the corpus luteum to continue producing
hormones, preventing menses, until the placenta
assumes its role

• Functional areas of the blastocyst
1. Trophoblast—large fluid-filled sphere
2. Inner cell mass—cluster of cells to one side
• By day 7 after ovulation, the blastocyst has attached

to the endometrium and implantation is complete by
day 14 after ovulation

Figure 16.17 From Fertilization and
Cleavage to Implantation (1 of 10)










• Inner cell mass of blastocyst develops into:
– Primary germ layers
▪ Ectoderm—outside layer, which gives rise to
nervous system and epidermis of skin
▪ Endoderm—inside layer, which forms mucosae
and associated glands
▪ Mesoderm—middle layer, which gives rise to
everything else

Figure 16.18 Embryo of Approximately
18 Days

• After implantation, the trophoblast of the blastocyst
develops chorionic villi (projections)
– Chorionic villi combine with tissues of the uterus to
form the placenta
• Once the placenta has formed, the amnion is attached to
the placenta by an umbilical cord
– Amnion is a fluid-filled sac that surrounds the embryo
– Umbilical cord is a blood vessel–containing stalk of
tissue

Figure 16.19 The 7-Week Embryo

• Placenta
– Forms a barrier between mother and embryo (blood is
not exchanged)
– Delivers nutrients and oxygen
– Removes wastes from embryonic blood
– Becomes an endocrine organ and takes over for the
corpus luteum (by end of second month); produces
estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones that
maintain pregnancy

• All organ systems are formed by the end of the eighth
week
• Activities of the fetus are growth and organ
specialization
• The fetal stage is one of tremendous growth and
change in appearance
• Fetal changes are summarized in Table 16.1

Figure 16.20 Examples of Fetal
Development

Table 16.1 Development of the Human
Fetus (1 of 3)

Fetus (2 of 3)

Fetus (3 of 3)

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother (1 of 5)
• Pregnancy—period from conception until birth
• Anatomical changes
– Enlargement of the uterus
– Accentuated lumbar curvature (lordosis)
– Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and pubic
symphysis due to production of the hormone
relaxin

Figure 16.21 Relative Size of the Uterus
Before Conception and During Pregnancy

• Physiological changes
– Gastrointestinal system
▪ Morning sickness is common and is due to
elevated progesterone and estrogens
▪ Heartburn is common because of organ crowding
by the fetus
▪ Constipation is caused by declining motility of the
digestive tract

– Urinary system
▪ Kidneys have additional burden and produce
more urine
▪ The uterus compresses the bladder, causing
stress incontinence

– Respiratory system
▪ Nasal mucosa becomes congested and swollen
▪ Vital capacity and respiratory rate increase
▪ Dyspnea (difficult breathing) occurs during later
stages of pregnancy

– Cardiovascular system
▪ Blood volume increases by 25% to 40%
▪ Blood pressure and pulse increase
▪ Varicose veins are common

Childbirth (Parturition) (1 of 2)
• Initiation of labor
– Labor—the series of events that expel the infant from
the uterus
▪ Rhythmic, expulsive contractions
▪ Operates by the positive feedback mechanism
– False labor—Braxton Hicks contractions are weak,
irregular uterine contractions

Childbirth (Parturition) (2 of 2)
• Initiation of labor
– Estrogen levels rise
– Uterine contractions begin
– The placenta releases prostaglandins
– Oxytocin receptors increase in the myometrium
▪ Oxytocin is released by the posterior pituitary
– Combined effects of rising levels of hormones—
oxytocin and prostaglandins—initiates contractions
and forces the baby deeper into the mother’s pelvis

Concept Link 3
Remember the concept of the feedback loop (see Chapter 1,
p. 41). A stimulus triggers a receptor, the information is sent
to the brain for processing, and a signal is sent to an effector
with instructions for a response. Most of the feedback in the
body is negative feedback, in which the response decreases
the initial stimulus. Labor, however, involves positive
feedback: The response (stronger contractions) actually
increases the initial stimulus (oxytocin release) until the child
is born.

Figure 16.22 Oxytocin Promotes Labor Contractions
During Birth by a Positive Feedback Mechanism (1 to 7)







Stages of Labor (1 of 3)
• Stage 1: Dilation stage
– Cervix becomes dilated
– Full dilation is 10 c m
enti eters
– Uterine contractions begin and increase

– Cervix softens and effaces (thins)
– The amnion ruptures (“breaking the water”)
– Longest stage, at 6 to 12 hours

Figure 16.23a The Three Stages of
Labor

• Stage 2: Expulsion stage
– Infant passes through the cervix and vagina
– Can last as long as 2 hours, but typically is 50
minutes in the first birth and 20 minutes in
subsequent births
– Normal delivery is head-first (vertex position)
– Breech presentation is buttocks-first

Figure 16.23b The Three Stages of
Labor

• Stage 3: Placental stage
– Delivery of the placenta
– Usually accomplished within 15 minutes after birth of
infant
– Afterbirth—placenta and attached fetal membranes
– All placental fragments should be removed to avoid
postpartum bleeding

Figure 16.23c The Three Stages of
Labor

Developmental Aspects of the
Reproductive System (1 of 4)
• Gender is determined at fertilization
– Males have XY sex chromosomes
– Females have XX sex chromosomes
• Reproductive system structures of males and females
are identical during early development (indifferent stage)
• Gonads do not begin to form until the eighth week
• The presence or absence of testosterone determines
whether male or female accessory reproductive organs
will form

• The reproductive system is inactive during childhood
• Reproductive system organs do not function for
childbearing until puberty
• Puberty usually begins between ages 10 and 15

• Puberty
– Males
▪ Enlargement of testes and scrotum signals onset
of puberty (often around age 13)
– Females
▪ Budding breasts signal puberty (often around age
11)
▪ Menarche—first menstrual period (usually occurs
about 2 years later)

• Menopause—a whole year has passed without
menstruation
– Ovaries stop functioning as endocrine organs
– Childbearing ability ends
– Hot flashes and mood changes may occur
• There is a no equivalent of menopause in males, but
there is a steady decline in testosterone

A Closer Look: Contraception (1 of 3)
• Contraception—birth control
• Birth control pill—most-used contraceptive
– Relatively constant supply of ovarian hormones from
pill is similar to pregnancy
– Ovarian follicles do not mature, ovulation ceases,
menstrual flow is reduced

• Morning-after pill (MAP) or emergency contraceptive pill
(EC)
– Taken within 3 days of unprotected intercourse
– Disrupts normal hormonal signals to the point that
fertilization is prevented
• Sterilization techniques
– Tubal ligation (females)—cut or cauterize uterine
tubes
– Vasectomy (males)—cut or cauterize the ductus
deferens

• Barrier methods
– Diaphragms
– Condoms
• Abstinence
– Only birth control method that is 100% effective

A Closer Look 16.1 Contraception:
Preventing Pregnancy

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– Found along the posterior lateral side of the testis

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