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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
ZOOLOGY
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018

Revised Edition - 2019, 2020, 2022
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
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Conceptual picture with caption relating to

every chapter is given in this text book.
STROKE VOLUME IS DEPENDENT
ON VENOUS RETURN
Chapter Outline Presents a complete overview of the chapter
Goals to transform the classroom processes into

Learning Objectives:
learner centric with a list of bench marks
Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

to biological inquiry
Note: Additional inputs to content is provided
Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

Activity in order to explore, enrich the concept.
Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning .
HOW TO USE
Superfluous information about a personality or day to
THE BOOK ? day life experience relating to the content
To motivate the students further to explore the content

digitally and take them to virtual world
ICT To enhance digital Science skills among students
Conceptual diagram that depicts relationships between

Concept Map concepts to enable students to learn the content schematically
Glossary Explanation of scientific terms
Evaluation Assess students to pause, think and check their understanding
Career corner List of professions particular to that chapter
References List of related books for further details of the topic
Web links List of digital resources
III

Career options in Zoology
Courses Institutions Professions and Scope for Future Studies
XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 4

Medical course ▶ AIIMS, New Delhi Civil surgeon / Civil assistant surgeon in central and state govt hospitals and in private
◉ MBBS – Allopathy ▶ JIPMER sector. Specialist in various medical fields like Cardiologist, Endocrinologist, Neurologist,
◉ MD ◉ MS ▶ Government & Private Medical Colleges Orthopedician, Paediatrician, Haematologist, Pathologist and Anaesthetist.
◉ BUMS – Unani ◉ BNYS _ Naturopathy ▶ AFMC, AMU
◉ BHMS – Homeopathy ◉ BDS _ Dental ◉ Cardiology ◉ Pulmonology ◉ Nephrology ◉ Diabetology ◉ Dermatology,
◉ BAMS – Ayurveda ◉ BSMS _ Siddha ◉ Anaesthesiology ◉ Ophthalmology ◉ Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Veterinary Course ▶ State Veterinary Universities & Colleges (Veterinary Surgeon/ Veterinary Assiatant Surgeon in central and state govt
◉ B. V. Sc. (Bachelor of Veterinary Sciences) hospitals and in private sector).
◉ Animal Biochemistry ◉ Dairy Science

◉ Animal Biotechnology ◉ Dairy Technologisty
◉ Animal Genetics and Breeding ◉ Livestock Production Management
◉ Animal Nutrition ◉ Animal Physiology
◉ Bio-Statisticis ◉ Food Quality and
◉ Poultry Science Safety Assurance
◉ Veterinary Bacteriology ◉ Indian Traditional Foods
◉ Veterinary Immunology Preservation & Packaging
State level institutes
Agri Courses ▶ IARI, Delhi (Agriculture Officer in state and central government service and other
◉ B. Sc. (Agriculture) ▶ Agriculture Universities & Colleges private employment oppurtunites )
◉ B. Tech (Agriculture) ◉ Agricultural Engineer ◉ Environmental Sciences
IV
◉ B. Sc. (Horticulture) ◉ Agronomist ◉ Fruit Sciences and
◉ B. Sc. (Forestry) ◉ Bioinformatics Horticultural Technology
◉ B. Sc. (Sericulture) ◉ Entomologist ◉ Plant Pathology
Post graduation and Doctorate courses in National and
◉ B. F. Sc. (Bachelor of Fisheries Sciences) ◉ Soil science & Agro Chemistry

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Para Medical courses ▶ All India Institutes of Medical Sci- ◉ Nursing ◉ Nuclear Medicine Technician
◉ B. Sc. (Nursing) ences (AIIMS), New Delhi, Bhopal, ◉ Pharmacy Occupational therapist
◉ B. Sc. (Trauma Care Management) Bhubaneswar, Jodhpur, Patna, Raipur, ◉ Anaesthesia Technician ◉ Operation Theatre Technician
◉ B. Pharm, D. Pharm Rishikesh. ◉ Cardiac Technician ◉ Ophthalmic Assistant
◉ BPT (Bachelor of Physiotherapy) ▶ JIPMER, Puducherry ◉ Dental Mechanic ◉ Physiotherapst
◉ BOT (Bachelor of Occupational Therapy) ▶ All Government & Private Medical ◉ Health Inspector ◉ Radiographic Assistant
◉ B. Optom. (Bachelor of Optometry) Colleges ◉ Medical Imaging & Technician ◉ Radiotherapy Technician
◉ Medical Lab Techician ◉ Rehabilitation Technician
◉ Medical X-ray Technican ◉ Respiratory Therapy Technician
◉ Blood Transfusion Technician
General Courses Government Arts and Zoo keepers, Creators, Bird watchers in Airports and Lab Technician.
◉ B.Sc. Zoology ◉ B.Sc. Food Technology Science Colleges in TamilNadu
◉ B.Sc. Dietician & Nutritionist ◉ B.Sc. Dairy Technology
◉ B.Sc. Sericulture ◉ B.Sc. Mass Communication
◉ B.Sc. Oceanography ◉ B.Sc. Multimedia
◉ B.Sc. Forensic Sciences ◉ B.Sc. 3D Animation
Bachelor of Science and Education (BSc, B.Ed) Regional Institute of Education BT.Assistant (Science teacher for secondary level)
M.phil in Education IDGC Ph.D (Mysore, Ajmeer, Bhopal,Bhuvaneswar),
Shillong
*Civil Service Exams for all india services (IAS, IPS, IFoS) and other central services &*Other service exams conducted by TNPSC, IBPS, NDA, CDS, SSC and RRB.
16/12/2021 10:24:01
Career options in Zoology
Master of science and Education (MSc, B.Ed) Regional Institute of Education PG.Assistant
(Mysore, Ajmeer, Bhopal,Bhuvaneswar) (Zoology, teachers, professors in collegeslectures and universities higher secondary level)

Master of science in Zoology Government arts and science colleges in Researchers in variegated subjects in zoology and life science, Scientist, Environmetolo-
TamilNadu - Madras University gyist, Dietician and Nutritionist
Master of science in Marine Zoology National institute of Oceanography Career opportunities in National Marine park and Marine Engineers
▶ Andhra University(Visakhapatnam)
▶ Anna University (Chennai)
▶ Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada
University Marine Research Laboratory
(Maharashtra)
▶ Bharathidasan University (Tiruchirappalli)
Master of science in zoology with ▶ Co-operative institute of health science ◉ Lab Technician ◉ Nuclear Medicine
specialization in Medical Microbiology (Kerala) ◉ Medical Imaging and techni- ◉ Health Inspector
▶ Dolphin institute of Bio-Medical and cian ◉ Blood transfusion technician
Natural Science (Dehradun) ◉ Respiratory therapy technician
▶ Himalayan University (Arunachal
Pradesh)
Master of philosophy and Ph.D in Zoology ▶ State Universities Professor, Research scholar
Scientist in University , Documentarist in National Geographic Channel, Animal
clinics, National parks, Museum Fisheries and aquaculture Pharmaceutical companies,
animal trainers.
V
Medicine Related Entrance Exams
Exam Selection Process & Test Pattern No. of Questions Tentative Schedule
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NEET Physics 45 Form out: Last week of Jan.

www.aipmt.nic.in Chemistry 45 Last Date: 1st week of March
Time: 3 Hours Biology 90 Test Date: 1st week of May
Timing: NA Total Questions 180 Negative Marking: +4/-1
Mode: Pen and Paper Marks: 720
Forms Available: Online
AIIMS Physics 60 Form out: Mid Jan
All India Institute of Medical Sciences Chemistry 60 Last Date: Mid Feb
www.aiimsexams.org Biology 60 Test Date: Mid May
Time: 3.5 Hours GK 20 Negative Marking: +1/- 1/3 rd
Timing : NA Total questions 200 Marks: 200
Mode: Computer based Forms Available: Online
JIPMER Physics 60 Form out: Last week of March
Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Chemistry 60 Last Date: 1st week of May
Medical Education & Research Biology 60 Test Date: 1st week of June
www.jipmer.edu.in Logic & Quantitative 10 Negative Marking: Nil
Time: 2.5 Hours Reasoning 10 Marks: 800
Timing: NA English Comprehension 200 Forms Available: Online
Mode: Computer based Total Questions
• The Details given above are tentative and have been prepared as per trends of previous years.
• Please visit individual exam/institute website for exact details.
16/12/2021 10:24:01
Famous National Institutes for Biologists

AIIMS JIPMER NDRI SIDDHA IVRI
Undergraduate Courses (UG) Undergraduate Courses (UG) Undergraduate Courses (UG) MVSc
PG programme in Siddha BVSc & AH
MBBS M B B S B.Tech. (Dairy Technology)
Maruthuvam Animal Biochemistry
B.Sc Nursing (post Certificate) B Sc Nursing
Postgraduate Courses (PG) Gunapadam Animal Biotechnology
B.Sc. (Hons.) Nursing B Sc Allied medical Sciences
Microbiology Pura Maruthuvam Animal Genetics and Breeding
Paramedical Courses (PM) B.Sc. Medical Laboratory Technology Dairy Microbiology
Varma Maruthuvam Animal Nutrition
B.Sc. (Hons.) Opthalmic Techniques B.Sc. Cardiac Laboratory Technology Dairy Chemistry
Siddhar Yoga Maruthuvam Bio-Statistics
B.Sc. (Hons.) Medical Technology B.Sc. Dialysis Technology Dairy Technology
Kuzhandhai Maruthuvam Epidemiology
B.Sc. Neuro Technology Dairy Engineering
Postgraduate Courses (PG) Noi Nadal Livestock Economics
B.Sc. Nuclear Medicine Technology Animal Biochemistry
M.D/M.S/M.D.S Nanju Maruthuvam Livestock Production and Management
B.Sc. Operation Theatre Technology Animal Genetics & Breeding
M.Ch. (5 year course) Livestock Products Technology
B.Sc. Perfusion Technology Livestock Production &
M.Sc. / M. Biotechnology PH.D PROGRAMME Poultry Science
B.Sc. Radiotherapy Technology Management
Maruthuvam Veterinary Bacteriology
BASLP (Bachelor in Audiology & Animal Nutrition
Gunapadam Veterinary Extension Education
Speech Language Pathology) Animal Physiology
IARI Sirappu Maruthuvam Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics
(Collaboration with AIISH, Dairy Economics
VI
Kuzhandai Maruthuvam Veterinary Immunology
Undergraduate Courses (UG) Mysore. RCI approved) Dairy Extension Education
Noi Nadal Veterinary Medicine
Agricultural chemicals Animal Biotechnology Veterinary Parasitology
Nanju Maruthuvam
Agronomy Postgraduate Courses (PG) Agronomy (Forage production) Veterinary Pathology
Bioinformatics General Surgery Animal Reproduction, Gynecology Veterinary Pharmacology
and Obstetrics
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Entomology Obstetrics & Gynaecology Veterinary Physiology

Horticulture Food Quality and Safety
Ophthalmology Veterinary Public Health
Molecular biology and biotechnology Assurance
Orthopedic Surgery Veterinary Surgery & Radiology
Environmental sciences Oto-Rhino Laryngology (E.N.T.) Veterinary Virology
Plant pathology NIN ( Hyderabad)
Plant genetic resources IIT (Chennai) National Diploma
Nematology MSc (APPLIED NUTRITION)
National Diploma in Animal Husband-
Microbiology Biological Sciences - POST-GRADUATE ry (NDAH) Division of Animal Nutrition
Dual Degree (BS & MS) CERTIFICATE
National Diploma in Animal Reproduc-
COURSE IN NUTRITION
tion (NDAR) Division of Animal
Reproduction
National Diploma in Veterinary
Biological Products (NDBP) Division
of Biological Products
National Diploma in Equine Husband-
PhD ry, Medicine and Surgery (NDEHMS)
National Diploma in Fodder and Feed
Animal BiochemistryB.V.Sc.& AH Animal NutritionB.V.Sc.& AH with Veterinary BacteriologyBVSc & AH with Veterinary Gynaecology and ObstetricsB.V.Sc. & Technology(NDFFT) Division of
with Master's degree in concerned Master's degree in concerned discipline. Master’s degree in Vet. Bacteriology/Vet. AH with Master's degree in concerned discipline Animal Nutrition
discipline. Livestock Production and Manage- Virology/ Vet. Microbiology/ Vet. Public National Diploma in Meet and Meat
Veterinary ImmunologyBVSc & AH with Master’s
Animal BiotechnologyBVSc & AH mentB.V.Sc.& AH with Master's degree Health/ Avian Diseases/ Vet. Immunolo- degree in Vet. Immunology or MVSc in Vet. Microbi- Products Technology (NDMPT)
with Master’s degree in Biotechnolo- in concerned discipline. gy/Epidemiology/ Biotechnology ology/Virology/ Bacteriology/ Pathology/Biotechnol- Division of Livestock Products
gy/ Animal Biotechnology/Animal Livestock Products TechnologyB.V.Sc.& Veterinary Extension EducationBVSc & ogy/Avian Diseases/Parasitology/ Animal Biochem- Technology
Biochemistry/ Microbiology/ Immu- AH with Master's degree in concerned AH with Master’s degree in concerned istry with minor in Vet. Immunology National Diploma in Poultry Husband-
nology/ Virology discipline. discipline/ Vet. Medicine/ Vet. Gynaecol- ry (NDPH) CARI
Veterinary MedicineB.V.Sc.& AH with Master's
Animal Genetics and BreedingBVSc Poultry ScienceB.V.Sc.& AH with ogy & Obstetrics/ Vet. Surgery/ Animal degree in concerned discipline National Diploma in Preventive
& AH with Master’s degree in Master's degree in concerned discipline. Nutrition Veterinary Medicines (NDPVM) Div. of
concerned discipline B&M
16/12/2021 10:24:02
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CONTENTS
ZOOLOGY
PAGE
UNIT CONTENT MONTH
NO
UNIT I
Chapter 1 The Living World 01
June
Chapter 2 Kingdom Animalia 14
UNIT II
Chapter 3 Tissue Level of Organisation 37 June
Chapter 4 Organ and Organ Systems in Animals 47 July
UNIT III
Chapter 5 Digestion and Absorption 73 July
Chapter 6 Respiration 94
August
Chapter 7 Body Fluids and Circulation 112
Chapter 8 Excretion 136 September
UNIT IV
Chapter 9 Locomotion and Movement 155
October
Chapter 10 Neural Control and Coordination 176
Chapter 11 Chemical Coordination and Integration 203
November
Chapter 12 Basic Medical Instruments and Techniques 222
UNIT V
Chapter 13 Trends in Economic Zoology 237 December
E-book Assessment
VII

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ZOOLOGY
VIII

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UNITI I
UNIT C hCahpatpetre 1r 1
The
TheLiving
LivingWorld
World
Chapter Outline
Chapter Outline
1.1. Diversity in the Living world
1.2. 1.1.
NeedDiversity in the Living world
for Classification
1.3. 1.2. Need forand
Taxonomy Classification
Systematics
1.4. 1.3. Taxonomy
Three Domainsandof Systematics
life
1.5. 1.4. Three Domains
Taxonomic of life
Hierarchy
1.5. Taxonomic Hierarchy
1.6. Nomenclature
“Our tasktask
“Our mustmust
be to…embrace
be to… all living
1.7. 1.6. Nomenclature
Concept of Species
creatures and theall
embrace whole of creatures
living nature andand
its beauty.”
1.8. 1.7. Concept
Tools of Species
for study of Taxonomy the whole of nature and — its Albert
beauty.Einstein
”
1.8. Tools for study of taxonomy — Albert Einstein
Learning Objectives: for food. Animals are also used as source

of labour, in farming, as pets, and for o
ther
• Learns the importance economic benefits. Understanding animals
of the living world and and their unique c haracteristics, habitats,
its diversity behaviour and evolutionary relationships
• Understands the need is very important. This chapter deals
for classification with, diversity in the living world, need
• Creates an interest in systematics for classification, types of classification,
and understands the importance taxonomical hierarchy, nomenclature and
of taxonomy for classification of tools for studying taxonomy.
animals
• Knows the key rules of nomenclatures 1.1 Diversity in the Living
and their uses World
All living forms co-exist with each Earth has numerous habitats with a
other. There are about 8.7 million species wide range of living organisms inhabiting
of organisms have been estimated to exist them. Plants and animals are present in
on earth. A study r eports that 86% of all almost all the places, from polar icecaps
species on the land and 91% of those in the to volcanic hot springs, from shallow
seas are yet to be discovered, described and lagoons to the deepest oceans, from
catalogued. Though humans are placed in tropical rain forests to dry and parched
the top most position on the hierarchy, deserts. There are a variety of species
they have to depend on plants and animals that have been adapted successfully to

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live in diverse ecosystems. Ecosystem is organisms. Hence it becomes necessary to

a community of biotic and abiotic factors device some means and methods to make
and their interrelationships (A.G. Tansley, this possible and this process is called
1935). The presence of a large number classification. Classification is a process
of species in a particular ecosystem is by which things are grouped in convenient
called ‘biological diversity’ or in short categories, based on easily observable
‘biodiversity’. The term biodiversity was characters. The scientific term used for
first introduced by Walter Rosen (1985), these categories is taxa (taxon–singular).
and defined by E.D. Wilson. Taxa indicates categories at different
levels, for example Kingdom Animalia,
Characterstic features of living
includes multicellular animals such as
organisms
reptiles, mammals, etc. Based on their
Living organisms show a variety of characteristics, all living organisms can be
unique characters different from non- classified into different taxa. This science
living matter. The key characters of living of classification is called taxonomy.
organisms are, cellular organization, External and internal structures along with
nutrition, respiration, metabolism, developmental processes and ecological
growth, response to stimuli, movement, information of organisms are essential, as
reproduction, excretion, adaptation and they form basis of the taxonomical studies.
homeostasis. Numerous scientists and Hence, characterisation, identification,
taxonomists have made tremendous nomenclature and classification are the
contribution and documentation in the scientific stages that are basic to taxonomy.
observation and study of even minute
characters in living organisms. Their keen The basic need for classifications are:
observations have led to the classification • To identify and differentiate closely
of living organisms and the study of their related species
interrelationships. • To know the variation among the
species
1.2 Need for classification • To understand the evolution of the
We come across many places where species
things are arranged in specific categories. • To create a phylogenetic tree
In super markets, the shelves can have among the different groups
rows and columns of groceries, cosmetics, • To conveniently study living
toys, stationeries, snacks and utensils. organisms
If it is not arranged in a well organized
manner, customers and sales persons 1.3 Taxonomy and
will waste lot of time in finding an item. Systematics
In the same way, libraries also organize Taxonomy (G. taxis- arrangement;
the books alphabetically or genre- nomos-law) is the science of arrangement of
wise into autobiographies, novels, kids living organisms along with classification,
stories, science fictions, etc. Likewise it description, identification, and naming
is nearly impossible to study all the living

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of organisms which includes all flora and History of Classification

fauna including microorganisms of the Early classification of organisms were
world. The word taxonomy was coined by based on only two criteria, beneficial or
Augustin Pyramus de Candole (1813). harmful animals. An ancient classification
Taxonomy is a theoretical study of system recognized 5 animal groups -
classification with well defined principles, domestic, wild, creeping, flying and
rules and procedures. Aristotle is called sea animals. Initially the classification
the father of taxonomy (classical) and was based on organism’s fundamental
Carolus Linnaeus is the father of modern characteristics such as the habitat and
taxonomy. morphology only.
Aristotle (384 to 322 BC), was the first
Systematics (G. System/sequence) to classify all animals in his History of
The objectives of taxonomy and Animals (Historia Animalium in Latin).
He attempted a basic classification of all
systematics are very similar; their goal
living organisms into Plants and Animals.
is to classify organisms with stipulated
Animals were classified based on
rules. The main criteria of systematics
locomotion; walking (terrestrial), flying
is identifying, describing, naming, (aerial) and swimming (aquatic). Based
arranging, preserving and documenting on the presence or absence of red blood he
the organisms. Apart from the above classified the animals into two as Enaima
said features, evolutionary history of the with blood and those without blood as
species and the environmental adaptations Anaima.
and interrelationship among species are Aristotle’s classification system had
also being investigated in systematics. limitations and many organisms were not
fitting into his classification. For example,
Carolus Linnaeus is the tadpoles of frogs are born in water and
the father of modern have gills but when they metamorphosed
taxonomy, which is the into adult frogs they have lungs and can live
system of classifying and naming both in water and on land. How to classify
organisms. One of his contributions frogs and where to place them? Aristotle
was the development of hierarchical classified organisms based on locomotion,
system of classification of nature. hence, birds, bats, and flying insects were
Today, this system grouped together just by observing one
includes eight single characteristic feature, the flying
taxa: domain, ability. On the contrary to the above said
kingdom, phylum, example, the ostrich, emu and penguin
class, order, are all birds but cannot fly. So Aristotle
family, genus, and would not have classified them as birds.
species. In spite of these limitations Aristotle’s
classification system was followed for
more than 2000 years upto 1700.

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After Aristotle, his student of relationship among individuals. Later

Theophrastus (372-287 BC) continued on biologists initiated studies on the
his research on the classification of evolutionary and genetic relationships
plants, and he was known as the “Father among organisms, which led to the emerge of
of Botany.” There was a huge gap till phylogenetic classification or cladistics.
16th century, then the English naturalist It is an evolutionary classification based
John Ray (1627–1705) wrote several on how a common ancestry was shared.
important works through his life. His Cladistic classification summarizes the
most important contribution was the genetic differences between all species
establishment of species as the ultimate in the ‘phylogenetic tree’. Ernst Haeckal
unit of taxonomy. In 1682 he published introduced the method of representing
the Methodus Plantarum Nova, which evolutionary relationships with the help
contained about 18,000 plant species, of a tree diagram known as cladogram.
a result of a relatively narrow species This system of classification takes into
concept. His complicated classification account ancestral characters (traits of
was based on many combined characters, basic body design which would be in the
as opposed to earlier taxonomists. John entire group) and derived characters (traits
Ray also aimed at publishing a complete whose structure and functions differs from
system of nature, which included works those of ancestral characters). One or
on mammals, reptiles, birds, fishes and more derived characters which appeared
insects. The Swedish biologist Carolus during evolution resulted in the formation
Linnaeus (1707 - 1788) father of modern of new subspecies. In a cladogram each
taxonomy and founder of modern evolutionary step produces a branching
systematics developed a scientific system and all the members of the branch would
of taxonomy and binomial nomenclature, possess the derived character which will not
which is still (with modifications) in use. be seen in organisms below the particular
Aristotle to Linnaeus employed branch point. Arranging organisms
easily observable single to few traits on the basis of their similar or derived
for classification of organisms. With characters which differ from the ancestral
increased knowledge of the several characters produced a phylogenetic tree
biological domains, many characters were or cladogram (Figure 1.1).
considered for classifying organisms.
This represented the phase of classical
taxonomy which was based on overall 5D\)LQQHG
5D\ )LQQHG 5RGHQWV
6KDUNV ILVK $PSKLELDQV &URFRGLOHV %LUGV UDEELWV 3ULPDWHV
similarities or affinities derived from
morphology, anatomy and embryology of
+DLU
organisms. A modification of this system (JJVZLWKVKHOOV
is the numerical taxonomy, which evolved $PQLRWLFHJJ
in the 1950s. This system evaluates the )RXUOLPEV
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resemblances and differences through
9HUWHEUDH
statistical methods followed by computer
analyses to establish the numerical degree Figure 1.1 Example of a Cladogram
4

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Depending on the system of placed into the domain Eukarya. Archaea

classification, organisms were classified appears to have more in common with the
into two or three kingdoms. Later into four, Eukarya than the Bacteria. Archaea differ
five, six and now into seven kingdoms. from bacteria in cell wall composition and
R.H.Whittaker (1969) proposed the Five differs from bacteria and eukaryotes in
kingdom Classification, the Kingdoms membrane composition and rRNA types.
defined by him were Monera, Protista, 1. Domain Archaea
Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based
This domain includes single celled
on the cell structure, mode of nutrition,
organisms, the prokaryotes which have the
mode of reproduction and phylogenetic
ability to grow in extreme conditions like
relationships. Table 1. gives a comparative
volcano vents, hot springs and polar ice
account of different characteristics of the
caps, hence are also called extremophiles.
five kingdoms.
They are capable of synthesizing their food
Classification has come a long way and
without sunlight and oxygen by utilizing
now takes into an account even molecular
hydrogen sulphide and other chemicals
level DNA and RNA identification. The
from the volcanic vents. Some of the them
advancement in molecular techniques
produced methane (methanogens), few
and biochemical assays has led to a new
live in salty environments (Halophiles)
classification - The “Three Domain”
and are thermoacidophiles which thrive
classification.
in acidic environments and at high
temperatures.
1.4 Three Domains of life
Three domain classification was Thermus aquatics is a
proposed by Carl Woese (1977) and his bacterium which can
co-
workers. They classified organisms tolerate high temperatures.
based on the difference in 16S rRNA The first DNA polymerase enzyme was
genes. The three domain system adds the isolated from T. aquaticus it is
taxon ‘domain’ higher than the kingdom. used in PCR (Polymerase Chain
This system emphasizes the separation of Reaction) for DNA amplification.
prokaryotes into two domains, Bacteria
and Archaea, and all the eukaryotes are 2. Domain Bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotic, their cells
have no definite nucleus and DNA exists
THREE DOMAINS
as a circular chromosomes and do not
(Carl Woese, 1977)
have histones associated with it. They do
not possess membrane bound organelles
ARCHAEA BACTERIA EUKARYA except for ribosome (70S type). Their
(Extremophiles) Cyanobacteria, (Eukaryotes) cell wall contains peptidoglycans. Many
Methanogens, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi,
Halophiles, beneficial& Plants and are decomposers, some are photo-
Thermoacidophiles pathogenic Animals synthesizers and few cause diseases.
There are beneficial probiotic bacteria

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and harmful pathogenic bacteria which mitochondria. Organisms in this domain

are diversely populated. Cyanobacteria are classified under kingdoms, namely,
are photosynthetic blue green algae which Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
produce oxygen. These had played a key In 1987, Cavalier-Smith revised the
role in the changes of atmospheric oxygen six kingdom system to Seven Kingdom
levels from anaerobic to aerobic during system. The concept of super kingdom was
the early geologic periods. introduced and revised to seven kingdom
classification. The classification is divided
3. Domain Eukarya (Eukaryotes)
into two Super Kingdoms (Prokaryota
Eukaryotes are animals which have true and Eukaryota) and seven kingdoms,
nucleus and membrane bound organelles. two Prokaryotic Kingdoms (Eubacteria
DNA in the nucleus is arranged as a and Archaebacteria) and five Eukaryotic
linear chromosome with histone proteins, Kingdoms (Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi,
ribsosomes of 80S type in the cytosol Plantae and Animalia) (Table 1.1).
and 70S type in the chloroplast and
Curd is one of the best
The Three-Domain System sources of probiotics, which
are friendly bacteria that
Archaea Bacteria Eukarya can improve our health.
e.g. Lactobacillus sp.
The traditional Five – Kingdom system
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
The Six –Kingdom system
Bacteria Archaea Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
The Seven – Kingdom system

Eubacte- Archaea Chromis-
Protozoa Fungi Plantae Animalia
ria bacteria ta
Table 1.1 Five Kingdom Classification

KINDS OF KINGDOM
Salient
features Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Non-cellulose Present in Present Present Absent

structure some
Body Cellular Cellular Multicelluar Tissue Tissue Organ

organisation Tissue Organ Organ system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic

nutrition Heterotrophic Heterotrophic

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1.5 Taxonomic hierarchy (e.g. Red panda is the only species in the
In biological classification, the genus Ailurus : Ailurus fulgens). If there
taxonomical hierarchy includes seven are more than one species in the genus it
major categories namely kingdom, phylum, is known as polytypic genus, for example
class, order, family, genus and species and ‘cats’ come under the Genus Felis, which
other intermediate categories such as has a number of closely related species, Felis
domestica (domestic cat), Felis margarita
subkingdom, grade, division, subdivision,
(jungle cat). Felis silvestris (wild cat)
subphylum, superclass, subclass,
Family: It is a taxonomic category
superorder, suborder, superfamily,
which includes a group of related genera
subfamily and subspecies.
with less similarity as compared to genus
Species and species. For example, the family
Felidae includes the genus Felis (cats) and
Species is the basic
the genus Panthera (lions, tigers, leopards).
unit of classification in
Order: This category includes an
the taxonomic hierarchial
assemblage of one or more related families
system. It is a group of
which show few common features. One
animals having similar
or more similar families are grouped
morphological features
together to form an order. For example,
(traits) and is reproductively isolated to
family Canidae and Felidae are placed in
produce fertile offspring. There are some
the order Carnivora.
exceptional animals which can produce
Class: This category includes one or
sterile offspring because of mating with
more related orders with some common
closely related species (Figure 1.2).
characters. For example order Primata
Genus: It is a group of closely related
comprising monkeys, apes and man is
species which have evolved from a common
placed in the Class Mammalia, along with
ancestor. In some genus there is only one
the order Carnivora which includes dogs
species which is called as monotypic genus
and cats.
Crosses between
Male horse and Female
Donkey results in Hinny
(Sterile).
Hinny Mule Male Donkey and Female

Horse results in Mule
(Sterile)
Male Lion and Female Tiger
results in Liger
Male Tiger and Female Lion
results in Tigon
Liger Tigon
Figure 1.2 Sterile offsprings
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Systematics of Human being

KINGDOM
Animalia - Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms
PHYLUM
Chordata – Animals with a notochord or vertebral column (Back bone)
CLASS
Mammalia – Body covered with hair or fur. Mammary glands are present
ORDER
Primata – Mammals with forward looking eyes and grasping fingers
FAMILY
Hominidae – Primates with relatively flat faces and
binocular vision
GENUS
Homo – Hominids with large brain and
upright posture
SPECIES
sapiens – Bipedal and
higher intelligence
Phylum: The group of classes with constitute the next higher category,
similar distinctive characteristics phylum Chordata. These classes share
constitute a phylum. The classes Pisces, some common features like presence of a
Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia notochord and a dorsal tubular nerve cord
hence included in the phylum Chordata.
Recently discovered species in Kingdom: All living animals
South India belonging to various phyla are included
Scientists have discovered a new and in the Kingdom Animalia and it is the top
unusual species of frog in the West- most of the taxonomic hierarchy.
ern Ghats in India in August 2017.
The frog has shiny, purple skin, a light
blue ring around its eyes, and a pointy In July, 2017, a 9 years
pig-nose. It is named as Bhupathy’s old boy discovered a new
purple frog (Nasikabatrachus bhupathi) Freshwater species
to honour Dr.Subramaniam Bhupathy, of Jellyfish in the Kodaikanal
herpetologist who lost his life in the
lake, Tamilnadu.
Western Ghats in 2014.
A newly discovered Himalayan

forest thrush bird was named
after the birdman of India,
Ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali.
The name of the bird is “ Zoothera salimalii”.
A fruit bat is also named after him “Latidens
salimalii”

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1.6 Nomenclature Binomial nomenclature

Giza, Inimene, Emberi, Manna, (L. Bi-two; Nomen-Name)
Doanna, Umano ……. Biologists follow universally accepted
In all probability these words must be principles to provide scientific names
new to you…but they all mean “Human” to known organisms. Each name has
in different foreign languages! There are two components, a generic name and a
presently more than 6000 languages in specific epithet. This system of naming
the world and an animal can be named the organism is called Binomial
in more than 6000 ways! Unfortunately Nomenclature which was popularised
it is impossible for anyone to have a good by Carolus Linnaeus and practised by
functioning knowledge of most languages biologists all over the world. Example,
and hence there arises a need for a universally the National Bird (Indian Peafowl) –
accepted scientific naming system for Pavo cristatus, the National Animal tiger
all organisms. The process of assigning as Panthera tigris, and the Tamil Nadu
scientific names to animals or taxonomic State bird is the common Emerald dove
group is called nomenclature. For example, Chalcophaps indica.
worldwide, the scientific name Homo
sapiens denotes human. Classification and Biological nomenclature
grouping were done to facilitate a deeper derives from the binomial
understanding of the unique characteristics (or binominal) nomenclature
of each organism and its interrelationship
that was originally codified
among closely related species. It plays a
in the works of Linnaeus, Species
vital role in the arrangement of known
Plantarum (1753) and Systema Naturae,
species based on their similarities and
10th Edition (1758). These publications
dissimilarities. Numerous characters such as
morphology, genetic information, habitat, are the starting points for the modern
feeding pattern, adaptations, evolution, etc., biological nomenclature in most groups
are examined before an organism is named. of plants and animals.
One of the primary responsibilities of
systematic biology is the development of
biological nomenclature and classification. If you find an animal with four legs,
Nomenclature is not an end to systematics with two eyes, paired ear pinna,
and taxonomy but it is necessary in covered with fur, possessing
organizing information about biodiversity. mammary gland , which class will
Nomenclature, functions to provide names you position it? How will you give
for all taxa at all levels in the hierarchy of a binomial name, if you are the
life. Naming of the organisms is done based first person to discover and report
on the guidelines of the International Code that animal.
of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The
scientific name ensures that each organism
has only one name.

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Trinominal nomenclature • The name or abbreviated name of

(Tri – three) the scientist who first publishes the
scientific name may be written after
This naming system was proposed by
the species name along with the year of
Huxley and Stricklandt, Trinomen means,
publication. For example Lion-Felis leo
three names: generic name, species name
Linn., 1758 or Felis leo L., 1758.
and sub-species name. When members of
any species which have large variations then • If the species name is framed after any
trinomial system is used. On the basis of person’s name the name of the species
dissimilarities, this species gets classified shall end with i, ii or ae.
into subspecies. It is the extension of For example, a new species of a ground-
binominal nomenclature system which dwelling lizard (Cyrtodactylus) has been
has an addition of subspecies. All the discovered and named after Scientist
three names are set in italics and only the Varad Giri, Cyrtodactylus varadgirii.
first letter of generic name is capitalized, if
handwritten then it should be underlined 1.7 Concept of species
separately E.g.Corvus splendens splendens
Species is the basic
(Indian house crow)
unit of classification.
Tautonymy: The practice of naming
The term species was
the animals in which the generic
coined by John Ray, and
name and species name are the same,
in his book “Historia
is called Tautonymy. e.g. Naja naja
Generalis Plantarum”
(The Indian Cobra).
(3 volumes) in 1693 described species
as a group of morphologically similar
What may be the reasons for the organisms arising from a common
extinction of Dinosaurs? If you know ancestor. Carolus Linnaeus in his book
the reasons for their extinction, why “Systema naturae” considered species as
Sparrows are listed as endangered the basic unit of classification. Species can
species? be defined as a group of organisms that
have similar morphology and physiology
and can interbreed to produce fertile
Rules of Nomenclature offsprings. In 1859 Charles Darwin in
• The scientific name should be italicized his book Origin of species explains the
in printed form and if handwritten, it evolutionary connection of species by the
should be underlined separately. process of natural selection.
• The generic name’s (Genus) first
1.8 Tools for study of
alphabet should be in uppercase.
taxonomy
• The specific name (species) should be
in lowercase. Tools and taxonomical aids may be
different for the study of plants and
• The scientific names of any two
animals. Herbarium and Botanical garden
organisms are not similar.
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may be used as tools for the study of plant Molecular taxonomical tools
taxonomy. In the case of animal studies, the Technological advancement has
classical tools are Museum, Taxonomical helped to evolve molecular taxonomical
Keys and Zoological and Marine parks. tools from classical tools to molecular
The important components of the tools. The accuracy and authenticity is
taxonomical tools are field visits, survey, more significant in the molecular tools.
identification, classification, preservation and The following methods are being used for
documentation. Many tools are being used for taxonomical classification.
taxonomical studies, amongst them some of Molecular techniques and approaches
the important tools are discussed below: such as DNA barcoding (short genetic
marker in an organism’s DNA to identify
Arignar Anna Zoological Park, also it as belonging to a particular species),
known as the Vandalur Zoo is in the DNA hybridization (measures the degree
south western part of Chennai, Tamil of genetic similarity between pools
Nadu, spreads over an area of 1500 acres, of DNA sequences), DNA fingerprinting
is one of the largest zoological parks in (to identify an individual from a sample
India. The zoo houses 2,553 species of of DNA by looking at unique patterns in
their DNA), Restriction Fragment Length
both flora and fauna.
Polymorphisms (RFLP) analysis (difference
in homologous DNA sequences that can
The classical taxonomical tools be detected by the presence of fragments
Taxonomical Keys: Keys are based on of different lengths after digestion of the
comparative analysis of the similarities DNA samples), and Polymerase Chain
and dissimilarities of organisms. There Reaction (PCR) sequencing ( to amplify a
are separate keys for different taxonomic specific gene, or portion of gene,) are used
categories. as taxonomical tools.
Museum: Biological museums have
collection of preserved plants and animals Automated species identification tools
for study and ready reference. Specimens It consists of Cyber tools. For example:
of both extinct and living organisms can be ALIS, DAISY, ABIS, SPIDA, Draw wing, etc.
studied. ALIS Automated Leafhopper
Zoological parks: These are places Identification System.
where wild animals are kept in protected DAISY Digital Automated
environments under human care. It enables Identification System.
us to study their food habits and behaviour. ABIS Automatic Bee
Marine parks: Marine organisms are Identification System.
maintained in protected enviroments. SPIDA Species Identified
Printed taxonomical tools consist of Automatically (spiders, wasp
identification cards, description, field guides and bee wing characters).
and manuals. Draw wing Honey bee wing
identification.
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Neo taxonomical tools – This is based anything is grouped in a convenient category

on Electron Microscopy images to study the based on some easily observable characters.
molecular structures of cell organelles. Taxonomy is the science of
Ethology of taxonomical tools – Based arrangement of living organisms. R. H.
on the behaviour of the organisms it can Whittaker proposed the five kingdom
be classified. For example sound of birds, classification. Three domain classification
bioluminescence, etc. was proposed by Carl Woese and his co-
e-Taxonomic resources – INOTAXA workers.
is an electronic resource for digital images
The taxonomical hierarchy includes
and description about the species which
seven categories namely kingdom, phylum,
was developed by Natural History Museum,
class, order, family, genus and species.
London. INOTAXA means I ntegrated
The process of assigning scientific names
Open TAXonomic Access.
to animal or taxonomic group is called
nomenclature. Each scientific name has two
Summary
components, generic name and a specific
Earth has numerous habitats with a epithet. The important component of the
wide range of living organisms inhabiting it. taxonomical tools are field visits, survey,
Living organisms show a variety of unique identification, classification, preservation
characters different from non-living matter. and documentation. Molecular taxonomical
Classification is the process by which tools are more accurate, authentic and
significant for taxonimical classification.
Activity
___________________________________________
The main objective of this activity is to check
the students understanding about animals and
its characteristics before learning the lesson.
Observe the picture given below, identify the
animals and classify them according to your own
understanding; write one character about each
class of animals.
Take the students to the school ground and ask
them to observe and identify few invertebrates
(insects, earthworm, spiders etc). Ask the students
to write few characteristics of each animal which
they have observed.
Sl.No Name of the Animal Known Character Class Habitat

1
2
3
4
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Evaluation 7. Cladogram considers the following

characters
1. A living organism is
differentiated from non- a. Physiological and Biochemical
living s tructure based on b. Evolutionary and Phylogenetic
a. Reproduction c. Taxonimic and systematic
b. Growth d. None of the above
c. Metabolism d. All the above 8. Molecular taxonomic tool consists of
2. A group of organisms having similar a. DNA and RNA
traits of a rank is b. Mitochondria and Endocplamic
a. Species b. Taxon reticulum
c. Genus d. Family c. Cell wall and Membrane proteins
3. Every unit of classification regardless of d. All the above
its rank is 9. Differentiate between probiotics and
a. Taxon b. Variety pathogenic bacteria.
c. Species d. Strain 10. Why mule is sterile in nature?
4. Which of the following is not present in 11. List any five salient features of the family
same rank? Felidae.
a. Primata b. Orthoptera 12. What is the role of Charles Darwin in
c. Diptera d. Insecta relation to concept of species?
5. What taxonomicaid gives comprehensive 13. Why elephants and other wild animals
information about a taxon? are entering into human living area?
a. Taxonomic Key b. Herbarium 14. What is the difference between a Zoo
and wild life sanctuary?
c. Flora d. Monograph
15. Can we use recent molecular tools to
6. Who coined the term biodiversity?
identify and classify organisms?
a. Walter Rosen b. AG Tansley
16. Explain the role of Latin and Greek
c. Aristotle d. AP de Candole names in Biology.
ICT Corner Deep Tree
Let’s do this activity to know the position of a

particular species in the Evolution path.
Step – 1: Type the URL in the browser. Click ‘Play Game’ button then use your personal or school
id to login. Otherwise use Guest Pass to enter. Then click the DEEP TREE icon that is given below
The Evolution Lab to start the activity.
Step – 2: Input the common name of any animal in the SEARCH tab given at the bottom of the
activity window, select the appropriate Zoological name from the list appeared.
Step – 3: The Classification and the place of the species in the animal Kingdom can be viewed by
clicking the Icon placed next to the search tab.
Step – 4:Two different species can be compared by clicking on the RELATE button given at the bottom
of the activity window. The relation between those species can be learnt by clicking
the DNA icon appeared.
DEEP TREE url

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/labs/lab/evolution/
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UNIT I Chapter 2
Kingdom Animalia
Chapter Outline
2.1 Basis of Classification

2.2 Classification of Kingdom Animalia
2.3 Non Chordates (Invertebrata)
2.4 Phylum Chordata
March 20th is celebrated as World Sparrow day
to conserve this endangered species, House
sparrow (Passer domesticus)
Learning Objectives: are invertebrates or animals without

backbone. The remaining represents
• Justifies the need for vertebrates or animals with backbone.
classification. On the basis of the presence or absence
• Understands the salient of notochord (vertebral column), animals
features of the animal are also categorised into two major groups
phyla. and they are non chordates and chordates.
Kingdom Animalia comprises 2.1 Basis of classification

millions of animal species and studying
them without a basic classification may Multicellular organisms are structurally
lead to confusion. In addition to this, there and functionally different but yet they
are several new species of animals being possess certain common fundamental
constantly discovered. Classification is features such as the arrangement of cell
very essential for identification, naming layers, the levels of organisation, nature
and assigning a systematic position to of coelom, the presence or absence
the newly discovered species. Animal of segmentation, notochord and the
Kingdom is classified mainly based on the organisation of the organ system.
closely resembling characteristic features.
Kingdom Animalia is characterised of 2.1.1 Levels of organisation
eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic All members of Kingdom Animalia are
organisms. They include about 35 phyla metazoans (multicellular animals) and exhibit
of which 11 are considered as major different patterns of cellular organisation.
phyla. Almost 99 percent of animals The cells of the metazoans are not capable of
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independent existence and exhibit division of further advancement over the tissue level
labour. Among the metazoans, cells may be of organisation and appears for the first
functionally isolated or similar kinds of cells time in the Phylum Platyhelminthes and
may be grouped together to form tissues, seen in other higher phyla.
organ and organ systems.
Organ system level of organisation
Cellular level of organisation
The most efficient and highest level of
This basic level of organisation is seen
organisation among the animals is exhibited
in sponges. The cells in the sponges are
by flatworms, nematodes, annelids,
arranged as loose aggregates and do not
arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms and
form tissues, i.e. they exhibit cellular level
chordates. The evolution of mesoderm in
of organisation. There is division of labour
among the cells and different types of cells these animals has led to their structural
are functionally isolated. In sponges, the complexity. The tissues are organised to
outer layer is formed of pinacocytes (plate- form organs and organ systems. Each
like cells that maintain the size and structure system is associated with a specific
of the sponge) and the inner layer is formed function and show organ system level of
of choanocytes. These are flagellated organisation. Highly specialized nerve and
collar cells that create and maintain water sensory cells coordinate and integrate the
flow through the sponge thus facilitating functions of the organ systems, which can
respiratory and digestive functions. be very primitive and simple or complex
depending on the individual animal.
Animals such as sponges lack
For example, the digestive system of
nervous tissue and muscle tissue, what
Platyhelminthes has only a single opening
does this tell you about sponges?
to the exterior which serves as both mouth
and anus, and hence called an incomplete
Tissue level of organisation digestive system. From Aschelminthes to
In some animals, cells that perform Chordates, all animals have a complete
similar functions are aggregated to form digestive system with two openings, the
tissues. The cells of a tissue integrate in a mouth and the anus.
highly coordinated fashion to perform a
Similarly, the circulatory system is
common function, due to the presence of
of two types, the open type: in which
nerve cells and sensory cells. This tissue level
of organisation is exhibited in diploblastic the blood remains filled in tissue spaces
animals like cnidarians. The formation of due to the absence of blood capillaries.
tissues is the first step towards evolution of (arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms and
body plan in animals (Hydra - Coelenterata). urochordates) and the closed type: in
which the blood is circulated through
Organ level of organisation
blood vessels of varying diameters
Different kinds of tissues aggregate (arteries, veins and capillaries) as
to form an organ to perform a specific in annelids, cephalochordates and
function. Organ level of organisation is a
vertebrates.
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2.1.2 D
iploblastic and Triploblastic of an axis are identical. An animal’s body
organisation plan results from the animal’s pattern of
development. The simplest body plan is
During embryonic development, the
seen in sponges (Figure 2.2). They do not
tissues and organs of animals originate
display symmetry and are asymmetrical.
from two or three embryonic germ layers.
Such animals lack a definite body plan
On the basis of the origin and develop-
or are irregular shaped and any plane
ment, animals are classified into two cate-
passing through the centre of the body
gories: Diploblastic and Triploblastic.
does not divide them into two equal halves
Animals in which the cells are arranged (Sponges). An asymmetrical body plan is
in two embryonic layers (Figure 2.1), the also seen in adult gastropods (snails).
external ectoderm, and internal endoderm are YDX[LD([WLQFW
called diploblastic animals. In these animals

the ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis (the
/HXFRVROHQLD
outer layer of the body wall) and endoderm 6SRQJLOOD
gives rise to gastrodermis (tissue lining the

gut cavity). An undifferentiated layer present
between the ectoderm and endoderm is the
mesoglea. (Corals, Jellyfish, Sea anemone)
Animals in which the developing Figure 2.2 Asymmetry in sponges
embryo has three germinal layers are called
triploblastic animals and consists of outer Symmetrical animals have paired body
ectoderm (skin, hair, neuron, nail, teeth, parts that are arranged on either side of
etc), inner endoderm (gut, lung, liver) and a plane passing through the central axis.
middle mesoderm (muscle, bone, heart). When any plane passing through the
Most of the triploblastic animals show central axis of the body divides an organism
organ system level of organisation (Flat into two identical parts, it is called radial
worms to Chordates). symmetry. Such radially symmetrical
animals have a top and bottom side but
no dorsal (back) and ventral (abdomen)
side, no right and left side. They have a
body plan in which the body parts are
organised in a circle around an axis. It
is the principal symmetry in diploblastic
animals. Cnidarians such as sea anemone
and corals (Figure 2.3) are radially
symmetrical. However, triploblastic
Figure 2.1 Germinal layers animals like echinoderms (e.g., starfish)
have five planes of symmetry and show
2.1.3 Patterns of symmetry Pentamerous radial symmetry.
Symmetry is the body arrangement Animals which possess two pairs
in which parts that lie on opposite side of symmetrical sides are said to be
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biradially symmetrical (Figure 2.4). from predators more efficiently. Animals

Biradial symmetry is a combination of that have dorsal and ventral sides, anterior
radial and bilateral symmetry as seen in and posterior ends, right and left sides
ctenophores. There are only two planes of are bilaterally symmetrical and exhibit
symmetry, one through the longitudinal cephalisation, in which the sensory and
and sagittal axis and the other through brain structures are concentrated at the
the longitudinal and transverse axis. (e.g., anterior end of the animal.
Comb jellyfish – Pleurobrachia)
Animals which have two similar 2.1.4 Coelom
halves on either side of the central plane The presence of body cavity or coelom
show bilateral symmetry (Figure 2.5). is important in classifying animals. Most
It is an advantageous type of symmetry animals possess a body cavity between the
in triploblastic animals, which helps in body wall and the alimentary canal, and is
seeking food, locating mates and escaping lined with mesoderm (Figure 2.6)
Animals which do not possess a body
cavity are called acoelomates. Since there
is no body cavity in these animals their
body is solid without a perivisceral cavity,
this restricts the free movement of internal
organs. (e.g., Flatworms)
Radial symmetry in Pentamerous radial
sea anemone symmetry in starfish In some animals, the body cavity is not
Figure. 2. 3 Radial and Pentamerous fully lined by the mesodermal epithelium, but
radial symmetry the mesoderm is formed as scattered pouches
between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such
a body cavity is called a pseudocoel and is
filled with pseudocoelomic fluid. Animals
that possess a pseudocoel are called
pseudocoelomates e.g., Round worms. The
pseudocoelomic fluid in the pseudocoelom
acts as a hydrostatic skeleton and allows free
movement of the visceral organs and for
Figure 2.4 Biradial symmetry
in comb jelly circulation of nutrients.
Eucoelom or true coelom is a fluid-
filled cavity that develops within the
mesoderm and is lined by mesodermal
epithelium called peritoneum. Such
animals with a true body cavity are called
coelomates or eucoelomates. Based on
the mode of formation of coelom, the
eucoelomates are classified into two types,
Figure 2.5 Bilateral symmetry in Insects
%LODWHUDOV\PPHWU\ Schizocoelomates – in these animals the
HJ$UWKURSRG
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(FWRGHUP 3VHXGRFRHORP 0HVHQWHU\

0HVRGHUP (FWRGHUP
(QGRGHUP
(QGRGHUP
'LJHVWLYH 0HVRGHUP &RHORP
FDYLW\
$$FRHORPDWH %3VHXGRFRHORPDWH &&RHORPDWHPROOXVFV

)ODWZRUPV URXQGZRUPV DQQHOLGVDUWKURSRGV
HFKLQRGHUPVDQGFKRUGDWHV
Figure 2.6 Diagrammatic representation of coelom in animals
body cavity is formed by splitting of found in Annelids in which each unit of

mesoderm. (e.g., annelids, arthropods, the body is very similar to the next one. But
molluscs). In Enterocoelomate animals in arthropods (cockroach), the segments
the body cavity is formed from the may look different and has d ifferent
mesodermal pouches of archenteron. functions.
(e.g., Echinoderms, hemichordates and Animals which possess notochord at
chordates) (Figure 2.7). any stage of their development are called
Development of Schizocoelom chordates. Notochord is a mesodermally
Ectoderm Gut
derived rod like structure formed on the
dorsal side during embryonic development
in some animals. Based on the presence
Split in mesoderm Developing
or absence of notochord, animals are
classified as chordates (Cephalochordates,
Early mesoderm
coelom
Endoderm cells Development of Enterocelom
Early mesoderm
cells Gut
Urochordates, Pisces to Mammalia) and
nonchordates (Porifera to Hemichordata).
2.2 Classification of
Endoderm
Separation of
pouches from gut Developing
coelom
Kingdom Animalia
Ectoderm
Animal kingdom is divided into two
Figure 2.7 Development of
Schizocoelomata and Enterocoelomata sub-kingdoms, the Parazoa and Eumetazoa
based on their organisation.
1. Parazoa: These include the
What is the advantage of true
multicellular sponges and their cells are
coelom over a pseudocoelom?
loosely aggregated and do not form tissues
or organs.
2.1.5 Segmentation and Notochord
2. Eumetazoa: These include multicellular
In some animals, the body is externally animals with well defined tissues, which
and internally divided into a series of are organised as organs and organ systems.
repeated units called segments with a serial Eumetazoans includes two taxonomic
repetition of some organs ( Metamerism). levels called grades. They include Radiata
The simplest form of segmentation is and Bilateria.
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Kingdom Levels of Symmetry Body Cavity Phylum

Organisation or Coelom
Cellular level Porifera
Coelenterata
Animalia (Cnidaria)
(multicellular) Radial
Ctenophora
Tissue/Organ/ Without body cavity

Organ system Platyhelminthes
(aceolomates)
With false coelom Aschelminthes

Bilateral (pseudocoelomates)
Annelida
Arthropoda
With true coelom Mollusca
(coelomates) Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Chordata
Figure 2.8 Classification of Kingdom Animalia based on common fundamental features
Grade 1: Radiata Division 2: Deuterostomia

Among the eumetazoa, a few animals (deuteron: secondary; stomium: mouth)
have an organisation of two layers of cells, Eumetazoans in which anus is formed
the outer ectoderm and inner endoderm, from or near the blastopore and the mouth is
separated by a jelly like mesoglea. They are formed away from the blastopore. It includes
radially symmetrical and are diploblastic. only one subdivision Enterocoelomata.
Examples: Cnidarians (sea anemone, jelly They have a true coelom called enterocoel,
fish) and Ctenophores (comb jellies). formed from the archenteron.
Grade 2: Bilateria 2.3 Non Chordates (Invertebrata)

2.3.1 P
hylum: Porifera
The eumetazoans other than Radiata,
(L. poros-pore; ferre-to bear)
show organ level of organisation and are
These pore bearing animals are
bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
commonly called sponges. They are aquatic,
The grade Bilateria includes two
mostly marine, asymmetrical and a few
taxonomic levels called Division.
species live in freshwaters. They are primitive,
Division 1: Protostomia multicellular, sessile animals with cellular
(Proto: first; stomium: mouth) level of organisation in which the cells are
Protostomia includes the loosely arranged. They are either radially
eumetazoans in which the embryonic symmetrical or asymmetrical animals.
blastopore develops into mouth. This They possess a water transport system
division includes three subdivisions or canal system where water enters through
namely acoelomata, pseudocoelomata minute pores called ostia lining the body
and schizocoelomata. wall through which the water enters into a
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central cavity (spongocoel) and goes out 2.3.2 P

hylum: Cnidaria
through the osculum. This water transport
(G. knode -needle or sting cells)
system is helpful in food gathering,
Cnidarians (were previously called
circulation, respiration and removal of
waste. Choanocytes or collar cells are Coelenterata), are aquatic, sessile or free
special flagellated cells lining the spongocoel swimming, solitary or colonial forms with
and the canals. The body is supported by a radial symmetry The name Cnidaria is
skeleton made up of calcareous and siliceous derived from cnidocytes or cnidoblasts with
spicules or spongin or both. Nutrition is stinging cells or nematocyst on tentacles.
holozoic and intracellular. All sponges are Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense,
hermaphrodites (i.e.) the ova and sperms and to capture the prey. Cnidarians are the
are produced by the same individual. They first group of animals to exhibit tissue level
also reproduce asexually by fragmentation organisation and are diploblastic. They have
or gemmule formation and sexually by a central vascular cavity or coelenteron
the formation of gametes. Development is (serves both digestion and circulatory
indirect with different types of larval stages function) with a single opening called mouth
such as parenchymula and amphiblastula. or hypostome, which serves the process of
Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla ingestion and egestion. Digestion is both
(fresh water sponge), Euspongia (bath extracellular and intracellular. The nervous
sponge) E uplectella (Venus flower basket) system is primitive and is formed of diffused
(Figure 2.9). nerve net. Cnidarians like corals have a
skeleton made up of calcium carbonate.
Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms,
polyp and medusa. The polyp forms are
sessile and cylindrical (e.g. Hydra, Adamsia),
whereas the medusa are umbrella shaped
Sycon Hyalonema
and free swimming. Cnidarians which exist
Chalina Euplectella Adamsia Pennatula

Figure 2.9 Examples of Porifera
The underwater sea bed is the
new habitat where the discovery and
development of Marine Pharmaceuticals
are in peak. Anticancerous, Antimalarial
drugs and other bioactive molecules have Meandrina Physalia
been isolated and tested successfully. Figure 2.10 Examples of Cnidarians
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in both forms, also exhibit alternation of Examples : Pleurobrachia and

generations in their life cycle (Metagenesis). Ctenoplana.
The polyp represents the asexual generation
and medusa represents the sexual generation.
Polyps produce medusa asexually and
medusa forms polyps sexually. Development
is indirect and includes a free swimming
ciliated planula larva.
Examples: Physalia (Portugese man of
war), Adamsia (Sea anemone), Pennatula
(Sea pen), Meandrina (Brain coral)
(Figure 2.10).
Compare the advantages and Figure 2.11 Example of Ctenophora-

disadvantages of direct and indirect Pleurobrachia
development.
2.3.4 P
hylum: Platyhelminthes
2.3.3 Phylum: Ctenophora (Flatworms)
(G. Ktenos -comb; phoros -bearing) (G. Platy -broad or flat; helmin-worm)
Ctenophora are exclusively marine, They have a dorsoventrally flattened
biradially symmetrical, diploblastic body and hence called flatworms. These
animals with tissue level of organisation. animals are bilaterally symmetrical,
Though they are diploblastic, their triploblastic, acoelomate with organ
mesoglea is different from that of cnidaria. system level of organisation. They show
It contains amoebocytes and smooth moderate cephalization and unidirectional
muscle cells. They have eight external rows movement. They are, mostly endoparasites
of ciliated comb plates (comb jellies) which of animals including human beings. Hooks
help in locomotion, hence commonly and suckers are present in the parasitic
called comb jellies or sea walnuts. forms and serve as organs of attachment.
Bioluminescence (the ability of a living Their body is not segmented, but some
organism to emit light) is well marked exhibit pseudosegmentation. Some of
in ctenophores. They lack nematocysts the parasitic flatworms absorb nutrients
but possess special cells called lasso directly from the host through their body
cells or colloblasts which help in food surface. However, flatworms like liver
capture. Digestion is both extracellular fluke have an incomplete digestive system.
and intracellular. Sexes are not separate Specialized excretory cells called flame
(monoecious). They reproduce only by cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.
sexual means. Fertilization is external Sexes are not separate (monoecious);
and development is indirect and includes fertilisation is internal and development
a larval stage called cydippid larva. e.g., is through larval stages (miracidium,
Pleurobrachia (Figure 2.11). sporocyst, redia, cercaria). Polyembryony
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Planaria Liverfluke Tapeworm

Figure 2.12 Examples of Platyhelminthes
is common in some flatworms (Liver tough and protective collagenous layer called
flukes). Some members like Planaria show cuticle. The alimentary canal is complete
high regeneration capacity ( Figure 2.12). with a well developed mouth, muscular
Examples: Taenia solium (Tape pharynx and anus. Excretory system consists
worm), Fasciola hepatica (Liver fluke), of renette glands. Sexes are separate; and
Schistosoma (Blood fluke). exhibit sexual dimorphism; often females are
longer than males. Fertilisation is internal;
2.3.5 P
hylum: Aschelminthes majority are oviparous (e.g. Ascaris) few are
(Round Worms) ovoviviparous (Wuchereria). Development
(G. Askes –cavity; helminths – worms) may be direct or indirect.
Previously called Examples. Ascaris lumbricoides (Round
Nematoda, this phylum worm), Enterobius vermicularis (Pin worm),
is now named as Wuchereria bancrofti (Filarial worm),
Aschelminthes. The body Ancylostomaa deuodenale (Hook worm)
of these worms is circular (Figure 2.13).
(round) in cross section
2.3.6 P
hylum: Annelida
and hence are called round worms. They
(Segmented worm)
are free living or parasitic on aquatic and
terrestrial plants and animals. They are (L. annulus -a ring, and G. edios- form)
bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and Annelids were the first segmented
pseudocoelomate animals with organ animals to evolve. They are aquatic
system level of organisation. The body is or terrestrial, free living but some are
unsegmented and covered by a transparent, parasitic. They are triploblastic, bilaterally
Ascaris Filarial worm Hook worm

Figure 2.13 Examples of Aschelminthes
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Earthworm Nereis Leech

Figure 2.14 Examples of Annelida
symmetrical, schizocoelomates and exhibit

Filariasis has been a major public
organ system level of body organisation.
health problem in India next only to
The coelom with coelomic fluid creates a
malaria. The disease was recorded in
hydrostatic skeleton and aids in locomotion.
India as early as 6th century B.C. by
Their elongated body is metamerically
segmented and the body surface is divided the famous Indian physician, Susruta
into segment or metameres. Internally the in his book Susruta Samhita. In 7 th
segments are divided from one another by century A.D., Madhavakara described
partitions called septa. This phenomenon signs and symptoms of the disese in
is known as metamerism. The longitudinal his treatise ‘ Madhava Nidhana’ which
and circular muscles in the body wall help holds good even today. In 1709, Clarke
in locomotion. Aquatic annelids like Nereis identified elephantoid legs in Cochin.
have lateral appendages called parapodia, The microfilariae in the peripheral
which help in swimming. Chitinous setae blood was first identified by Lewis in
in Earthworms, and suckers in Leech help 1872 in Calcutta (Kolkata).
in locomotion. The circulatory system is of
closed type and the respiratory pigments 2.3.7 Phylum: Arthropoda
are haemoglobin and chlorocruorin. (G. arthros- jointed; podes- feet)
Nervous system consists of paired ganglion This is the largest phylum of the
connected by the lateral nerves to the Kingdom Animalia and includes the largest
double ventral nerve cord. They reproduce class called insecta (total species ranges
sexually. Development is direct or indirect from 2-10 million). They are bilaterally
and includes a trochophore larva. Some are symmetrical, segmented, triploblastic and
monoecious (earthworms) while some are schizocoelomate animals with organ system
dioecious (Neries and Leech). (Figure 2.14) grade of body organisation. They have jointed
Examples: Lampito mauritii appendages which are used for locomotion,
(earthworm), Neries (sand worm), feeding and are sensory in function. Body
Hirudinaria (leech). is covered by chitinous exoskeleton for
protection and to prevent water loss, It is
How is cephalisation advantageous shed off periodically by a process called
to animals in finding food? moulting or ecdysis. The body consists of
a head, thorax, and abdomen with a body
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cavity called haemocoel. Respiratory organs 2.3.8 Phylum: Mollusca

are gills, book gills, book lungs and trachea.
(L. molluscs –soft bodied)
Circulatory system is of open type. Sensory
This is the second largest animal
organs like antennae, eyes (compound
phylum. Molluscs are terrestrial and aquatic
and simple), statocysts (organs of balance/
(marine or fresh water) and exhibit organ
equilibrium) are present. Excretion takes
system level of body organisation. They are
place through malpighian tubules, green
bilaterally symmetrical (except univalves
glands, coxal glands, etc. They are mostly
eg. apple snail) triploblastic and coelomate
dioecious and oviparous; fertilization is
animals. Body is covered by a calcareous
usually internal. Development may be direct
shell and is unsegmented with a distinct
or indirect. Life history includes many larval
head, muscular foot and a visceral hump
stages followed by metamorphosis.
or visceral mass. A soft layer of skin forms
Examples : Limulus (King crab, a living
a mantle over the visceral hump. The space
fossil), Palamnaeus (Scorpion), Eupagarus
between the visceral mass and mantle
(Hermit crab), Apis (Honey bee), Musca
(pallium) is called the mantle cavity in which
(House fly), Vectors- Anopheles, Culex, Aedes
a number of feather like gills (ctenidia) are
(mosquitoes), Economically important insects
present, which are respiratory in function.
- Apis- (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silk worm),
The digestive system is complete and mouth
Laccifer (Lac insects), Gregarious pest - Locusta
contains a rasping organ called radula with
(Locust) (Figure 2.15)
transverse rows of chitinous teeth for feeding
(radula is absent in bivalves). The sense
Spider silk is five times stronger than
organs are tentacles, eyes and osphraidium
steel of the same diameter. It has been
(to test the purity of water and present in
suggested that a Boeing 747 could be
bivalves and gastropods). Excretory organs
stopped in flight by a single pencil-
are nephridia. Open type of circulatory
width strand and spider silk is almost system is seen except for cephalopods such
as strong as Kevlar, the toughest as squids, cuttle fishes and octopus. Blood
man-made polymer. contains haemocyanin, a copper containing
Prawn Hermit crab Locust
Scorpion Spider Limulus (Living fossil)

Figure 2.15 Examples of Arthropoda
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respiratory pigment. They are dioecious and larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. These
oviparous. Development is indirect with a animals have a mesodermal endoskeleton
veliger larva (a modified trochophore larva). of calcareous ossicles and hence the name
Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Echinodermata (spiny skin). They are
Lamellidens (Mussel), Pinctada (Pearl exclusively marine with organ system
oyster), Sepia (Cuttle fish), Loligo (Squid), level of organisation. The most distinctive
Octopus (Devil fish) (Figure 2.16). feature of echinoderms is the presence of
the water vascular system or ambulacral
system with tube feet or podia, which
helps in locomotion, capture and transport
of food and respiration. The digestive
system is complete with mouth on ventral
side and anus on the dorsal side. Excretory
Pila Octopus organs are absent. The nervous system and
sensory organs are poorly developed. The
circulatory system is open type without
heart and blood vessels. Sexes are separate.
Reproduction is sexual and fertilization
is external. Development is indirect with
free swimming bilaterally symmetrical
Squid Oyster larval forms. Some echinoderms exhibit
Figure 2.16 Examples of Mollusca autotomy with remarkable powers of
regeneration. e.g. Star fish. (Figure 2.17)
Marbled Cone Snail Examples: Asterias (Starfish or Sea
(Conus marmoreus) star), Echinus (Sea-urchin), Antedon (Sea-
This cone-shaped lily), Cucumaria (Sea-cucumber), Ophiura
snail can deliver (Brittle star)
dangerous venom which may result in
vision loss, respiratory failure, muscle
paralysis and eventually death. There is
no anti-venom available.
Starfish Brittle star
2.3.9 Phylum Echinodermata

Sea cucumber Sea urchin
(G. Echinos – spiny; dermos –skin)
Figure 2.17 Examples of Echinodermata
All Echinoderms are marine animals.
The adults are radially symmetrical but the
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2.3.10 Phylum: Hemichordata 2.4 Phylum: Chordata

(G.hemi –half; chorda-string) (G. Chorda –string)
Hemichordates were earlier Chordata is the largest phylum with
treated as a subphylum of Chordata (or most familiar group of animals, such as
Prochordata). They are now regarded to be fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
an independent phylum of invertebrates, mammals and less known forms such
close to Echinodermata. The animals as lancelets (Amphioxus) and tunicates
of this group possess the characters of (Ascidian). All chordates possess three
invertebrates as well as chordates. fundamental distinct features at some stage
This phylum consists of a small group of their life cycle (Figure 2.19), they are:
of worm-like, soft marine animals, mostly Muscle
Dorsal,
hollow
Notochord nerve cord
tubiculous and commonly called the ‘acorn
segments
worms’ or ‘tongue worms’. They are

bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and
coelomate animals with organ system level
of organisation. Their body is cylindrical Muscular, Pharyngeal
Anus Mouth
post-anal tail slits or clefts
and is divided into three regions, the anterior
Figure 2.19 A Typical Chordate
proboscis, a short collar and a long trunk.
Most hemichordates are ciliary feeders. 1.
Presence of elongated rod like
Their circulatory system is simple notochord below the nerve cord and
and open or lacune type with above the alimentary canal. It serves
a dorsal heart. Respiration as a primitive internal skeleton. It may
is through paired gill slits persist throughout life in lancelets and
opening into the pharynx. lampreys. In adult vertebrates, it may
be partially or completely replaced by
Excretion is by a single
backbone or vertebral column.
proboscis gland or
glomerulus situated in 2. A dorsal hollow or tubular fluid filled
the proboscis. Nervous nerve cord lies above the notochord
system is primitive. and below the dorsal body wall. It
Sexes are separate serves to integrate and co-ordinate the
body functions. In higher chordates,
and exhibit sexual
the anterior end of the nerve cord gets
mode of reproduction; Figure 2.18 enlarged to form the brain and the
Fertilization is E
xample of
posterior part becomes the spinal cord,
external. Development H emichordata -
protected inside the vertebral column.
is indirect with a free Balanoglossus
swimming tornaria larva. 3. Presence of pharyngeal gill slits or clefts
Examples: Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus, in all chordates at some stage of their
Ptychodera flava (Indian Hemichordate lifecycle. It is a series of gill slits or clefts
found in Kurusadai islands in Tamilnadu) that perforates the walls of pharynx and
(Figure 2.18). appears during the development of every
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Table. 1 Comparison of chordates and non-chordates

Chordates Non-chordates
Notochord is present Notochord is absent
Dorsal, hollow and single nerve cord Double ventral solid nerve cord
Pharynx perforated by gill slits Gill slits absent
Heart is ventrally placed Heart is dorsal or laterally placed or absent
A post anal tail is present A post anal tail is absent
Alimentary canal is placed ventral to the Alimentary canal is placed dorsal to the
nerve cord nerve cord
chordate. In aquatic forms, pharyngeal nsegmented and covered by a test or tunic.
u
gill slits are vascular, lamellar and form Adult forms are sac like. Coelom is absent,
the gills for respiration. In terrestrial but has an atrial cavity surrounding the
chordates, traces of non-functional pharynx. Notochord is present only in the
gill clefts appear during embryonic tail region of the larval stage, hence named
developmental stages and disappear later. urochordata. Alimentary canal is complete
Besides the above said features, chordates and circulatory system is of open type. The
are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, heart is ventral and tubular. Respiration is
coelomates with organ system level of through gill slits and clefts. Dorsal tubular
organisation; they possess post anal tail, nerve cord is present only in the larval
closed circulatory system with a ventral stage and a single dorsal ganglion is present
myogenic heart except in Amphioxus. in the adults. Mostly hermaphrodites,
development indirect and includes a free
List the three features common to swimming tadpole larva with chordate
all chordates at sometime in their life. characters. Retrogressive metamorphosis
is seen (Figure 2.20).
2.4.1 S
ubphylum: Urochordata or Examples: Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum
Tunicata
2.4.2 Subphylum: Cephalochordata
(G. Oura – A tail; L. Chord – cord)
They are exclusively marine and are ( L. Cephalo- ‘head’ ; G. chorda ‘cord’.)
commonly called sea squirts. Mostly Cephalochordates are marine forms,
sessile, some pelagic or free swimming, found in shallow waters, leading a
exist as solitary and colonial forms. Body is burrowing mode of life. They are small
Ascidia Salpa Doliolum

Figure 2.20 Examples of Urochordata
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fish like coelomate forms with chordate without paired appendages. Notochord
characters such us notochord, dorsal persists in the adult. Gnathostomata
tubular nerve cord and pharyngeal gill includes jawed vertebrates with paired
slits throughout their life. Closed type of appendages. Notochord is replaced
circulatory system is seen without heart. partly or wholly by the vertebral column.
Excretion is by protonephridia. Sexes Agnatha includes one important class –
are separate, Fertilization is external. Cyclostomata. Gnathostomata includes
Development is indirect and includes a jawed fishes (Pisces) and Tetrapoda
free swimming larva (Figure 2.21). ( amphibia, reptilia, aves and mammals).
Example: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus The superclass Pisces includes all fishes
or lancelet) which are essentially aquatic forms with
Cerebral vesicle Nerve cord Notochord paired fins for swimming and gills for
respiration. Pisces includes cartilaginous
fishes (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes
(Osteichthyes).
Mouth Gonads
2.4.4 Class: Cyclostomata
Buccal Pharyngeal Atrial Anus
gill slits pore
Figure 2.21 Example of Cephalochordata (G.cyklos–circle; stomata -mouth)

- Amphioxus All members of cyclostomata
are primitive, poikilothermic, jawless
2.4.3 Subphylum-Vertebrata
aquatic vertebrates and are ectoparasites
(L. Vertebrus –back bone ) on some fishes. Body is slender and
Vertebrates are also called higher eel-like bearing six to fifteen pair of gill
chordates and they possess notochord slits for respiration. Mouth is circular
during embryonic stage only. The without jaws and suctorial. Heart is two
notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or chambered and circulation is of closed
bony vertebral column in the adult. Hence type. No paired appendages. Cranium
all vertebrates are chordates but all and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
chordates are not vertebrates. Vertebrates Cyclostomes are marine but migrate to
possess paired appendages such as fins or fresh waters for spawning (anadromous
limbs. Skin is covered by protective skeleton migration). After spawning within a few
comprising of scales, feathers, hairs, claws, days they die. The larvae (ammocoete)
nails, etc. Respiration is aerobic through after metamorphosis returns to the ocean.
gills, skin, buccopharyngeal cavity and Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and
lungs. Vertebrates have a ventral muscular Myxine (Hag fish) (Figure 2.22).
heart with two, three or four chambers and
kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation.
Subphylum Vertebrata is divided
into two divisions, Agnatha and
Gnathostomata. Agnatha includes Lamprey Hag fish
jawless fish-like aquatic vertebrates
Figure 2.22 Examples of Cyclostomata
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2.4.5 Class: Chondrichthyes shaped body. Skin is covered by ganoid,

cycloid or ctenoid scales. Respiration is
(G. chondros –cartilage; ichthys -fish)
by four pairs of filamentous gills and is
They are marine fishes with cartilaginous
covered by an operculum on either side.
endoskeleton. Notochord is persistent
Air bladder is present with or without a
throughout life. Skin is tough covered by
connection to the gut. It helps in gaseous
dermal placoid scales and the caudal fin is
exchange (lung fishes) and for maintaining
heterocercal (asymmetrical both externally
buoyancy in most of the ray finned fishes.
and internally). Mouth is located ventrally
They have a ventrally placed two chambered
and teeth are modified placoid scales which
heart. Excretory organs are mesonephric
are backwardly directed. Their jaws are
kidneys and are ammonotelic. Presence
very powerful and are predaceous animals.
of well developed lateral line sense organ.
Respiration by lamelliform gills without
Sexes are separate, external fertilization
operculum (gill cover). Excretory organs are
is seen and most forms are oviparous
mesonephric kidneys. Two chambered heart
(Figure 2.24).
is present. Cartilaginous fishes are ureotelic
Examples: Exocoetus (Flying fish),
and store urea in their blood to maintain
Hippocampus (Sea horse), Labeo (Rohu),
osmotic concentration of body fluids. They
Catla (Catla), Echeneis (Sucker fish),
are poikilothermic and viviparous. Sexes
Pterophyllum (Angel fish)
are separate. In males pelvic fins bear claspers
to aid in internal fertilisation. 2.4.7 Class: Amphibia
Examples: Scoliodon (Shark), Trygon (G. amphi-both; bios -life)
(Sting ray), Pristis (Saw fish) (Figure 2.23). Amphibians are the first vertebrates and
tetrapods to live both in aquatic as well as
2.4.6 Class: Osteichthyes
terrestrial habitats.They are poikilothermic.
(G. osteon –bone; ichthys -fish)
Their body is divisible into the head and
It includes both marine and freshwater
trunk and most of them have two pairs of
fishes with bony endoskeleton and spindle
limbs; tail may or may not be present. Their
Shark Pristis Sting ray

Figure 2.23 Examples of Chondrichthyes
Flying fish Sea horse Angel fish Carp Sucker fish
Figure 2.24 Examples of Osteichthyes

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skin is smooth or rough, moist, pigmented scutes. Reptiles have three chambered heart
and glandular. Eyes have eyelids and the but four chambered in crocodiles. All are
tympanum represents the ear. Respiration is by cold blooded amniotes (poikilotherms).
gills, lungs and through the skin. Heart is three Most reptiles lay cleidoic eggs with
chambered. Kidneys are mesonephric. Sexes extraembryonic membranes like amnion,
are separate and fertilization is external. They allantois, chorion and yolk sac. Excretion
are oviparous and development is indirect. by metanephric kidneys and are uricotelic.
They show hibernation and aestivation. Sexes are separate with well marked sexual
Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), dimorphism. Internal fertilization takes
Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander), place and all are oviparous.
lcthyophis (Limbless amphibians) Examples : Chelone (Turtle), Testudo
(Figure 2.25). (tortoise), Hemidactylus (House lizard),
Chameleon (Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden
lizard), Draco (Flying lizard), Crocodilus
(crocodile), Poisonous snakes - Naja
(Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper)
Frog Toad (Figure 2.26).
Salamander Icthyophis (Caecilians)

King cobra Draco (Flying Lizard)
Figure 2.25 Examples of Amphibia
2.4.8 Class: Reptilia
(L. repere or reptum – to creep or crawl)
They are mostly terrestrial animals
Crocodile Chameleon
and their body is covered by dry, and
cornified skin with epidermal scales or Figure 2.26 Examples of Reptiles
TURTLE Vs TORTOISE
Turtles spend most of their life in the water Tortoises spend most of their life on land.
Carapace is laterally compressed and streamlined. Carapace is usually dome-shaped.
Mostly live in the water or are always found near it. These are primarily terrestrial.
Most of them have webbed feet. Feet are short and sturdy with bent legs.
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2.4.9 Class Aves (L. Avis –bird) Examples Corvus (Crow), Columba
Aves are commonly known as birds. (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Pavo (Peacock),
The characteristic feature of Aves is the Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture),
presence of feathers and the ability to fly Chalcophaps indica (Tamilnadu state bird,
except for flightless birds (Eg. Ostrich, Kiwi, Common Emerald Dove) (Figure 2.27).
Penguin). The forelimbs are modified into
wings, and the hind limbs are adapted for
walking, running, swimming and p erching.
The skin is dry and devoid of glands except
the oil gland or preen gland at the base Common Emerald Dove Vulture
of the tail. The exoskeleton consists of (Tamil Nadu State Bird)
epidermal feathers, scales, claws on legs
and the horny covering on the beak. The
endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and
the long bones are hollow with air cavities
(pneumatic bones). The pectoral muscles
Humming Bird Penguin
of flight (pectoralis major and pectoralis
minor) are well developed. Respiration is Figure 2.27 Examples of Aves
by compact, elastic, spongy lungs that are
2.4.10 Class: Mammalia
continuous with air sacs to supplement
(L. Mamma – Breast)
respiration. The heart is four chambered.
They are found in a variety of habitats.
Aves are homeothermic. Migration and
Their body is covered by hair, a unique
parental care is well marked. Urinary
feature of mammals. Some of them are
bladder is absent. Sexes are separate with
adapted to fly or live in water. Presence
well marked sexual dimorphism. In males,
of mammary glands is the most unique
the testes are paired but in females, only the
feature of mammals. They have two pairs
left ovary is well developed while the right
of limbs adapted for walking, running,
ovary is atrophied. All birds are oviparous.
climbing, burrowing, swimming and flying.
Eggs are megalecithal and cleidoic.
Their skin is glandular in nature, consisting
Fertilization is internal.
of sweat glands, scent glands and sebaceous
glands. Exoskeleton includes horny
Hooded Pitohui
epidermal horns, spines, scales, claws, nails,
(Pitohui dichrous) hooves and bony dermal plates. Teeth are
The Hooded thecodont, heterodont and diphyodont.
Pitohui is a External ears or pinnae are present. The
songbird found in the rain forests of heart is four chambered and possess a left
New Guinea, The first poisonous bird systematic arch. Mature RBCs are circular,
to be documented A neurotoxin called biconcave and non nucleated. Mammals
Homobatrachotoxin is found in its skin have a large brain when compared to other
and feathers, causes numbness and animals They show greatest intelligence
tingling in those touching the bird. among all animals. Their kidneys are
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metanephric and are ureotelic. All are fox), Macaca (Monkey), Canis (Dog),
homeothermic, sexes are separate and Felis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus
fertilization is internal. (Horse), Delphinus (Common dolphin)
Examples Oviparous- Balaenoptera (Blue whale), Panthera tigris
Ornithorhynchus (Platypus), Viviparous- (Tiger), Panther leo (Lion), Homo sapiens
Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying (Human) Bos (Cattle) (Figure 2.28).
Monkeys Elephant Whale
Dolphin Platypus Kangaroo
Bat Pangolin Loris

Figure 2.28 Examples of Mammals
Summary invertebrates. The chordates are characterized

by the presence of notochord, solid
Kingdom Animalia comprises of a
ventral nerve cord and gill slits. Kingdom
broad range of animal species, from tiny
Animalia are classified into eleven animal
parasitic nematodes to the largest mammal
phyla as Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora,
the blue whale. The basic fundamental
Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes, Annelida,
features such as levels of organisation,
Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata,
diploblastic and triploblastic organisation,
Hemichordata and Chordata. Chordata
patterns of symmetry, coelom, segmentation
is the largest phylum with three sup
and notochord have enabled us to broadly
phyla Urochordata, Cephalochordata and
classify the animal kingdom. Besides the
Vertebrata. Subphylum Vertebrata includes
fundamental features, there are many other
two divisions, Agnatha and Gnathostomata.
distinctive characters which are specific for
Agnatha comprises of the class Cyclostomata.
each phyla or class.
Gnathostomata includes jawed fishes (Pisces)
Animals are broadly classified into and Tetrapoda which includes the classes
invertebrates and chordates. The animals amphibia, reptilia, aves and mammals.
which lack vertebral column are called
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Sálim Moizuddin Abdul Ali is the leading pioneer of

Indian Ornithology and generally referred as "Bird Man of
India". He was born on 12 November 1896 in Bombay and
he was the most respected and influential naturalist of 20th
century in India, He passed away on 20 June 1987. Young
Salim got interested in birds when he was at the age of
ten. Later he has conducted many systematic bird surveys
across India and the neighboring countries. He authored
many bird books and popularized ornithology in India.
‘Book of Indian birds’ and the ‘Hand book of Birds of
India and Pakistan’ are the most important books he has
written. His autobiography ‘Fall of a sparrow’ narrates
the beginning and experience of his life with birds. Government of India honoured
him with the award of Padma Bhusahan in 1958 and Padma Vibhushan 1976. He was
nominated to Rajyasabha in 1985. Salim Ali through his books motivated thousands
of people to the field of ornithology and natural history. Most of the environmentalists
in India trace back their initial motivation to bird watching and Salim Ali’s books.
In 1990, Government of India started a national research institution in his
honour called Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) in
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. SACON is a Centre of excellence in research supported
by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India.
All the researches and activities of SACON is devoted to the cause of conservation
of India’s Biodiversity with focus on birds. The main campus of SACON is situated
in the sylvan surrounding of Anaikatty, 24 kilometers northwest of Coimbatore
city, within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. SACON’s mission is to help conserve
India’s biodiversity and its sustainable use through research, education and people’s
participation with birds at the centre stage. SACON conducts research in Ornithology
covering all aspects of biodiversity and natural history. More than 50 research scholars
have completed PhD in Ornithology and Natural history from SACON in its 25 years
of existence. SACON is known for its many research papers published in national
and international journals. Nature Education programme of SACON is very popular
in the region which is inculcating love for birds and nature to thousands of people
especially to school children every year. Children’s Ecology Congress of SACON
and Salim Ali Trophy Nature Competitions are flagship events. Salim Ali Naturalist
Forum of SACON is the people’s bird watching movement in Coimbatore facilitated
by SACON.
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Activity
___________________________________________
Objectives:
Some Groups of organisms with their distinguishing characteristics are given. Construct a
cladogram, interpret and analyze the cladogram in terms of how it shows common ancestry and
degrees of evolutionary relationship.
Procedure:
Step 1. Refer your text book and identify the characteristics of the given animals. In the data table
provided, place an “x” in the box if the animal has the characteristic.
Step 2: B elow the Data Table on the Worksheet, make a Venn diagram, placing animals in groups
to illustrate those characteristics which different animals have in common.
Step 3: Using the Venn diagram draw a cladogram to illustrate the ancestry of these animals. The
diagram should reflect the shared characteristics as time proceeds.
Step 4: Draw the Venn diagram to reflect the shared characteristics of the given animal and draw
a cladogram.
Sets Traits Kangaroo Lamprey Monkey Frog Human Tortoise Fish

Dorsal Nerve cord,
Set#1
Notochord
Paired Appendages
Set#2
Vertebral column
Set#3 Paired legs
Amnion
Set#4
(Amniotic sac)
Set#5 Mammary gland
Set#6 Placenta
Set#7 Canine teeth
Total ‘X’ s
Evaluation a. Protonephridia b. Flame cells

1. The symmetry exhibited c. Solenocytes d. All of these
in cnidarians is 4. In which of the following organisms, self
a. Radial fertilization is seen.
b. Bilateral a. Fish b. Round worm
c. Pentamerous radial c. Earthworm d. Liver fluke
d. Asymmetrical 5. Nephridia of Earthworms are performing
2. Sea anemone belongs to phylum the same functions as
a. Protozoa b. Porifera a. Gills of prawn
c. Coelenterata d. Echinodermata b. Flame cells of Planaria
3. The excretory cells that are found in c. Trachea of insects
platyhelminthes are d. Nematoblasts of Hydra
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6. Which of the following animals has a 16. Four chambered heart is present in
true coelom ? a. Lizard b. Snake
a. Ascaris b. Pheretima c. Scorpion d. Crocodile
c. Sycon d. Taenia solium 17. Which of the following is an egg laying
7. Metameric segmentation is the main mammal?
feature of a. Delphinus b. Macropus
a. Annelida b. Echinodermata c. Ornithorhynchus d. Equus
c. Arthropoda d. Coelenterata 18. Pneumatic bones are seen in
8. In Pheretima locomotion occurs with the a. Mammalia b. Aves
help of c. Reptilia d. Sponges
a. circular muscles 19. Match the following columns and select
b. longitudinal muscles and setae the correct option.
c. circular, longitudinal muscles and Column – I Column – II
setae
(p) Pila (i) Devil fish
d. parapodia
(q) Dentalium (ii) Chiton
9. Which of the following have the highest
(r) Chaetopleura (iii) Apple snail
number of species in nature?
(s) Octopus (iv) Tusk shell
a. Insects b. Birds
a. p – (ii), q – (i), r – (iii), s – (iv)
c. Angiosperms d. Fungi
b. p – (iii), q – (iv), r – (ii), s – (i)
10. Which of the following is a crustacean?
c. p – (ii), q – (iv), r – (i), s – (iii)
a. Prawn b. Snail
d. p – (i), q – (ii), r – (iii), s – (iv)
c. Sea anemone d. Hydra
20. In which of the following phyla, the adult
11. The respiratory pigment in cockroach is
shows radial symmetry but the larva
a. Haemoglobin b. Haemocyanin shows bilateral symmetry?
c. Haemoerythrin d. None of the above a. Mollusca b. Echinodermata
12. Exoskeleton of which phylum consists of c. Arthropoda d. Annelida
chitinous cuticle?
21. Which of the following is correctly
a. Annelida b. Porifera matched?
c. Arthropoda d. Echinodermata a. Physalia – Portugese man of war
13. Lateral line sense organs occur in b. Pennatula – Sea fan
a. Salamander b. Frog c. Adamsia – Sea pen
c. Water snake d. Fish d. Gorgonia – Sea anemone
14. The limbless amphibian is 22. Why are spongin and spicules important
a. Icthyophis b. Hyla to a sponge?
c. Rana d. Salamander 23. What are the four characteristics
15. Which of the following is not correctly common to most animals?
paired? 24. List the features that all vertebrates show
a. Humans – Ureotelic at some point in their development.
b. Birds – Uricotelic 25. Compare closed and opened circulatory
c. Lizards – Uricotelic system.
26. Compare Schizocoelom with
d. Whale – Ammonotelic
enterocoelom.
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27. Identify the structure that the archenteron 31. What are flame cells?
becomes in a developing animal. 32. Concept Mapping - Use the following
28. Observe the animal below and answer terms to create a concept map that shows
the following questions the major characteristic features of the
phylum nematoda:
Round worms, pseudocoelomates,
digestive tract, cuticle, parasite, sexual
dimorphism
33. In which phyla is the larva trochopore
found?
a. Identify the animal. 34. Which of the chordate characteristics do
b. What type of symmetry does this tunicates retain as adults?
animal exhibit? 35. List the characteristic features that
c. Is this animal Cephalized? distinguish cartilaginous fishes with
d. How many germ layers does this living jawless fishes.
animal have?
e. How many openings does this 36. List three features that characterise bony
animal’s digestive system have? fishes.
f. Does this animal have neurons? 37. List the functions of air bladder in fishes.
29. Choose the term that does not belong in 38. Write the characteristics that contributes
the following group and explain why it to the success of reptiles on land.
does not belong? 39. List the unique features of bird’s
Notochord, cephalisation, dorsal nerve endoskeleton.
cord and radial symmetry. 40. Could the number of eggs or young ones
30. Why flatworms are called acoelomates? produced by an oviparous and viviparous
female be equal? Why?
ICT Corner Cladogram
Let’s do this activity to know

about Cladogram.
Step – 1 Type the URL given below in the browser. Press ‘Play Game’ button then use your personal or school
id to login. Otherwise use Guest Pass to enter and start the activity.
Step – 2 Initially you will be provided with two species and their characteristics. You should drag them into
the small box provided and match them.
Step – 3 Use the mouse to drag and place the characteristics on the tree.
Step – 4 If you correctly match the tree, the game will proceed to the next level. If you fail
to match them start from the beginning and play the game again until you learn the
characteristics.
Evolution Lab’s URL:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/labs/lab/evolution/
* Pictures are indicative only
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UNIT II Chapter 3
Tissue Level of Organisation

Chapter Outline
3.1 Animal Tissues

3.2 Epithelial Tissue
3.3 Connective Tissue
3.4 Muscle Tissue A reflective layer of tissue called tapetum
lucidum, enhances night time vision in
3.5 Neural Tissue most of the animals like cat.
Tissues are organized in specific

Learning Objectives: proportions and patterns to form organs
• Recognises the types of like lungs, heart, stomach, kidneys, ovaries,
tissues based on their testes etc; hence the tissues are called the
characteristic features ‘living fabrics’. If two or more organs
• Understands the perform common physical and chemical
description, location, functions they are called ‘organ systems’,
functions and Eg: digestive system, respiratory system,
modification of tissues. circulatory system, excretory system, etc.
Most organs contain different types of
• Understands the significance of
tissues and their arrangement determines
muscles, connective and neural
the organs structure and functions.
tissues.
The study of tissues is called histology
In multicellular organisms, cells do complements the study of gross anatomy.
not operate independently, instead, they Together they provide the structural basis
form tight cell communities that live and for understanding organ physiology.
work together. Individual body cells are
specialized, with each type performing 3.1 Animal Tissues
specific functions that helps to maintain Animal tissues are classified
homeostasis and benefits the body as a according to the size, shape and function
whole. Cell specialization is obvious. How of the cells. There are four primary
the muscle cell looks and acts differs greatly (basic) tissue types that interweave to
from skin cells. Cell specialization allows form the ‘fabric’ of the body. They are,
the body to function in co-ordinated ways. the epithelial tissue (covering), the
Groups of cells that are similar in structure connective tissue (support), the muscle
and perform common or related functions tissue (movement) and the nervous tissue
are called ‘tissues’. (control) (Figure 3.1).
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Figure 3.1 Types of Tissues in Human
3.2 Epithelial Tissue Based on the structural modification of

the cells, the epithelial tissues are classified
Epithelial tissue is a sheet of cells that
into simple epithelium and compound
covers the body surface or lines the body
epithelium or stratified epithelium.
cavity. It occurs in the body as a covering,
Simple epithelium is composed of a
as a lining epithelium and as glandular,
single layer of cells. They are found in the
epithelium. The functions of epithelium
organs of absorption, secretion and filtration.
includes protection, absorption, filtration,
Simple epithelial tissue is further classified
excretion, secretion and sensory reception.
Classification of Animal Tissues
Epithelial Connective Muscular Neural
Simple Compound
1. Squamous
2. Cuboidal
3. Columnar Stratified Transitional
4. Ciliated
5. Pseudostratified
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
1. Keratinized
2. Non-Keratinized
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into squamous epithelium, cuboidal the rectum. The two modifications of this
epithelium, columnar epithelium, ciliated lining are the presence of microvilli on the
epithelium and pseudostratified epithelium apical surface of the absorptive cells and
(Figure 3.2). The squamous epithelium is Goblet cell which secretes the protective
made of a single thin layer of flattened cells lubricating mucus. The functions of this
with irregular boundaries. They are found epithelium include absorption, secretion
in the kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, of mucus, enzymes and other substances.
lining of heart, blood vessels and lymphatic If the columnar cells bear cilia on their free
vessels and are involved in functions like surfaces they are called ciliated epithelium.
forming a diffusion boundary and filtration This ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary
in sites where protection is not important. actions and it lines the small bronchioles,
The cuboidal epithelium is made of a fallopian tubes and uterus. Nonciliated
single layer of cube like cells. This tissue type lines most of the digestive tract, gall
is commonly found in the kidney tubules, bladder and secretory ducts of glands.
ducts and secretory portions of small glands Pseudo-stratified epithelial cells are
and surface of the ovary. Its main functions columnar, but unequal in size. Although the
are secretion and absorption. The columnar epithelium is single layered yet it appears
epithelium is composed of single layer of tall to be multi-layered because the nuclei lie at
cells with round to oval nuclei at the base. It different levels in different cells. Hence, it is
lines the digestive tract from the stomach to also called pseudostratified epithelium and
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Figure 3.2 Types of Epithelial tissues

39

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its functions are protection, secretion and earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and
absorption. Ciliated forms line the trachea other cell products. These products are
and the upper respiratory tract. The non released through ducts or tubes. In contrast
ciliated forms, line the epididymis, large endocrine glands do not have ducts. Their
ducts of a glands and tracts of male urethra secretions called hormones are secreted
directly into the fluid bathing the gland. The
Important epithelial tissue disorders: exocrine glands are classified as unicellular
Eczema, Psoriasis, Epithelial carcinoma and multicelluar glands. The multicelluar
and severe asthma glands are further classified based on
the structure as simple and compound
Glandular epithelium glands, based on their secretory units as
Some of the cuboidal or columnar tubular, alveolar (Acinus) and tubulo
cells get specialized for secretion and are alveolar. Based on the mode of secretion
called glandular epithelium (Figure 3.3). exocrine glands are classified as merocrine,
They are mainly of two types: unicellular, holocrine and apocrine.
consisting of isolated glandular cells (goblet
cells of the alimentary
canal), and multicellular,
consisting of cluster of
cells (salivary gland). On
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exocrine and endocrine

glands. Exocrine glands
Figure 3.3 Glandular Epithelium
secrete mucus, saliva,
Glandular Epithelium
Endocrine glands Exocrine glands
Unicellular Multicellular
Based on Based on their Based on their

structure secretory units mode of secretion
1. Simple glands 1. Tubular 1. Merocrine
2. Compound glands 2. Alveolar(Acinus) 2. Holocrine
3. Tubulo alveolar 3. Apocrine
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Compound epithelium is made of more functional links between its individual cells.
than one layer (multi-layered) of cells and Three types of cell junctions are found in
thus has a limited role in secretion and the epithelium and other tissues. These are
absorption(Figure 3.4). The compound called as tight, adhering and gap junctions.
epithelia may be stratified and transitional. Tight junctions help to stop substances from
Their main function is to provide protection leaking across a tissue. Adhering junctions
against chemical and mechanical stresses. perform cementing to keep neighbouring
They cover the dry surface of the skin, the cells together. Gap junctions facilitate the
moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, cells to communicate with each other by
inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining cells,
of pancreatic ducts. There are four types of for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules
compound epithelium namely, stratified and sometimes big molecules.
squamous epithelium, cuboidal epithelium,
columnar epithelium and transitional Stratified epithelia are “built” for
epithelium. Stratified squamous protection or to resist abrasion. What
epithelium is of two types called keratinized are the simple epithelia better at?
type which forms the dry epidermis of the
skin and the non keratinized type forms 3.3 Connective Tissue
the moist lining of the oesophagus, mouth,
conjunctiva of the eyes and vagina. Stratified Connective tissue
cuboidal epithelium mostly found in develops from the mesoderm
the ducts of sweat glands and mammary and is widely distributed in
glands. Stratified columnar epithelium the body. There are three
has limited distribution in the body, found main classes namely Loose
around the lumen of the pharynx, male connective tissue, Dense
urethra and lining of some glandular ducts. connective tissue and Specialized connective
Transitional Epithelium is found lining tissue. Major functions of connective tissues
the ureters, urinary bladder and part of the are binding, support, protection, insulation
urethra. This epithelium allows stretching and transportation
and is protective in function. Connective Tissues
All cells of the epithelium are held
Loose Dense Specialised
together with little intercellular material. Connective Connective Connective Tissues
In most of the animal tissues, specialized Tissues Tissues
1. Areolar Tissue 1. Dense Regular 1. Cartilage
junctions provide both structural and 2. Adipose Tissue 2. Dense Irregular 2. Bone
3. Blood
3. Reticular Tissue 3. Elastic
1. What type of connective tissue is

damaged when one get cut on his
index finger accidently?
Multi-layered 2. The stored lipids are in the form of
cells
adipose tissue. Are they coloured?
why?
Figure 3.4 Compound Epithelium
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Components of connective tissue cells of this tissue store fats and the excess
nutrients which are not utilised immediately
All connective tissues consist of three
are converted to fats and are stored in
main components namely fibres, ground
tissues. Adipose tissue is richly vascularised
substance and cells. The ‘Fibres’ of
indicating its high metabolic activity. While
connective tissue provide support. Three
fasting, these cells maintain life by producing
types of fibres are found in the connective
and supplying energy as fuel. Adipose
tissue matrix. They are collagen, elastic
tissues are also found in subcutaneous
and reticular fibres. Connective tissues are
tissue, surrounding the kidneys, eyeball,
of three types namely, Loose connective
heart, etc. Adipose tissue is called ‘white fat’
tissues (Areolar, Adipose and Reticular) and
or white adipose tissue. The adipose tissue
Dense connective tissues (dense regular,
which contains abundant mitochondria is
dense irregular and elastic) and Specialized
called ‘Brown fat’ or Brown adipose tissue.
connective tissues (cartilage, bone and
White fat stores nutrients whereas brown
blood).
fat is used to heat the blood stream to warm
Loose connective tissues the body. Brown fat produces heat by non-
shivering thermogenesis in neonates.
In this tissue the cells and fibres are
Reticular connective tissue resembles
loosely arranged in a semi fluid ground
areolar connective tissue, but, the matrix is
substances. For example the Areolar
filled with fibroblasts called reticular cells.
connective tissue beneath the skin acts as
It forms an internal framework (stroma)
a support framework for epithelium and
that supports the blood cells (largely
acts as a reservoir of water and salts for
lymphocytes) in the lymph nodes, spleen
the surrounding body tissues, hence aptly
and bone marrow.
called tissue fluid. It contains fibroblasts,
macrophages, and mast cells (Figure 3.5). Dense connective tissues
Adipose tissue is similar to areolar (connective tissue proper)
tissue in structure and function and located Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly
beneath the skin. Adipocytes commonly packed in the dense connective tissues.
called adipose or fat cells predominate and Orientation of fibres show a regular or
account for 90% of this tissue mass. The irregular pattern and is called dense regular
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Figure 3.5 Loose connective tissues
42

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and dense irregular tissues. Dense regular Bones have a hard and non-pliable
connective tissues primarily contain ground substance rich in calcium salts and
collagen fibres in rows between many collagen fibres which gives strength to the
parallel bundles of tissues and a few elastic bones. It is the main tissue that provides
fibres. The major cell type is fibroblast. It structural frame to the body. Bones support
attaches muscles and bones and withstands and protect softer tissues and organs. The
great tensile stress when pulling force is bone cells (osteocytes) are present in the
applied in one direction. This connective spaces called lacunae. Limb bones, such
tissue is present in tendons, that attach as the long bones of the legs, serve weight-
skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments bearing functions. They also interact with
attach one bone to another. Dense irregular skeletal muscles attached to them to bring
connective tissues have bundles of thick about movements. The bone marrow in
collagen fibres and fibroblasts which are
some bones is the site of production of
arranged irregularly. The major cell type is
blood cells.
the fibroblast. It is able to withstand tension
exerted in many directions and provides Blood is the fluid connective tissue
structural strength. Some elastic fibres are containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC),
also present. It is found in the skin as the white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. It
leathery dermis and forms fibrous capsules functions as the transport medium for the
of organs such as kidneys, bones, cartilages, cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients,
muscles, nerves and joints. wastes, respiratory gases throughout the
Elastic connective tissue contains high body. You will learn more about blood in
proportion of elastic fibres. It allows recoil Chapter 7.
of tissues following stretching. It maintains &RPSDFWERQHWLVVXH
the pulsatile flow of blood through the %RQHFHOO2VWHRF\WH

arteries and the passive recoil of lungs
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vertebral column and within the walls of &DUWLODJH %RQH
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Specialised connective tissues are 5%&
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and pliable and resists compression. Cells
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of this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed in Figure 3.6 Specialized connective tissues
small cavities within the matrix secreted by
them (Figure 3.6). Most of the cartilages in You are looking at a slide of a tissue
vertebrate embryos are replaced by bones in through the compound microscope
adults. Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, and you see striped branching cells that
outer ear joints, ear pinna, between adjacent connect with one another. What type of
bones of the vertebral column, limbs and muscle are you viewing?
hands in adults.
43

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(Figure 3.7). Cell junctions hold them

Important connective tissue
together and they are bundled together
disorders: (Heritable types)
in a connective tissue sheath. The walls of
1. Ehler’s -Danlos syndrome – Defect
internal organs such as the blood vessels,
in the synthesis of collagen in the
joints, heart valves, organ walls and stomach and intestine contain this type
arterial walls. of muscle tissue. Smooth muscles are
2. Stickler syndrome – Affects collagen ‘involuntary’ as their functions cannot
and results in facial abnormalities. be directly controlled. Unlike the smooth
3. Rhabdomyosarcoma – Life muscles, skeletal muscles can be controlled
threatening soft tissue tumour of by merely thinking.
head, neck and urinogenital tract. Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile
Autoimmune connective tissue tissue present only in the heart. Cell junctions
disorders fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac
1. Rheumatoid arthritis: The immune muscle cells and make them stick together.
cells attack and inflame the Communication junctions (intercalated
membranes around the joints. It can
discs) at some fusion points allow the cells to
also affect heart, lungs and eyes.
contract as a unit, i.e., when one cell receives
2. Sjogren’s syndrome: Progressive
inability to secrete saliva and tears. a signal to contract, its neighbours are also
stimulated to contract.
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fine fibrils, called myofibrils. Muscle fibres

contract (shorten) in response to stimulation,
then relax (lengthen) and return to their
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uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion. EHWZHHQ
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In general muscles play an active role in all LQWHUFDODWHGGLVF
the movements of the body. Figure 3.7 Muscle tissues

Muscles are of three types, skeletal,
smooth and cardiac. Skeletal muscle Palmaris muscle:
tissue is closely attached to skeletal bones. This long narrow muscle runs from the
In a typical muscle such as the biceps, the elbow to the wrist and is important for
striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibres are hanging and climbing in primates, is
bundled together in a parallel fashion. A missing in 11% of humans today.
sheath of tough connective tissue encloses
several bundles of muscle fibres (You will 3.5 Neural Tissue
learn more about this in Chapter 9).
Nervous tissue exerts the greatest control
The smooth muscle fibres taper at both over the body’s responsiveness to changing
ends (fusiform) and do not show striations
44

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$[RQ Biopsy is an examination of tissue or liquid

removed from a living body to discover the
1XFOHXV
presence, cause or extent of a disease.
Autopsy is a post-mortem (dissection of
a dead body) examination to discover the
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The body cells combine to form
Figure 3.8 Nervous tissues with neuroglia
four different types of tissues; epithelial,
conditions. Neurons, the connective, muscle and nervous tissues.
unit of neural system are Though the cells of these tissues share
excitable cells (Figure 3.8). certain features in common, by no means
The neuroglial cells which they are identical. They belong together
constitute the rest of the because they have basic fundamental
neural system protect and resemblances. The important concept to
support the neurons. Neuroglia makes carry away with you is that tissues, despite
up more than one-half of the volume of their unique abilities, cooperate to keep the
neural tissue in our body. body safe, healthy, viable and whole.
When a neuron is suitably stimulated,
an electrical disturbance is generated which
swiftly travels along its plasma membrane. Activity
Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s _____________________
endings, or output zone, triggers events
that may cause stimulation or inhibition 1.Students are asked to identify the
of adjacent neurons and other cells (You unlabelled slides of tissues and to
will study in detail in Chapter 10) classify them. Similar exercise can
also be accomplished by projecting
Diseases of Nervous System: unlabelled histological images on a
1. Parkinson’s disease: A degenerative screen. They can identify the slides of
disorder of the nervous system that different tissues through microscope
affects movement, often including 2.The preparation of smear of stratified
tremors. squamous epithelia from the inner
2. Alzheimer’s disease: It is a chronic lining of cheek allows the students to
neurodegenerative disease which make their own slides using biological
includes the symptoms of difficulty in
stain. They will have the experience of
remembering recent events, problems
examining their cheek cells.
with language, disorientation and
mood swings.
45

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Evaluation 5. Non-shivering thermogenesis in

neonates produces heat through
1. The main function of a. White fat b. Brown fat
the cuboidal epithelium
c. Yellow fat d. Colourless fat
is
6. Some epithelia are pseudostratified.
a. Protection
What does this mean?
b. Secretion
c. Absorption 7. Differentiate white adipose tissue from
d. Both (b) and (c) brown adipose tissue.
2. The ciliated epithelium lines the 8. Why blood is considered as a typical
a. Skin b. Digestive tract connective tissue?
c. Gall bladder d. Trachea 9. Differentiate between elastic fibres and
3. What type of fibres are found in elastic connective tissue.
connective tissue matrix? 10. Name any four important functions of
a. Collagen b. Areolar epithelial tissue and provide at least one
c. Cartilage d. Tubular example of a tissue that exemplifies each
4. Prevention of substances from leaking function.
across the tissue is provided by 11. Write the classification of connective
a. Tight junction tissue and their functions
b. Adhering junction 12. What is an epithelium? Enumerate the
c. Gap junction characteristic features of different epithelia.
d. Elastic junction
ICT Corner
The Online Epithelium
Let’s explore the anatomy and

functions of Epithelium Tissues.
Step – 1 Use the URL to open ‘The Online Epithelium’page. Click any of the organ given in the list
to view the interactive epithelial tissues present in that organ.
Step – 2 Click the play icon to load the 3D interactive. The loaded 3DTissue can be viewed 360
degree by click and drag of the mouse.
Step – 3 Roll the mouse over the interactive diagram and click the number on the diagram. A brief
description of the parts will appear, description can be viewed by selecting the parts given at
the bottom of the activity window.
Step – 4 Additional information regarding the particular epithelial tissue can be learned from the
descriptions given below the 3D interactive diagram.
The Online Epithelium’sURL:
http://www.epithelium3d.com/index.html
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UNIT II Chapter 4
Organ and Organ Systems in

Animals
Chapter Outline
4.1 Earthworm - Lampito mauritii

4.2 Cockroach - Periplaneta americana
4.3 Frog - Rana hexadactyla
A function to each organ and each organ to its
own function is seen in all animals.
organisms placed at different evolutionary

levels to show their organization and
• Understands and functions. Morphology refers to the study
appreciates the morphology of form or externally visible features.
of the earthworm, The word anatomy is used for the study
cockroach and frog. of internal organs in the animals. This
• Recognises the functions chapter deals with the morphology and
of different organ systems. anatomy of invertebrates represented by
the earthworm and cockroach and the
• Appreciates the differences in the
vertebrates represented by the frog.
structural organization of the
earthworm, cockroach and frog.
4.1 Earthworm -
Introduction Lampito mauritii
From microbes to the blue whale, Classification
organisms occur in different sizes and
Phylum : Annelida
shapes with a well organized organ
and organ systems. The basic tissues Class : Oligochaeta
(chapter-3) organize to form an organ Order : Haplotaxida
which in turn associates to form organ Genus : Lampito
systems in multicellular organisms. Such Species : mauritii
an organization is essential for efficient
and better coordinated activities of Earthworm is a terrestrial invertebrate that
millions of cells constituting an organism. inhabits the upper layers of the moist soil, rich
You are being introduced to understand in decaying organic matter. It is nocturnal
the morphology and anatomy of three and during the day it lives in burrows made
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by burrowing and swallowing the soil. In and is light brown in colour, with purplish
gardens, they can be traced by their faecal tinge at the anterior end. This colour
deposits known as worm castings on the of the earthworm is mainly due to the
soil surface. Earthworms are considered presence of porphyrin pigment. The body
as “Friends of Farmers”. The common of the earthworm is encircled by a large
Indian earthworms are Lampito mauritii number of grooves which divides it into a
(Syn. M egascolex mauritii), Perioynx number of compartments called segments
excavatus and Metaphire posthuma (Syn. or metameres (Figure 4.2). L. mauritii
Pheretima posthuma). Earthworms are consists of about 165 – 190 segments. The
also conveniently classified based on their dorsal surface of the body is marked by a
ecological strategies as epigeics, anecics dark mid dorsal line (dorsal blood vessel)
and endogeics (Figure 4.1). Epigeics (Greek along the longitudinal axis of the body.
for “up on the earth”) are surface dwellers, The ventral surface is distinguished by the
eg. Perionyx excavatus and E udrilus presence of genital openings. The mouth
eugeniae. Anecics (Greek for “outer layer is found in the centre of the first segment
of the earth”) are found in upper layers of of the body, called the peristomium.
the soil, eg. Lampito mauritii, Lumbricus Overhanging the mouth is a small flap
terrestris. Endogeics (Greek for “within the called the upper lip or prostomium.
earth”) are found in deeper layers of the soil The last segment has the anus called the
eg. Octochaetona thurstoni. pygidium. In mature worms, segments
14 to 17 may be found swollen with a
glandular thickening of the skin called the
clitellum. This helps in the formation of the
(SLJHLFV cocoon. Due to the presence of clitellum,
/LWWHU SK\WRSKDJXV 'XQJ
the body of an earthworm is divided into
pre clitellar region (1st – 13th segments),
clitellar region (14th – 17th segments) and
the post – clitellar region (after the 17th
$QHFLFV
JHRSK\WRSKDJXV segment). In all the segments of the body
except the first, last and clitellum, there is
a ring of chitinous body setae. This body
(QGRJHLFV setae arises from a setigerous sac of the
JHRSKDJXV
skin and it is curved as S – shaped. Setae
can be protruded or retracted and their
Figure 4.1 Earthworm classification based
principal role is in locomotion.
on ecological strategies
The external apertures are the mouth,
Morphology anus, dorsal pores, spermathecal openings,
Lampito mauritii is commonly found in genital openings and nephridiopores.
Tamil Nadu. It has a long and cylindrical The dorsal pores are present from the
narrow body which is bilaterally 10th segment onwards. The coelomic
symmetrical. L. mauritii is 80 to 210 mm fluid communicates to the exterior
in length with a diameter of 3.5 – 5 mm, through these pores and keeps the body
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3URVWRPLXP 3URVWRPLXP 0RXWK

3HULVWRPLXP

&OLWHOOXP 2SHQLQJV
RIVSHUP
DWKHFDH

'RUVDO
)HPDOH
SRUHV
JHQLWDOSRUH

G%RG\ $QXV
VHWDH &OLWHOOXP

0DOH
JHQLWDOSRUH
6HWDH
D(QWLUH E'RUVDOYLHZ F9HQWUDOYLHZ
Figure 4.2 Lampito mauritii

on the ventral side in the 14th segment and
surface moist and free from harmful a pair of male genital apertures are situated
microorganisms. Spermathecal openings latero-ventrally in the 18th segment.
are three pairs of small ventrolateral Nephridiopores are numerous and found
apertures lying intersegmentally between throughout the body of the earthworm
the grooves of the segments 6/7, 7/8 and except a few anterior segments, through
8/9. A pair of female genital apertures lie which the metabolic wastes are eliminated.
Table 4.1: Morphological and anatomical differences between Lampito mauritii and
Metaphire posthuma
S.No Characters Lampito mauritii Metaphire posthuma
1. Shape and size Cylindrical Cylindrical
80 mm – 210 mm in length 115 – 130 mm in length
3.5mm - 5.0 mm in width 5 mm in width
2. Colouration Light Brown Dark Brown
3. Segmentation 165 – 190 Segments About 140 Segments
4. Clitellum 14 – 17 Segments (4)
th th
14th – 16th Segments (3)
5. Spermathecal Three pairs 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 Four pairs 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and
opening 8/9
6. Pharynx 3 – 4 segment
rd th
Runs up to 4th Segment
7. Oesophagus 5th segment 8th segment
8. Gizzard 6th segment 8th – 9th segment
9. Intestine 7th segment to anus 15th segment to anus
10. Intestinal caeca Absent Present in 26th segment
11. Lateral hearts 8 pairs from 6th to 13th segments 3 pairs from 7th to 9th
segments
12. Pharyngeal 5 9 segment
th _ th
4th – 6th segment
nephridia
13. Micronephridia 14th to last segment 7th to last segment
14. Meganephridia 19th to last segment 15th to last segment
15. Male genital pore 18 segment
th
18th segment
16. Female genital pore 14th segment 14th segment
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Anatomy 0RXWK
%XFFDO
3KDU\Q[ FDYLW\
The body wall of the earthworm is very
3KDU\QJHDO
moist, thin, soft, skinny, elastic and JODQGV
consists of the cuticle, epidermis, muscles 2HVRSKDJXV

*L]]DUG
and coelomic epithelium. The epidermis

consists of supporting cells, gland cells, basal
cells and sensory cells. A spacious body
cavity called the coelom is seen between
,QWHVWLQH
the alimentary canal and the body wall.
The coelom contains the coelomic fluid
and serves as a hydrostatic skeleton, in
which the coelomocytes are known to play

a major role in regeneration, immunity
and wound healing. The coelomic fluid
of the earthworm is milky and alkaline,
which consists of granulocytes or eleocytes,
amoebocytes, mucocytes and leucocytes. Figure 4.3 Lampito mauritii –
Digestive System
Digestive system
of columnar cells and glandular cells. The
The digestive system of the earthworm alimentary canal opens to the exterior
consists of the alimentary canal and the through the anus.
digestive glands. The alimentary canal
The ingested organic rich soil passes
runs as a straight tube throughout the through the digestive tract where
length of the body from the mouth to anus digestive enzymes breakdown complex
(Figure 4. 3). food into smaller absorbable units. The
The mouth opens into the buccal cavity simpler molecules are absorbed through
which occupies the 1st and 2nd segments. the intestinal membrane and are utilized.
The buccal cavity leads into a thick The undigested particles along with earth
muscular pharynx, which occupies the 3rd are passed out through the anus, as worm
and 4th segments and is surrounded by the castings or vermicasts. The pharyngeal
pharyngeal glands. A small narrow tube,
oesophagus lies in the 5th segment and Intestinal Caeca
continues into a muscular gizzard in the 6th In Metaphire posthuma, the 26th segment
segment. The gizzard helps in the grinding has a pair of short conical out growths
of soil particles and decaying leaves. called intestinal caecae. It is extended
Intestine starts from the 7th segment and anteriorly up to the 22nd segment. These
continues till the last segment. The dorsal are digestive glands and secrete an
wall of the intestine is folded into the cavity amylolytic enzyme for the digestion of
as the typhlosole. This fold contains blood starch. Intestinal caecae are not present
vessels and increases the absorptive area of in many species of earthworms such as
the intestine. The inner epithelium consists the Lampito mauritii.
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An earthworm uses its

hydrostatic
The earthworms normally crawl
with the help of their body
skeleton to crawl muscles, setae, and buccal chamber.
The outer circular and inner
longitudinal muscle layers lies
Longitudinal Circular Circular Longitudinal
muscle relaxed muscle muscle relaxed muscle below the epidermis of the body
(extended) contracted contracted
wall. The contraction of circular
muscles makes the body long
and narrow, while that of the
longitudinal muscle makes the body
Head
short and broad. The locomotion of
the earthworm is brought about by
1
Bristles the contraction and relaxation of
the muscular body wall and is aided
by the turgence of the coelomic
2
fluid hence called the Hydrostatic
skeleton. The alternate waves of
extensions and contractions are
3 aided by the leverage afforded by
the buccal chamber and the setae.
or salivary gland cells and the glandular blood vessels, capillaries and lateral hearts
cells of the intestine are supposed to be the (Figure 4.4). Two median longitudinal
digestive glands which secrete digestive vessels run above and below the alimentary
enzymes for digestion of food. canal as dorsal and ventral vessels of
the earthworm. There are paired valves
Respiratory System in the dorsal vessels which prevent the
The earthworm has no special respiratory backward flow of the blood. The ventral
organs like lungs or gills. Respiration takes vessel has no valves and is non contractile,
place through the body wall. The outer allowing the backward flow of blood. In
surface of the skin is richly supplied with the anterior part of the body the dorsal
blood capillaries which aid in the diffusion vessel is connected with the ventral vessel
of gases. Oxygen diffuses through the skin by eight pairs of commissural vessels or
into the blood while carbon dioxide from the lateral hearts lying in the 6th to 13th
the blood diffuses out. The skin is kept segments. These vessels run on either
moist by mucous and coelomic fluid and side of the alimentary canal and pump
facilitates exchange of gases. blood from the dorsal vessel to the ventral
vessel. The dorsal vessel receives blood
Circulatory system from various organs in the body. The
Lampito mauritii exhibits a closed type ventral vessel supplies blood to the various
of blood vascular system consisting of organs. Blood glands are present in the
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anterior segments of the earthworm. They The Photoreceptors (sense of light) are
produce blood cells and haemoglobin found on the dorsal surface of the body.
which is dissolved in the plasma and gives Gustatory (sense of taste) and olfactory
red colour to the blood. receptors (sense of smell) are found
'RUVDO $OLPHWDU\ /DWHUDO in the buccal cavity. Tactile receptors
%UDLQ YHVVHO FDQDO KHDUWV
(sense of touch), chemoreceptors (detect
chemical changes) and thermoreceptors
(changes in temperature) are present in
the prostomium and the body wall.
0RXWK 9HQWUDO 9HQWUDO
QHUYHFRUG YHVVHO How do the earthworm’s sense activity
Figure 4.4 Lampito mauritii: Circulatory in their habitat without eyes, ears or a
system and Nervous System nose?
Nervous System
The bilobed mass of nervous tissue Excretory System
called supra - pharyngeal ganglia, lies on Excretion is the process of elimination
the dorsal wall of the pharynx in the 3rd of metabolic waste products from the
segment, is referred as the “brain”. The body. In earthworm, excretion is effected
ganglion found below the pharynx in the by segmentally arranged, minute coiled,
4th segment is called the sub-pharyngeal paired tubules called nephridia. There are
ganglion (Figure. 4.4). The brain and the three types of nephridia; (i) pharyngeal or
sub - pharyngeal ganglia
are connected by a pair
of circum-pharyngeal
connectives. They run one
on each side of the pharynx.
Thus a nerve ring is formed 3KDU\QJHDO
QHSKULGLD
around the anterior region
of the alimentary canal. The
double ventral nerve cord 3KDU\QJHDOQHSKULGLXP
runs backward from the
sub - pharyngeal ganglion.
The brain along with
0LFURQHSKULGLD
other nerves in the ring
integrates sensory inputs
0LFURQHSKULGLXP
and command muscular
responses of the body.
0HJDQHSKULGLXP
The earthworm’s
receptors are stimulated by
a group of slender columnar 0HJDQHSKULGLXP
cells connected with nerves. Figure: 4.5 Lampito mauritii – Types of Nephridia
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tufted nephridia – present as paired %UDLQ

tufts in the 5 - 9 segments (ii)
th th
3HULSKDU\QJHDO
FRPPLVVXUH
Micronephridia or Integumentary
6XESKDU\QJHDO
nephridia – attached to the lining of JDQJOLRQ
the body wall from the14th segment

to the last which open on the body 6SHUPDWKHFDH
surface (iii) Meganephridia or
septal nephridia – present as pair 7HVWLV
6HPLQDOYHVLFOH
on both sides of intersegmental septa 6HPLQDOIXQQHO
of the 19 segment to the last and
th
2YDU\
open into intestine (Figure 4. 5). The
2YLGXFW
meganephridium has an internal
funnel like opening called the 9DVGHIHUHQV
nephrostome, which is fully ciliated.

The nephrostome is in the preceding
segment and the rest of the tube is in 3URVWDWHJODQG
3URVWDWH
GXFW
the succeeding segment. This tube
consists of three distinct divisions, 3HQLDOVHWD
the ciliated, the glandular and the LVRODWHG
muscular region. The waste material

Figure: 4. 6 Lampito mauritii:
collected through the ciliated funnel R
eproductive System.
is pushed into the muscular part
of nephridium by the ciliated region. The
glandular part extracts the waste from the In the male reproductive system, two
blood and finally the wastes exit out through pairs of testes are present in the 10th and 11th
the nephridiopore. segments. The testes give rise to the germ
Besides nephridia, special cells on cells or spermatogonia, which develops
the coelomic wall of the intestine, called into spermatozoa in the two pairs of seminal
chloragogen cells are present. They extract vesicles. Two pairs of seminal funnels called
the nitrogenous waste from the blood of the ciliary rosettes are situated in the same
intestinal wall, into the body cavity to be segments as the testes. The ciliated funnels
sent out through the nephridia. of the same side are connected to a long tube
Reproductive System called vas deferens. The vasa deferentia
run upto the 18th segment where they open
Earthworms are hermaphrodites or
monoecious i.e. male and female reproductive to the exterior through the male genital
organs are found in the same individual aperture. The male genital aperture contains
(Figure 4. 6). Self fertilization is avoided two pairs of penial setae for copulation. A
because two sex organs mature at different pair of prostate glands lies in the 18th – 19th
times, which means the sperm develops earlier segments. The secretion of the prostate
than the production of ova (Protandrous). gland serves to cement the spermatozoa into
Thus cross fertilization takes place. bundles known as spermatophores.
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The female
reproductive
system consists of
a pair of ovaries
lying in the 13th
segment. Each
ovary has finger
like projections
which contain ova
in linear series.
Ovarian funnels
are present beneath
the ovaries which
continue into the
oviducts. They Figure 4.7 Life cycle of Lampito mauritii
open as a pair of
genital apertures by the gland cells of the clitellum which
on the ventral side of the 14 th segment. also collects the partner’s sperms from
Spermathecae or seminal receptacles the spermthecae. Fertilization and
are three pairs lying in segments 7th, development occurs within the cocoons,
8 th and 9 th, opening to the exterior on which are deposited in the soil. After
the ventral side between 6th & 7th, 7th & about 2 – 3 weeks, each cocoon produces
8th and 8th & 9th segments. They receive baby earthworms. Development is
spermatozoa from the partner and store direct and no larva is formed during
during copulation. development.
Life cycle
Regeneration
Earthworms have most of their Lampito mauritii begins its life cycle, from
important organ in the first the fertilized eggs. The eggs are held in a
20 segments. If earthworm gets cut after protective cocoon. These cocoons have
the 20th segment, the anterior half can an incubation period of about 14- 18 days
regenerate, while the posterior half shall after which they hatch to release juveniles
disintegrate after some time. (Figure 4.7). The juveniles undergo changes
into non-clitellate forms in phase – I after
about 15 days, which then develops a
A mutual exchange of sperms occurs
clitellum, called the clitellate at the end of
between two worms during mating. One
the growth phase – II taking 15 - 17 days
worm has to find another worm and
to complete. During the reproductive stage,
they mate juxtaposing opposite gonadal
earthworms copulate, and later shed their
openings, exchanging the sperms.
cocoons in the soil after about 10 days. The
Mature egg cells in the nutritive fluid
life cycle of Lampito mauritii takes about 60
are deposited in the cocoons produced
days to complete.
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4.2 C
ockroach - membrane. The sclerites of the dorsal
side are called tergites, those on the
Periplaneta americana
ventral side are called sternites and those
Classification of lateral sides are called pleurites.
Phylum : Arthropoda The head of cockroach is small,
Class : Insecta triangular lies at right angle to the
Order : Orthoptera longitudinal body axis. the mouth parts are
Genus : Periplaneta directed downwards so it is hypognathous.
Species : americana It is formed by the fusion of six segments
and shows great mobility in all directions
Cockroach is a typical cosmopolitan due to a flexible neck (Figure 4.8). The
insect and exhibits all the fundamental head capsule bears a pair of large, sessile,
characteristics of Class Insecta. Generally and reniform compound eyes, a pair of
cockroaches are reddish brown or black
bodied with a light brown margin in the The cockroaches are ancient and most
first thoracic segment. They are omnivores, basic among all groups of insects,
nocturnal, living in damp and warm places dating back to the carboniferous
and are quite common in kitchens, hotels, period, about 320 million years ago.
bakeries, restaurants, warehouse, sewage
and public places. Periplaneta is a cursorial
)LOLIRUP +HDG
(swift runner) animal. It is dioecious and DQWHQQDH
&RPSRXQGH\H
oviparous and exhibits parental care. They 3URWKRUDFLFOHJ
7HJPLQD
carry with them harmful germs of various 3URQRWXP
0HVRWKRUD[ 0HVRWKRUDFLF
bacterial diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, 0HWDWKRUD[
OHJ
+LQGZLQJ
tuberculosis, and typhoid and hence are
known as “Vectors”. 0HWDWKRUDFLF
OHJ
$EGRPHQ
$QDOFHUHFL
Morphology
D
The adult cockroaches are about 2 to 4
$QWHQQD
cm in length and about 1cm in width. )LUVW
PD[LOOD
The body of the cockroach is compressed /DEUXP
/DELXP
dorso-ventrally, bilaterally symmetrical, /DELDOSDOS
0D[LOODU\
segmented and is divisible into three

SDOS
E
distinct regions – head, thorax and

abdomen. The entire body is covered $QDOFHUFXV
by a hard, brown coloured, chitinous $QDOVW\OH

2YLSRVWLRUYDOYH
0DOH )HPDOH
exoskeleton. In each segment, exoskeleton F
has hardened plates called sclerites, which Figure 4.8 Periplaneta americana:
are joined together by a delicate and (a) External features (b) Head dorsal and
elastic articular membrane or arthrodial ventral view (c) Male and Female ventral
view of posterior segment of abdomen
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*ULQGLQJ
UHJLRQ
or tegmina. The second
,QFLVLQJ
UHJLRQ
pair of wings arises from the
&RPSRXQG
2FHOOXV H\H /DEUXP metathorax and are used in
0DQGLEOH 0DQGLEOH flight. The abdomen in both
+\SRSKDU\Q[
male and female consists of
10 segments. Each segment
0D[LOOD
0DQGLEOH
is covered by the dorsal
0D[LOOD 0D[LOOD
tergum, the ventral sternum
/DEUXP
and between them a narrow
/DELXP
membranous pleuron on
+HDG 0RXWK3DUWV /DELXP each side. In females, the 7th
Figure 4.9 Periplaneta americana sternum is boat shaped and together with the
antennae and appendages around the 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood or genital
mouth. Antennae have sensory receptors pouch whose anterior parts contains female
that help in monitoring the environment. gonopore, spermathecal pores, collaterial
The appendages form the mouth parts glands and posterior parts constitutes the
which are of biting and chewing type oothecal chamber in which the cocoons
(Mandibulate or Orthopterus type). are formed. In males, the genital pouch
The mouth parts consist of a labrum lies at the hind end of the abdomen bound
(upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a pair dorsally by 9th and 10th terga and ventrally by
of maxillae, a labium (lower lip) and the 9th sternum. It contains the dorsal anus
a hypopharynx (tongue) or lingua and ventral male genital pore. In both the
(Figure 4.9). sexes, genital apertures are surrounded by
The thorax consists of three segments – sclerites called gonapophysis. Male bears a
Prothorax, Mesothorax and Metathorax. pair of short and slender anal styles in the
The prothoracic segment is the largest. The 9th sternum which are absent in the female.
head is connected with thorax by a short In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair
extension of the prothorax called as the neck of jointed filamentous structures called anal
or cervicum. Each thoracic segment bears cerci and bears a sense organ that is receptive
a pair of walking legs. Due to the presence to vibrations in air and land. The 7th sternum
of three pairs of walking legs it is also called of male has a pair of large and oval apical
hexapoda (hexa-six, poda-feet) All the three lobes or gynovalvular plates which form a
pairs of walking legs are similar and each keel like structure which distinguishes the
leg consists of five segments – coxa (large), male from the female.
trochanter (small), femur (long and broad),
tibia (long and thick) and tarsus. The last
One of the fastest
segment of the leg - tarsus has five movable
moving land insects is
joints or podomeres or tarsomeres.
the cockroach. They
Cockroach has two pairs of wings, the first
can move as fast as
pair arises from mesothorax and protects the
5.4 Km per hour.
hind wings when at rest, and is called elytra
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Table 4.2: Differences between male and female cockroach

S. No Character Male cockroach Female cockroach
1. Abdomen Long and narrow Short and broad
In the abdomen, nine segments In the abdomen, seven segments
2. Segments
are visible are visible
3. Anal styles Present Absent
4. Terga 7th tergum covers 8th tergum 7th tergum covers 8th and 9th terga
5. Brood pouch Absent Present
6. Antenna Longer in length Shorter in length
Extends beyond the tip of Extends up to the end of
7. Wings
abdomen abdomen
Anatomy Digestive glands

of cockroach consist
Digestive system
of the salivary glands,
The digestive system of cockroach consists of
the glandular cells and
the alimentary canal and digestive glands. The
hepatic caecae. A pair of
alimentary canal is present in the body cavity
salivary glands is found
and is divided into three regions: foregut,
on either side of the
midgut and hindgut (Figure 4.10). The foregut
crop in the thorax. The glandular cells of
includes pre-oral cavity, mouth, pharynx and
the midgut and hepatic or gastric caecae
oesophagus. This in turn opens into a sac
produce digestive juices.
like structure called the crop which is used
3KDU\Q[
for storing food. The crop is followed by the
6DOLYDU\JODQG
gizzard or proventriculus which has an outer
6DOLYDU\
layer of thick circular muscles and thick inner UHVHUYRLU
cuticle forming six highly chitinous plates 2HVRSKDJXV
called “teeth”. Gizzard helps in the grinding
of the food particles. The midgut is a short
&URS
and narrow tube behind the gizzard and is
glandular in nature. At the junctional region of *L]]DUG
the gizzard are eight fingers like tubular blind +HSDWLFFDHFD
processes called the hepatic caecae or enteric
caecae. The hindgut is marked by the presence
of 100 – 150 yellow coloured thin filamentous 0HVHQWHURQ
RUPLGJXW
malpighian tubules which are helpful in
0DOSLJKLDQ 5HFWXP
removal of the excretory products from the WXEXOHV
haemolymph. The hindgut is broader than the ,OHXP
midgut and is differentiated into ileum, colon, &RORQ
and rectum. The rectum opens out through Figure 4.10 Periplaneta americana:
the anus. Digestive system
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Respiratory system
Respiratory system of cockroach is formed
The respiratory system of cockroach of spiracles and tracheal interconnections.
is well developed compared with other Why is it said to be more efficient than
terrestrial insects (Figure 4.11). Branched that of earthworm? Why inspiration of
tubes known as trachea open through 10 cockroach is said to be a passive process
pairs of small holes called spiracles or while it is an active process in man?
stigmata, present on the lateral side of the
body. Terminal branches of tracheal tubes Circulatory system
are called tracheoles which carry oxygen
Periplaneta has an open type of
to the entire body. The spiracles open and
circulatory system (Figure 4.12) Blood
close by valves regulated by sphincter
vessels are poorly developed and opens
or spiracular muscles. Each tracheole is
into the haemocoel in which the blood or
filled with a watery fluid through which haemolymph flows freely. Visceral organs
exchange of gases takes place. During located in the haemocoel are bathed in
high muscular activity, a part of the fluid blood. The haemolymph is colourless and
is drawn into the tissues to enable more consists of plasma and haemocytes which
oxygen intake and rapid diffusion. The are ‘phagocytic’ in nature. Heart is an
passage of air in the tracheal system is: elongated tube with muscular wall lying
mid dorsally beneath the thorax. The
SPIRACLES TRACHEA
heart consists of 13 chambers with ostia
TISSUES TRACHEOLES on either side. The blood from the sinuses
enters the heart through the ostia and is
pumped anteriorly to sinuses again. The
triangular muscles that are responsible
9HQWUDO 'RUVDO for blood circulation in the cockroach are
FHSKDOLF FHSKDOLF
WUXQN WUXQN called alary muscles (13 pairs). One pair
7,
of these muscles is found in each segment
/DWHUDO
7KRUDFLF ORQJLWXGLQDO on either side of the heart. In cockroach,
VSLUDFOHV 7,, WUXQN
there is an accessory pulsatile vesicle
$,
at the base of each antenna which also
$,,
$,,,
'RUVDO pumps blood.
ORQJLWXGLQDO
$EGRPLQDO WUXQN
VSLUDFOHV $,9
Cockroaches survive without a head
$9
9HQWUDO A cockroach can live for about a week
$9, ORQJLWXGLQDO
WUXQN
without its head. Due to their open
$9,,
$WULXP
circulatory system, and the fact that
$9,,, they breathe through little holes on each
of their body segments, since they are
&RPPLVVXUDOWUDFKHD
not dependent on the mouth or head to
breathe. The cockroach dies later due to
Figure 4.11 Periplaneta americana: starvation
Tracheal system in dorsal view
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sensory and an endocrine centre and lies

above the oesophagus. Sub-oesophageal
$QWHULRUDRUWD ganglion is the motor centre that controls
the movements of the mouth parts, legs
and wings. It lies below the oesophagus
$ODU\PXVFOHV and formed by the fusion of the paired
gangalia of mandibular, maxillary and
labial segments of the head. A pair of
circum–oesophageal connectives is present
around the oesophagus, connecting the
supra-oesophageal ganglia with the sub-
oesophageal ganglion. The double ventral
nerve cord is solid, ganglionated and arises
from the sub-oesophageal ganglion and
&KDPEHUV extends up to the 7th abdominal segment.
RIKHDUW Three thoracic ganglia are present, one in
each thoracic segment and six abdominal
ganglia in the abdomen.
In cockroach, the sense organs are
Figure 4.12 Periplaneta americana: antennae, compound eyes, labrum,
Circulatory system maxillary palps, labial palps and anal cerci.
The receptor for touch (thigmo receptors)
A cockroach can hold is located in the antenna, maxillary palps
its breath for 45 minutes, and cerci. The receptor for smell (olfactory
and can even survive receptors) is found on the antennae. The
being submerged under receptor for taste (gustatory receptors) is
water for half an hour. They hold their found on the palps of maxilla and labium.
breath often to help regulate loss of
&LUFXPRHVRSKDJHDO
water. &HUHEUDO
JDQJOLD
FRQQHFWLYHV
6XERHVRSKDJHDO
JDQJOLD
Nervous system 7KRUDFLFJDQJOLD
The nervous system of cockroach consists

of a nerve ring and a ganglionated
double ventral nerve cord, sub-
oesophageal ganglion, circum– $EGRPLQDO
9HQWUDOQHUYH
FRUG
JDQJOLD
oesophageal connectives and double
ventral nerve cord (Figure 4.13).
The nerve ring is present around the /DVWDEGRPLQDO
JDQJOLRQ
oesophagus in the head capsule and is
formed by the supra-oesophagial ganglion
called the ‘brain’, The brain is mainly a Figure 4.13 Periplaneta americana:
Nervous system
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Thermoreceptors are found on the first four wastes from the haemolymph and transfer
tarsal segments on the legs. The receptor them into the lumen of the tubules. The cells
chordotonal is found on the anal cerci which of the tubules reabsorb water and certain
respond to air or earth borne vibrations. inorganic salts. By the contraction of the
The photoreceptors of the cockroach tubules nitrogenous waste is pushed into the
consists of a pair of compound eyes at ileum, where more water is reabsorbed. It
the dorsal surface of the head. Each eye is moves into the rectum and almost solid uric
formed of about 2000 simple eyes called acid is excreted along with the faecal matter.
the ommatidia (singular: ommatidium),
Marcello Malpighi –
through which the cockroach can receive
described these tubules
several images of an object. This kind of
and called them vasa
vision is known as mosaic vision with more
varicose. Meckel later
sensitivity but less resolution.
called them Malpighian tubules.
Arthropod eyes are called compound eyes Reproductive system

because they are made up of repeating
Cockroach is dioecious or unisexual. They
units, the ommatidia, each of which
have well developed reproductive organs.
functions as a separate visual receptor.
The male reproductive system consists
What is the difference between compound of a pair of testes, vasa deferentia, an
eyes and simple eyes? ejaculatory duct, utricular gland, phallic
Why is mosaic vision with less resolution gland and the external genitalia. A pair of
seen in cockroaches? three lobed testes lies on the lateral side of
the 4th and 6th abdominal segments. From
each testis arises a thin vas deferens, which
Excretory system opens into the ejaculatory duct through the
The Malpighian tubules are the main seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory duct is
excretory organs of cockroach which help an elongated duct which opens out by the
in eliminating the nitrogenous wastes from male gonopore lying ventral to the anus. A
the body in the form of uric acid. Cockroach utricular or mushroom shaped gland is a
excretes uric acid, so it is uricotelic. In large accessory reproductive gland, which
addition, fat body, nephrocytes, cuticle, and opens into the anterior part of the ejaculatory
urecose glands are also excretory in function. duct. The seminal vesicles are present on
The malpighian tubules are thin, long, the ventral surface of the ejaculatory duct.
filamentous, yellow coloured structures These sacs store the sperms in the form of
attached at the junction of midgut and bundles called spermatophores. The duct of
hindgut. These are about 100-150 in number phallic or conglobate gland also opens near
and are present in 6-9 bundles. Each tubule is the gonopore, whose function is uncertain.
lined by glandular and ciliated cells and the Surrounding the male genital opening are
waste is excreted out through the hindgut. few chitinous and asymmetrical structures
The glandular cells of the malpighian called phallomeres or gonapophyses which
tubules absorb water, salts, and nitrogenous help in copulation.
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present behind the ovaries forms a

hard egg case called Ootheca around
7HVWLV the eggs. Genital pouch is formed by
3KDOOLFJODQG
the 7th, 8th and 9th abdominal sterna.
6PDOOWXEXOHV
/RQJWXEXOHV The genital pouch has two chambers, a
6HPLQDOYHVLFOH
genital chamber into which the vagina
9DVGHIHUHQV
(MDFXODWRU\GXFW opens and an oothecal chamber where
/HIWSKDOORPHUH
5LJKWSKDOORPHUH oothecae are formed. Three pairs of
9HQWUDOSKDOORPHUH
7LWLOODWRU
$QDOFHUFXV plate like chitinous structures called
&DXGDOVW\OH
3VHXGRSHQLV
gonapophyses are present around
0DOH
the female genital aperture. These
gonapophyses guide the ova into the
ootheca as ovipositors. (Figure 4. 14).
2YDU\ Ootheca is a dark reddish to

blackish brown capsule about 12mm
2YLGXFW
long which contains nearly 16
&RPPRQRYLGXFW
6SHUPDWKHFD
RUYDJLQD fertilized eggs and dropped or glued to
&ROODWHULDOJODQGV a suitable surface, usually in crack or
*RQDSRSK\VHV *HQLWDOFKDPEHU
*HQLWDO crevice of high relative humidity near
9HVWLEXOXP SRXFK
)HPDOH a food source. On an average, each
Figure 4.14 Periplaneta americana female cockroach produces nearly 15
reproductive system – 40 oothecae in its life span of about
one to two years. The embryonic
The female reproductive system of
development occurs in the ootheca, which
cockroach consists of a pair of ovaries,
takes nearly 5 – 13 weeks. The development
vagina, genital pouch, collaterial glands,
of cockroach is gradual through nymphal
spermathecae and the external genitalia. A
stages (paurometabolus). The nymph
pair of ovaries lies laterally in the 2nd and 6th
resembles the adult and undergoes moulting.
abdominal segment. Each ovary is formed of
The nymph grows by moulting or ecdysis
a group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles,
about 13 times to reach the adult form.
containing a chain of developing ova. The
lateral oviducts of each ovary unite into a Many species of cockroaches are wild.
broad median common oviduct known as About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600
vagina, which opens into the genital chamber. are associated with human habitats. About
The vertical opening of the vagina is the four species are well known as pests.
female genital pore. A pair of spermathecae They destroy food and contaminate with
is present in the 6th segment, which opens their offensive odour. The mere presence
by a median aperture in the dorsal wall of of cockroaches is a sign of unhygienic
the genital pouch. During copulation, the condition and they are also known to be
ova descend to the genital chamber, where carriers of a number of bacterial diseases.
they are fertilized by the sperms. A pair The cockroach allergen can cause asthma
of white and branched collaterial glands to sensitive people.
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COCKROACHES
Cockroaches have been around since the time of dinosaurs!
American Cockroach German Cockroach

German cockroaches can be found
largest cockroach found in
houses. Females can hatch up to most common cockroach in the
United States. Each German
Cockroaches don’t develop cockroach can live about
wings until they become adults. 100-200 days.
Oriental Cockroach
Brown-banded Various
Cockroach kinds of
Cockroach very dark compared
cockroaches are larger to other cockroaches.
than the female’s
wings. Brown-banded through sewer pipes
their eggs in or under dirty places and cooler

temperatures than other
live for 5-6½ months. cockroaches.
• Cockroaches are known to carry diseases like dysentery, Viviparous Cockroach

Facts
typhoid and poliomyelitis, as well as gastroenteritis. Diploptera punctata is a species of cockroach in the
• family Blaberidae. It is one of the few cockroach
Study (NCICAS) – 23 percent to 60 percent of urban species that is viviparous. Adults are chemically
residents with asthma are sensitive to the cockroach allergens.
• Cockroaches have been implicated in the spread of 33 kinds of on each side which squirts quinones which can poison or
bacteria, including E. coli and Salmonella species, six parasitic discourage a predator.
worms and more than seven other types of human pathogens.
species, is Anura, which includes the frogs

Diploptera punctata, a and toads. Rana hexadactyla is placed in the
viviparous cockroach, order Anura. Frogs live in fresh water ponds,
produces a nutritionally streams and in moist places. They feed on
dense crystalline "milk" small animals like insects, worms, small fishes,
to feed their live-born young. It slugs, snails, etc. During its early development
is found in Myanmar, China, Fiji, a frog is fully aquatic and breathes like a fish
Hawaii, and India. Scientists think with gills. It is poikilothermic, i.e., their
Cockroach milk could be the super body temperature varies with the varying
food of the future. environmental temperature.
4.3 Frog - Rana hexadactyla Morphology of Frog

About 360 million years ago, amphibians
were the first vertebrates to live on land. Classification
Amphibians are diverse, widespread, and Phylum : Chordata
abundant group since the early diversification. Class : Amphibia
There are about 4,500 species of amphibians. Order : Anura
Frog is an amphibian and hence placed in the
Genus : Rana
class Amphibia [Greek. Amphi - Both, bios –
life]. The largest order, with more than 3,900 Species : hexadactyla
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8SSHUH\HOLG
1LFWLWDWLQJ
PHPEUDQH
([WHQDOQRVWULO
7\PSDQXP
%UDFKLXP
&ORDFDO
DSHUWXUH $QWHEUDFKLXP
)HPXU 'LJLWV
&UXV
:HE
7RHV
Figure 4.15 Rana hexadactyla - External morphology
Table 4.3: Differences between a Frog and Toad
Characters Frog Toad

Family Ranidae Bufonidae
Body shape Slender More Bulky
Legs Longer Shorter
Webbed feet present Absent
Skin Smooth and moist skin Dry skin covered with wart
like glands.
Teeth Maxillary and vomerine Teeth absent.
teeth.
Egg formation Lays eggs in clusters. Lays eggs in strings.
The body of a frog is streamlined to

Order - Anura (Frogs
help in swimming. It is dorso-ventrally
and Toads)
flattened and is divisible into head and
trunk. Body is covered by a smooth, slimy Frogs and toads have
skin loosely attached to the body wall. bodies specially d esigned
The skin is dark green on the dorsal side for jumping with greatly elongated hind
and pale ventrally. The head is almost limbs. Frogs can live in water (aquatic), on
triangular in shape and has an apex land (terrestrial), or on trees (arboreal).
which forms the snout. The mouth is at Parental care is seen in few species.
the anterior end and can open widely.
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External nostrils are present on the the common opening for the digestive,
dorsal surface of the snout, one on each excretory and reproductive systems.
side of the median line (Figure 4.15). Fore limbs are short, stumpy, and
Eyes are large and project above the helps to bear the weight of the body. They
general surface of the body. They lie are also helpful for the landing of the frog
behind the external nostrils and are after leaping. Each forelimb consists of an
protected by a thin movable lower eyelid, upper arm, fore arm and a hand. Hand
bears four digits. Hind limbs are large,
thick immovable upper eyelid and a third
long and consist of thigh, shank and foot.
transparent eyelid called nictitating
Foot bears five long webbed toes and
membrane. This membrane protects the
one small spot called the sixth toe. These
eye when the frog is under water. A pair are adaptations for leaping and swimming.
of tympanic membranes forms the ear When the animal is at rest, the hind limbs
drum behind the eyes on either side. Frogs are kept folded in the form of letter ‘Z’.
have no external ears, neck and tail are Sexual dimorphism is exhibited clearly
absent. Trunk bears a pair of fore limbs during the breeding season. The male frog
and a pair of hind limbs. At the posterior has a pair of vocal sacs and a copulatory or
7KHKHDG
end of the dorsal side, between the hind nuptial pad on the ventral side of the first
limbs is the cloacal aperature. This is digit of each forelimb ( Figure 4.16). Vocal
sacs assist in amplifying the croaking
7KHKHDG sound of frog. Vocal sacs and nuptial pads
9RFDOVDF are absent in the female frogs.
Why three chambered heart of frog is

9RFDOVDF not as efficient has the four chambered
heart of birds and mammals?
Nostrils
Nictitating Maxillary
Membrane teeth
1XSWLDO3DG Vomarine
Tympanic
Membrane teeth
Tongue
Oesophagus
1XSWLDO3DG
Glottis
7KHKDQGRID0$/()52*
Figure 4.16 Male Rana hexadactyla with Figure 4.17 The Buccal Cavity of
vocal sacs and nuptial pad Rana hexadactyla
7KHKDQGRID0$/()52*
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Anatomy digest carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.

Final digestion takes place in the intestine.
The Digestive System
Digested food is absorbed by the numerous
The alimentary canal consists of the
finger-like folds in the inner wall of
buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,
intestine called villi and microvilli. The
duodenum, ileum and the rectum which
undigested solid waste moves into the
leads to the cloaca and opens outside by the
rectum and passes out through the cloaca.
cloacal aperture. The wide mouth opens
into the buccal cavity. On the floor of the 2HVRSKDJXV %XFFDOFDYLW\
buccal cavity lies a large muscular sticky 3KDU\Q[
tongue. The tongue is attached in front /LYHU
and free behind. The free edge is forked. *DOOEODGGHU

6WRPDFK
When the frog sights an insect it flicks out %LOHGXFW
3DQFUHDV
its tongue and the insect gets glued to the ,OHXP
3DQFUHDWLFGXFW
sticky tongue. The tongue is immediately 3\ORULFFRQVWULFWLRQ
withdrawn and the mouth closes. A row 8ULQDU\
5HFWXP
&ORDFD
of small and pointed maxillary teeth is EODGGHU
found on the inner region of the upper jaw

(Figure. 4.17) In addition vomerine teeth
are also present as two groups, one on each
side of the internal nostrils. The lower jaw is
devoid of teeth. The mouth opens into the
buccal cavity that leads to the oesophagus Figure: 4.18 Digestive System of
Rana hexadactyla
through the pharynx. Oesophagus is a
short tube that opens into the stomach
and continues as the intestine, rectum Anus: The opening at
and finally opens outside by the cloaca the lower end of the
(Figure 4. 18). Liver secretes bile which alimentary canal in
is stored in the gall bladder. Pancreas, a mammals through which
digestive gland produces pancreatic juice solid waste leaves the body.
containing digestive enzymes. Cloaca: The common chamber into
Food is captured by the bifid tongue. which the intestinal, urinary and genital
Digestion of food takes place by the tracts open. It is present in birds, reptiles,
action of Hydrochloric acid and gastric amphibians, elasmobranch fishes and
juices secreted from the walls of the monotremes. The cloaca has an opening
stomach. Partially digested food called for expelling its contents from the body
chyme is passed from the stomach to the and in females it serves as the depository
first part of the intestine, the duodenum. for sperm.
The duodenum receives bile from the gall
bladder and pancreatic juices from the Respiratory System
pancreas through a common bile duct. Frog respires on land and in the water by
Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices two different methods. In water, skin acts
65

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as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous called pericardium. There are two thin walled
respiration). Dissolved oxygen in the anterior chambers called auricles (Atria) and
water gets, exchanged through the skin by a single thick walled posterior chamber called
diffusion. On land, the buccal cavity, skin ventricle. Sinus venosus is a large, thin walled,
and lungs act as the respiratory organs. triangular chamber, which is present on the
In buccal respiration on land, the mouth dorsal side of the heart. Truncus arteriosus is
remains permanently closed while the a thick walled and cylindrical structure which
nostrils remain open. The floor of the is obliquely placed on the ventral surface of the
buccal cavity is alternately raised and heart. It arises from the ventricle and divides
lowered, so air is drawn into and expelled into right and left aortic trunk, which is further
out of the buccal cavity repeatedly through divided into three aortic arches namely carotid,
the open nostrils. Respiration by lungs is systemic and pulmo-cutaneous. The Carotid
called pulmonary respiration. The lungs trunk supplies blood to the anterior region of
are a pair of elongated, pink coloured sac- the body. The Systemic trunk of each side is
like structures present in the upper part joined posteriorly to form the dorsal aorta.
of the trunk region (thorax). Air enters They supply blood to the posterior part of the
through the nostrils into the buccal cavity body. Pulmo-cutaneous trunk supplies blood
and then to the lungs. During aestivation to the lungs and skin. Sinus venosus receives
and hibernation gaseous exchange takes the deoxygenated blood from the body parts by
place through skin. two anterior precaval veins and one post caval
vein. It delivers the blood to the right auricle; at
The Blood-Vascular System the same time left auricle receives oxygenated
Blood vascular system consists of a heart with blood through the pulmonary vein. Renal
three chambers, blood vessels and blood. portal and hepatic portal systems are seen in
Heart is covered by a double-walled membrane frog (Figure. 4. 19 and 4. 20).
/HIWEUDQFKHV /HIWEUDQFKHV
RIWKHWUXQFXV &DURWLG RIWKHWUXQFXV &DURWLG
DUWHULRXV WUXQN DUWHULRXV WUXQN 6\VWHPLFWUXQN
3XOPRFXWDQHRXV
WUXQN
5LJKWEUDQFKHV 6\VWHPLFWUXQN 5LJKWEUDQFKHV
RIWKHWUXQFXV RIWKHWUXQFXV
3XOPRFXW
DUWHULRXV DUWHULRXV
DQHRXVWUXQN
3UHFDYDOYHLQ 3UHFDYDOYHLQ 3UHFDYDOYHLQ
5LJKWDXULFOH 3XOPRQDU\YHLQ
6LQXVYHQRVXV
7UXQFXV
DUWHULRXV 3HULFDUGLXP
/HIWDXULFOH
9HQWULFOH
3RVWFDYDOYHLQ
Ventral view Dorsal View
Figure 4.19 Rana hexadactyla - Structure of Heart

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&DURWLGWUXQN Spinal cord. Brain is situated in the cranial

6\VWHPLFWUXQN
3XOPRFXWDQHRXV /HIWWUXQFXVDUWHULRXV cavity and covered by two meninges called
WUXQN
5LJKWWUXQFXVDUWHULRXV
6HPLOXQDUYDOYH
piamater and duramater. The brain is divided
3XOPRQDU\YHLQ
3XOPRFXWDQHRXV
WUXQNRSHQLQJ
RSHQLQJ
6LQXDXULFXODU
into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
&RQXVDUWHULRVXV DSHUWXUH
,QWHUDXULFXODU
Fore brain (Prosencephalon) is the anterior
5LJKWDXULFOH
6SLUDOYDOYH
VHSWXP
/HIWDXULFOH
most and largest part consisting of a pair of
6HPLOXQDUYDOYH $XULFXOR olfactory lobes and cerebral hemisphere
YHQWULFXODU
YDOYH (as Telencephalon) and a diencephalon.
&KRUGDHWHQGLQHDH
Anterior part of the olfactory lobes is narrow
9HQWULFOH
and free but is fused posteriorly. The olfactory
lobes contain a small cavity called olfactory
ventricle. The mid brain (Mesencephalon)
includes two large, oval optic lobes and
Figure 4.20 Rana hexadactyla - Internal
has cavities called optic ventricles. The
Structure of Heart
hind brain (Rhombencephalon) consists of
1XFOHXV
the cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
Cerebellum is a narrow, thin transverse band
1XFOHXV /\PSKRF\WH 7KURPERF\WHV followed by medulla oblongata. The medulla
oblongata passes out through the foramen
magnum and continues as spinal cord,
(U\WKURF\WHV which is enclosed in the vertebral column
RUUHGEORRG
FRUSXVFOHV 0RQRF\WH 1HXWURSKLO %DVRSKLO (RVLQRSKLO
(Figure 4.22).
Figure 4.21 Rana hexadactyla – Blood cells
2OIDFWRU\OREH
The blood consists of plasma [60%] and &HUHEUDO

KHPLVSKHUHV
blood cells [40 %] which includes red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets. RBCs 3LQHDOERG\
2SWLFFKLDVPD
'LHQFHSKDORQ
are loaded with red pigment, nucleated and 2SWLFOREH
,QIXQGLEXOXP
&HUHEHOOXP
oval in shape. Leucocytes are nucleated, and 0HGXOOD
3LWXLWDU\ERG\
REORQJDWD
circular in shape (Figure 4.21).
The Nervous System
'RUVDOYLHZ 9HQWUDOYLHZ
The Nervous system is divided into the
/DWHUDOYHQWULFOH 2OIDFWRU\YHQWULFOH
Central Nervous System [CNS], the Peripheral )RUDPHQRI0RQUR
Nervous System [PNS] and the Autonomous 7KLUGYHQWULFOH
2SWLFYHQWULFOH
Nervous System [ANS]. Peripheral Nervous
System consists of 10 pairs of cranial nerves )RXUWKYHQWULFOH
and 10 pairs of spinal nerves. Autonomic

Nervous System is divided into sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous system. They &DYLWLHVLQWKHEUDLQ
control involuntary functions of visceral Figure: 4.22 Rana hexadactyla – Brain

organs. CNS consists of the Brain and dorsal and ventral view
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2YLGXFDO
IXQQHO
)DWERG\ )DWERG\ 2YLGXFW

9DV
HIIHUHQV
7HVWLV 2YDU\
$GUHQDOERG\
.LGQH\
$GUHQDO
ERG\ .LGQH\
8UHWHU 8UHWHU
2YLVDF
5HFWXP
5HFWXP 2SHQLQJRI
WKHXUHWHU 8ULQDU\
2YLGXFDO EODGGHU
&ORDFD RSHQLQJ
8ULQDU\ &ORDFD
2SHQLQJ
EODGGHU &ORDFDODSHUWXUH RIXUHWHU &ORDFDODSHUWXUH
Figure 4.23 Rana hexadactyla - Male Figure 4.24 Rana hexadactyla - Female
Urinogenital System Urinogenital System
Excretory system Female reproductive system ( Figure 4.24)

Elimination of nitrogenous waste and salt consists of paired ovaries, attached to the
and water balance are performed by a well kidneys, and dorsal body wall by folds of
developed excretory system. It consists of a peritoneum called mesovarium. There is
pair of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and a pair of coiled oviducts lying on the sides
cloaca. Kidneys are dark red, long, flat organs of the kidney. Each oviduct opens into the
situated on either sides of the vertebral body-cavity at the anterior end by a funnel
column in the body cavity. Kidneys are
like opening called ostia. Unlike the male
Mesonephric. Several nephrons are found
frog, the female frog has separate genital
in each kidney. They separate nitrogenous
ducts distinct from ureters. Posteriorly the
waste from the blood and excrete urea, so
oviducts dilated to form ovisacs before they
frogs are called ureotelic organisms. A
pair of ureters emerges from the kidneys open into cloaca. Ovisacs store the eggs
and opens into the cloaca. A thin walled temporarily before they are sent out through
unpaired urinary bladder is present ventral the cloaca. Fertilization is external.
to the rectum and opens into the cloaca. Within few days of fertilization, the eggs
Reproductive system hatch into tadpoles. A newly hatched
tadpole lives off the yolk stored in its body.
The male frog has a pair of testes which
It gradually grows larger and develops
are attached to the kidney and the dorsal
body wall by folds of peritonium called three pairs of gills. The tadpole grows and
mesorchium. Vasa efferentia arise from each metamorphosis into an air – breathing
testis. They enter the kidneys on both side carnivorous adult frog (Figure 4.25). Legs
and open into the bidder’s canal. Finally, it grow from the body, and the tail and
communicates with the urinogenital duct gills disappear. The mouth broadens,
that comes out of kidneys and opens into developing teeth and jaws, and the lungs
the cloaca (Figure 4.23). become functional.
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Economic importance of Frog

• Frog is an important animal
in the food chain; it helps to Adult frog
Eggs
maintain our ecosystem. So
‘frogs should be protected’.
Embryo
• Frog are beneficial to man,
since they feed on insects Young frog
and helps in reducing
insect pest population. Metamorphosis External
• Frogs are used in of Frog gill stage
traditional medicine
for controlling blood Tailed frog
pressure and for its anti stage
Internal
aging properties. gill stage
Fore limb
• In USA, Japan, China stage Hind limb
stage
and North East of India,
frogs are consumed as Figure 4.25 Rana hexadactyla -
delicious food as they Metamorphosis
have high nutritive value.
Summary
Earthworm, Cockroach and Frog show bilaterally symmetrical, segmented and
characteristic features in body organization. divisible into three distinct regions – head,
Lampito mauritii (earthworm) is commonly thorax and Abdomen. The photoreceptor
found in Tamil Nadu, its body is covered by organ of the cockroach consists of a pair
cuticle. It has a long and cylindrical narrow of compound eyes with mosaic vision.
body which is bilaterally symmetrical. All Segments bear jointed appendages. There
segments of its body are alike except the 14 are three throacic segments of each bearing
to 17 segments, which are thick and dark a pair of walking legs. Two pairs of wings are
and glandular, forming the clitellum. This present, one pair each on 2nd and 3rd segment.
helps in the formation of cocoons. A ring There are ten segments in abdomen.
of S-shaped chitinous setae is found in each Fertilization is internal. The development
segment. These setae help in locomotion. of cockroach is gradual through nymphal
Earthworm's development is direct and no stages (paurometabolus).
larva is formed during development. Frogs are cold blooded vertebrates –
Cockroach is a typical cosmopolitan Poikilotherms. Skin is smooth and moist, Red
insect and exhibits all the fundamental blood corpuscles are nucleated. Eggs are laid
characteristics of class Insecta. The body of in water. The larvae pass through an aquatic
the cockroach is compressed dorso-ventrally, stage before metamorphosing into adult.
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Evaluation 5.
The location and numbers of
malpighian tubules in Periplaneta.
1. The clitellum is a distinct part in the
body of earthworm Lampito mauritii, a. At the junction of midgut and
it is found in? hindgut, about 150.
a. Segments 13 - 14 b. At the junction of foregut and
midgut, about 150.
b. Segments 14 - 17
c. Surrounding gizzard, eight.
c. Segments 12 - 13
d. At the junction of colon and rectum,
d. Segments 14 - 16
eight.
2. Sexually, earthworms are
6. The type of vision in Cockroach is
a. Sexes are separate
b. Hermaphroditic but not self - a. Three dimensional
fertilizing
b. Two dimensional
c. Hermaphroditic and self – fertilizing c. Mosaic
d. Parthenogenic d. Cockroach do not have vision
3. State whether the statement is true or false 7.
How many abdominal segments are
To sustain themselves, earthworms present in male and female Cockroaches?
must guide their way through the a. 10, 10 b. 9, 10
soil using their powerful muscles.
c. 8, 10 d. 9, 9
They gather nutrients by ingesting
organic matter and soil, absorbing 8. Which of the following have an open
what they need into their bodies. circulatory system?
State wheather the statement is true or a. Frog b. Earthworm
false: The two ends of the earthworm can
c. Pigeon d. Cockroach
equally ingest soil.
9. Buccopharyngeal respiration in frog
a. True b. False
a. is increased when nostrils are closed
4.
The head region of Cockroach
pairs of and b. Stops when there is pulmonary
shaped eyes occur. respiration
a. One pair, sessile compound and c. is increased when it is catching fly

kidney shaped d. stops when mouth is opened.
b. Two pairs, stalked compound and 10. Kidney of frog is
round shaped a. Archinephros
c. Many pairs, sessile simple and b. Pronephros
kidney shaped
c. Mesonephros
d. Many pairs, stalked compound and
d. Metanephros
kidney shaped
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11. Presence of gills in the tadpole of frog 15. What are earthworm casts?
indicates that 16. How do earthworms breathe?
a. fishes were amphibious in the past 17. Why do you call cockroach a pest?
b. fishes evolved from frog -like 18. C omment on the functions of alary
ancestors muscles?
c. frogs will have gills in future 19.
Name the visual units of the
d. frogs evolved from gilled ancestor compound eyes of cockroach.
12. Choose the wrong statement among 20. How does the male frog attracts the
the following: female for mating?
a. In earthworm, a pair of male genital 21. Write the types of respiration seen in
pore is present. frog.
b. Setae help in locomotion of 22.
Differentiate between peristomium
earthworms. and prostomium in earthworm.
c. Muscular layer in the body wall of 23.
Give the location of clitellum and
earthworm is made up of circular spermathecal openings in Lampito
muscles and longitudinal muscles. mauritii.
d. Typhlosole is part of the intestine 24. Differentiate between tergum and a
of earthworm. sternum.
13. Which of the following are the sense 25.
Head of cockroach is called
organs of Cockroach? hypognathous. Why?
a.
Antennae, compound eyes, 26. What are the components of blood in
maxillary palps, anal cerci frog?
b.
Antennae, compound eye, 27. Draw a neat labeled diagram of the
maxillary palps and tegmina digestive system of frog.
c. Antennae, ommatidia, maxillary 28. Explain the male reproductive system
palps, sternumv and anal style of frog.
d. Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, 29. Explain the female reproductive
tarsus of walking legs and coxa system of frog.
14.
What characteristics are used to 30.
Differentiate between male and
identify the earthworms? female cockroach?
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Concept Map
Organ and Organ System
Earthworm Cockroach
Metameres Smooth, slimy skin

Exoskeleton
Peristomium
Head, thorax, abdomen Head and trunk
Morphology
Clitellum
Nictitating and
Compound eyes tympanic membrane
Body setae
Pygidium Biting and chewing type Cloacal aperture
Anatomy
Skeletal
Musculature Longitudinal smooth and cardiac
circular Alary
Muscular sticky tongue,

Gizzard Maxillay teeth and
Digestion Typhlosole Crop, Gizzard Vomerine teeth, Liver,
Pancreas.
Cutaneous, Buccal,
Respiratory system Cutaneous Spiracle pulmonary
Commissural Truncus arteriosus,

Circulatory system heart or Three aortic arches,
Ostia
lateral heart nucleated RBC
Supra –
Nervous system pharyngeal Nerve ring, CNS,PNS,ANS
ganglia Ganglion
Excretory system Nephridia Malpighian tubules Mesonephric, ureotelic
Reproduction Hermaphroditsm Dioceious Sexual dimorphism,

metamorphosis
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UNIT III Chapter 5

Digestion and Absorption
Chapter Outline
5.1 Digestive system

5.2 Digestion of food and role of digestive
enzymes
5.3 Absorption and assimilation of proteins,
carbohydrates and fats
5.4 Egestion
5.5 Nutrients, Vitamins and Minerals
5.6
Caloric value of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats
Obtaining and utilizing nutrients is a
5.7 Nutritional and digestive disorders fundamental process in all living o rganisms.
Learning Objectives: We all eat food. If you do not take

breakfast in the morning how do you feel
• Identifies and explains by noon? The food we eat provides energy
the major parts of the and organic substances for growth and
alimentary canal and for replacement of worn and damaged
digestive glands. tissues. It also regulates and coordinates
• Learns the process of the various activities that take place in
digestion in various our body. The components of our food are
parts of the alimentary canal. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins,
• Understands the role of enzymes in minerals, fibre and water. We obtain food
the process of digestion. from plant and animal sources. The food,
• Learns the symptoms of digestive we eat are macromolecules and cannot
disorders. directly enter into our cells. These have
to be broken into smaller micromolecules
• Learns the role of nutrients in
in absorbable forms, for which we need
energy production, body building

a digestive system. Plants however are
and maintenance and regulation of
autotrophs and synthesize their food,
body activities.
hence they do not require a digestive
• Creates awareness about the
system. The primary function of the
nutritional
disorders and
digestive system in the animals is to bring
alimentary canal disorders.
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the nutrients, water and electrolytes from are of four different types (heterodont),
the external environment into every namely, Incisors (I) chisel like cutting
cell in the body through the circulatory teeth, C
anines (C) dagger shaped tearing
system. teeth, Pre molars (PM) for grinding, and
Molars (M) for grinding and crushing.
5.1 Digestive system Arrangement of teeth in each half of the
upper and lower jaw, in the order of I, C,
The process of digestion involves intake
PM and M can be represented by a dental
of the food (Ingestion), breakdown of the
formula, in human the dental formula is
food into micromolecules (Digestion),
2123
absorption of these molecules into the x2
2123
blood stream (Absorption), the absorbed
substances becoming components of Mineral salts like calcium and
cells (Assimilation) and elimination of magnesium are deposited on the teeth and
the undigested substances (Egestion). form a hard layer of ‘tartar’ or calculus
Digestive system includes the alimentary called plaque. If the plaque formed on
canal and associated digestive glands. teeth is not removed regularly, it would
spread down the tooth into the narrow
5.1.1 Structure of the alimentary canal gap b etween the gums and enamel and
The alimentary canal is a continuous, causes inflammation called gingivitis,
muscular digestive tract that begins with which leads to redness and bleeding of the
an anterior opening, the mouth and gums and to bad smell. The hard chewing
opens out posteriorly through the anus. surface of the teeth is made of enamel and
The alimentary canal consists of mouth, helps in mastication of food.
buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, Tongue is a freely movable muscular
stomach, intestine, rectum and anus organ attached at the posterior end by
(Figure. 5.1). The mouth is concerned the frenulum to the floor of the buccal
with the reception of food and leads to the cavity and is free in the front. It acts as a
buccal cavity or oral cavity (Figure. 5.2). universal tooth brush and helps in intake
Mechanical digestion is initiated in the buccal food, chew and mix food with saliva, to
cavity by chewing with the help of teeth and swallow food and also to speak. The upper
tongue. Chemical digestion is through salivary surface of the tongue has small projections
enzymes secreted by the salivary glands. called papillae with taste buds.
Each tooth is embedded in a socket The oral cavity leads into a short
in the jaw bone this type of attachment common passage for food and air called
is called thecodont. Human beings and pharynx. The oesophagus and the trachea
many mammals form two sets of teeth (wind pipe) open into the pharynx. Food
during their life time, a set of 20 temporary passes into the oesophagus through a
milk teeth (deciduous teeth) which gets wide opening called gullet at the back of
replaced by a set of 32 permanent teeth the pharynx. A cartilaginous flap called
(adult teeth). This type of dentition is epiglottis prevents the entry of food into
called diphyodont. The permanent teeth the glottis (opening of trachea) during
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Figure 5.1 The Human Digestive system
swallowing. Two masses of lymphoid opens into the duodenum. The opening
tissue called tonsils are also located at the of the stomach into the duodenum is
sides of the pharynx. guarded by the pyloric sphincter. It
Oesophagus is a thin long muscular periodically allows partially digested food
tube concerned with conduction of the to enter the duodenum and also prevents
food to a ‘J’ shaped stomach passing regurgitation of food. The inner wall of
through the neck, thorax and diaphragm. stomach has many folds called gastric
A cardiac sphincter (gastro oesphageal rugae which unfolds to accommodate a
sphincter) regulates the opening of large meal.
oesophagus into the stomach (Figure. 5.1). The small intestine assists in the final
If the cardiac sphincter does not contract digestion and absorption of food. It is the
properly during the churning action of the longest part of the alimentary canal and
stomach the gastric juice with acid may has three regions, a ‘U’ shaped duodenum
flow back into the oesophagus and cause (25cm long), a long coiled middle portion
heart burn, resulting in GERD (Gastero jejunum (2.4m long) and a highly coiled
Oesophagus Reflex Disorder). ileum (3.5m long). The wall of the
The stomach functions as the temporary duodenum has Brunner’s glands which
storage organ for food and is located in secrete mucus and enzymes. Ileum is
the upper left portion of the abdominal the longest part of the small intestine
cavity. It consists of three parts – a cardiac and opens into the caecum of the large
portion into which the oesophagus opens intestine. The ileal mucosa has numerous
a fundic portion and a pyloric portion that vascular projections called villi which are
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The large intestine consists of caecum,

colon and rectum. The caecum is a small
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blind pouch like structure that opens into
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6RIWSDODWH like tubular projection called vermiform
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regions – an ascending, a transverse, a
descending part and a sigmoid colon. The
Figure 5.2 Buccal cavity colon is lined by dilations called haustra
involved in the process of absorption and (singular – haustrum) (Figure.5.4).
the cells lining the villi produce numerous The “S” shaped sigmoid colon (pelvic
microscopic projections called microvilli colon) opens into the rectum. Rectum
giving a brush border appearance that is concerned with temporary storage of
increase the surface area enormously. faeces. The rectum open out through
Along with villi, the ileal mucosa also the anus. The anus is guarded by two
contain mucus secreting goblet cells anal sphincter muscles. The anal mucosa
and lymphoid tissue known as Peyer’s is folded into several vertical folds and
patches which produce lymphocytes. The contains arteries and veins called anal
wall of the small intestine bears crypts columns. Anal column may get enlarged
between the base of villi called crypts of and causes piles or haemorrhoids.
Leiberkuhn (Figure.5.3).
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Figure 5.3 Small intestine with Villi

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Transverse colon
Descending
colon
Ascending
colon
Ileum
Haustra
Ileocecal
sphincter
(valve)
Cecum
Vermiform Sigmoid colon Figure 5.5 The layers of the alimentary canal
appendix Anal canal
Rectum Anus
Salivary glands
Figure 5.4 Large intestine There are three pairs of salivary glands in
5.1.2 Histology of the Gut the mouth. They are the largest parotids
gland in the cheeks, the sub-maxillary/
The wall of the alimentary canal from
sub-mandibular in the lower jaw and the
oesophagus to rectum consists of four
sublingual beneath the tongue. These
layers (Figure 5.5) namely serosa,
glands have ducts such as Stenson’s duct,
muscularis, sub-mucosa and mucosa.
Wharton’s duct and Bartholin’s duct or
The serosa (visceral peritoneum) is
duct of Rivinis respectively (Figure. 5.6).
the outermost layer and is made up of
The salivary juice secreted by the salivary
thin squamous epithelium with some
glands reaches the mouth through these
connective tissues. Muscularis is made of
ducts. The daily secretion of saliva from
smooth circular and longitudinal muscle
salivary glands ranges from 1000 to 1500mL.
fibres with a network of nerve cells and
parasympathetic nerve fibres which Gastric glands
controls peristalsis. The submucosal The wall of the stomach is lined by
layer is formed of loose connective tissue gastric glands. Chief cells or peptic cells
containing nerves, blood, lymph vessels or zymogen cells in the gastric glands
and the sympathetic nerve fibres that secrete gastric enzymes and Goblet cells
control the secretions of intestinal juice. secrete mucus. The Parietal or oxyntic
The innermost layer lining the lumen of cells secrete HCl and an intrinsic factor
the alimentary canal is the mucosa which responsible for the absorption of Vitamin
secretes mucous. B12 called Castle’s intrinsic factor.
5.1.3 Digestive glands Liver

The liver, the largest gland in our body
Digestive glands are exocrine glands which
is situated in the upper right side of the
secrete biological catalysts called enzymes.
abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.
The digestive glands associated with the
The liver consists of two major left and right
alimentary canal are salivary glands, liver
lobes and two minor lobes. These lobes are
and pancreas. Stomach wall has gastric
connected with diaphragm. Each lobe has
glands that secrete gastric juice and the
many hepatic lobules (functional unit of
intestinal mucosa secretes intestinal juice.
liver) and is covered by a thin connective
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Though the bile juice

of liver has no digestive
enzyme but is very essential
for proper digestion of
food, especially of the fats.
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%DUWKROLQ¶VGXFW of bile?
:KDUWRQ¶VGXFW b) How it helps in
6XEOLQJXDO
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other nutrients of
6XEPD[LOODU\
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6XEPDQGLEXODU c) How it helps in
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absorption of fats?
Figure 5.6 Salivary glands
tissue sheath called the Glisson’s capsule. 2. Stores glucose in the form of glycogen
Liver cells (hepatic cells) secrete bile which is or disperses glucose into the blood
stored and concentrated in a thin muscular stream with the help of pancreatic
sac called the gall bladder. The duct of gall hormones
bladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic 3. Stores fat soluble vitamins and iron
duct from the liver forms the common bile 4. Detoxifies toxic substances.
duct. The bile duct passes downwards and 5. Involves in the synthesis of non-
joins with the main pancreatic duct to form essential amino acids and urea.
a common duct called hepato-pancreatic
duct. The opening of the
Falciform ligament
Diaphragm
hepato-pancreatic duct
into the duodenum is
guarded by a sphincter
Right lobe of liver Left lobe of liver
called the sphincter

of Oddi (Figure.5.7).
Liver has high power of Cystic duct Right and Left hepatic
duct of liver
regeneration and liver Common hepatic duct
Gallbladder
cells are replaced by new Common bile duct
ones every 3-4 weeks. Pancreas
Apart from bile Duodenum
Accessory pancreatic duct
secretion, the liver Pancreatic duct
(duct of Wirsung)
also performs several Sphincter of
Oddi Jejunum
functions Hepatopancreatic duct

(Ampulla of vater)
1. Destroys aging and
Figure 5.7 Liver and pancreas
defective blood cells
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Pancreas agent mucus (a glycoprotein). The mucus

The second largest gland in the digestive in saliva prepares the food for swallowing
system is the Pancreas, which is a yellow by moistening, softening, lubricating and
coloured, compound elongated organ adhering the masticated food into a bolus.
consisting of exocrine and endocrine cells. About 30 percent of polysaccharide, starch
It is situated between the limbs of the ‘U’ is hydrolyzed by the salivary amylase
shaped duodenum. The exocrine portion enzyme into disaccharides (maltose). The
secretes pancreatic juice containing bolus is then passed into the pharynx and
enzymes such as pancreatic amylase, then into the oesophagus by swallowing or
trypsin and pancreatic lipase and the deglutition. The bolus further passes down
endocrine part called Islets of Langerhans, through the oesophagus to the stomach by
secretes hormones such as insulin and successive waves of muscular contraction
glucagon. The pancreatic duct directly called peristalsis. The gastro oesphageal
opens into the duodenum. sphincter controls the passage of food into
the stomach.
Digestion in the stomach

List the chemical preservatives, artificial
enhancers found in the food items Food remains in the stomach for 4 to 5 hours,
available in the market. How can you the rhythmic peristaltic movement churns
and mixes the food with gastric juice and
avoid such harmful substances in your
make it into a creamy liquid called chyme.
food?
The gastric secretion is partly controlled
by autonomic reflexes. The secretion of
gastric juice begins when the food is in the
5.2 Digestion of food and mouth. The gastric juice contains HCl and
proenzymes. The proenzyme pepsinogen,
role of digestive enzymes on exposure to HCl gets converted into the
The process of digestion converts the s olid active enzyme pepsin which converts proteins
food into absorbable and assimilable forms. into proteoses and peptones (peptides). The
This is accomplished by mechanical and HCl provides an acidic medium which is
chemical processes. optimum for pepsin, kills bacteria and other
harmful organisms and avoids putrifaction.
Digestion in the buccal cavity
The mucus and bicarbonates present in
The smell, sight and taste as well as the the gastric juice play an important role in
mechanical stimulation of food in the
lubrication and protection of the mucosal
mouth, triggers a reflex action which r esults epithelium from the eroding nature of the
in the secretion of saliva. The mechanical highly acidic HCl (Figure. 5.8). Another
digestion starts in the mouth by grinding proteolytic enzyme found in gastric juice
and chewing of food. It is called mastication. of infants is rennin helps in the digestion
The saliva contain water, electrolytes (Na+, of milk protein, caseinogen to casein in
K+, Cl–, HCO3–), salivary amylase (ptyalin), the presence of calcium ions. This e nzyme
antibacterial agent lysozyme and a lubricating secretion gradually reduces with aging.
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Oesophagus
Cardiac
sphincter Stomach
Epithelium
Pyloric
sphincter
Gastric
Small rugae
intestine
Pepsinogen Pepsin 1. Pepsinogen and

2
HCI are secreted.
HCI
2. HCI converts
1
pepsinogen to
pepsin.
H+
Cl- 3. Pepsin digests proteins
into peptones.
Chief cell
Parietal cell
Figure.5.8 The stomach and gastric secretions
Bicarbonates in What would happen if HCl is not

the saliva make the secreted in the stomach?
pH 5.4 to 7.4. If the
bicarbonates level in cholesterol and phospholipids but has no
saliva is reduced the saliva becomes enzymes. Bile helps in emulsification of
acidic and the tooth enamel may get fats. Bile salts reduce the surface tension
dissolved. of fat droplets and break them into small
globules. Bile also activates lipases to
Digestion in the small intestine digest lipids Proteins and partially digested
proteins in the chyme on reaching the
The bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal
intestine are acted upon by the proteolytic
juice are the secretions released into the
enzymes of pancreatic juice.The pancreatic
small intestine. Movements generated by
juice contains enzymes such as trypsinogen,
the muscularis layer of the small intestine chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidases,
helps in the thorough mixing of the food pancreatic amylases, pancreatic lipases
with various secretions in the intestine and and nucleases. T rypsinogen is activated
thereby facilitate digestion. by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by
The bile contains bile pigments (bilirubin the intestinal mucosa into active trypsin,
and biliverdin) as the break down products which in turn activates the enzyme
of hemoglobin of dead RBCs, bile salts, chymotrypsinogen in the pancreatic juice.
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Trypsin hydrolyses proteins into food are converted into their corresponding
polypeptides and peptones, while monomeric units.
chymotrypsin hydrolyses peptide bonds
Carbohydrates monosaccharides
associated with specific amino acids.
(glucose, fructose, galactose)
The pancreatic amylase converts glycogen
and starch into maltose. Lipase acts on Proteins amino acids
emulsified fat (triglycerides) and hydrolyses Lipids fatty acids and glycerol
them into free fatty acid and monoglycerides. The simple substances thus formed are
Monoglycerides are further hydrolysed to absorbed in the jejunum and ileum region
fatty acid and glycerol. Nucleases in the of the small intestine. The undigested and
pancreatic juice break the nucleic acid into unabsorbed substances are propelled into
nucleotides and nucleosides. the large intestine. The activities of the
The secretions of the Brunner's gland gastro-intestinal tract are carried out by the
along with the secretions of the intestinal neural and hormonal control for proper
glands constitute the intestinal juice or coordination of different parts. Gastric
succus entericus. The enzymes in the and intestinal secretions are stimulated by
intestinal juice such as maltase, lactase, neural signals. Hormonal control of the
secretion of digestive juices is carried out by
sucrase (invertase), peptidases, lipases,
local hormones produced by the gastric and
nucleotidases and nucleosidases act on the
i ntestinal mucosa.
breakdown products of bile and pancreatic
digestion.
5.3 Absorption and
Maltose Maltase
glucose + assimilation of proteins,
glucose
carbohydrates and fats
Sucrase glucose +
Sucrose Absorption is a process by which the end
fructose
product of digestion passes through the
glucose +
Lactose Lactase intestinal mucosa into the blood and lymph.
galactose
The villi in the lumen of ileum are the
Dipeptides, absorbing units, consisting of a lacteal duct
Peptidase amino acids
Tripeptides in the middle surrounded by fine network of
Nucleoside +
blood capillaries. The process of absorption
Nucleotides Nucleotidase Phosphoric
involves active, passive and facilitated
acid
Sugar +
transport. Small amounts of glucose, amino
Nucleoside Nucleosidase acids and electrolytes like chloride ions are
Nitrogen base
generally absorbed by simple diffusion. The
Diglycerides and Lipases Fatty acids
passage of these substances into the blood
monoglycerides + glycerol
depends upon concentration gradients.
The mucus along with the bicarbonate ions However, some of the substances like
from the pancreas provides an alkaline fructose are absorbed with the help of the
medium (pH 7.8) for the enzymatic action. carrier ions like Na+. This mechanism is
As a result of digestion, all macromolecules of called facilitated transport.
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Nutrients like amino acids, glucose and diffusion or active transport. Transport of
electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
blood against the concentration gradient by Absorption of substances in the
active transport. The insoluble substances alimentary canal takes place in mouth,
like fatty acids, glycerol and fat soluble stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
vitamins are first incorporated into small, However maximum absorption takes place
spherical water soluble droplets called in the small intestine. Absorption of simple
micelles and are absorbed into the intestinal sugars, alcohol and medicines takes place
mucosa where they are re-synthesized in the stomach. Certain drugs are absorbed
into protein coated fat globules called by blood capillaries in the lower side of
chylomicrons which are then transported the tongue and mucosa of mouth. Large
into the lacteals within the intestinal villi intestine is also involved in absorption of
and eventually empty into lymphatic duct. more amounts of water, vitamins, some
The lymphatic ducts ultimately release minerals and certain drugs.
the absorbed substances into the blood Absorbed substances are transported
stream. While the fatty acids are absorbed through blood and lymph to the liver
by the lymph duct, other materials are through the hepatic portal system. From
absorbed either actively or passively by the the liver, nutrients are transported to all
capillaries of the villi (Figure. 5.9). Water other regions of the body for utilization.
soluble vitamins are absorbed by simple All the body tissues utilize the absorbed
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Figure 5.9 Process of Digestion and absorption

82

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substance for their activities and requirements of the body in a right

incorporate into their protoplasm, this proportion is called balanced diet. That
process is called assimilation. means it should contain carbohydrates
and fats for energy yielding, proteins for
5.4 Egestion growth and replacement; and vitamins,
The digestive waste and unabsorbed minerals and water for physiological
substances in the ileum enter into the regulation.
large intestine and it mostly contains
fibre called roughage. The roughage is Vitamins
utilized by symbiotic bacteria in the large Vitamins are naturally occurring organic
intestine for the production of substances substances regularly needed in minute
like vitamin K and other metabolites. quantities for maintaining normal health
All these substances are absorbed in the as metabolic regulators. The identified
colon along with water. The waste is then vitamins are classified as fat soluble
solidified into faecal matter in the rectum. (A,D,E and K) (Table 5.1) and vitamin
The faecal matter initiates a neural reflex B and vitamin C are water soluble (Table
causing an urge or desire for its removal. 5.2). Vitamin A, D, E and K, if consumed
The egestion of faeces through the anal beyond required level may cause defects,
opening is called defaecation. It is a commonly referred to as hypervitaminosis.
voluntary process and is carried out by a
peristaltic movement. N.I. Lunin discovered
vitamins but the name
5.5 Nutrients, Vitamins and vitamin was given
Minerals by Dr. Funk (1912).
Food comprises of macronutrients The first vitamin isolated was B1 by
and micronutrients. The nutrients Dr.Funk. The first vitamin produced by
required in larger quantities are fermentation process using, Acetobacter
called macronutrients, whereas those bacteria is Vitamin C.
required in small quantities are called
micronutrients.
E ssential nutrients
cannot be synthesized by the body; Minerals
they have to be included in the diet. These are the inorganic chemical elements,
Macronutrients are lipids, carbohydrates, i.e., Ca, Fe, I, K, Mg, Na, P, S, etc needed
proteins and the micronutrients are for regulation of various physiological
vitamins and minerals. Water plays an functions. These can be classified into
important role in the metabolic processes major minerals (Na, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cl)
and prevents dehydration of the body. and others are trace minerals such as Fe,
Intake of too much of food or Cu, Zn, Co, Mn, I, and fluorine. Sodium
lesser amount of food than the basic ions are more abundant than any other
requirement is called malnutrition. A cation in the body fluids.
diet which can provide all the metabolic
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Table 5.1 Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamins Functions Symptoms of Deficiency
A (Retinol)/ Plays a vital role in visual Night blindness
Antixerophthalmic vitamin perception. (Nyctalopia), Xerophthalmia
Maintenance and growth of (drying of eyeballs),
epithelial tissue. Bitot’s spot in the cornea,
Dermatosis (dry and scaly
skin) and Keratomalacia
Atrophy of lacrymal glands
and reduction in tear
secretion
D (Calciferol)/ Antirachitic Promotes intestinal Rickets in children (softness
vitamin absorption of calcium and and deformities of bones and
phosphorus. bow legs and pigeon chest)
Formation of teeth and and Osteomalacia in adults
bones. (weak and fragile bones,
bent, deformed pelvis).
E (Tocopherol) / Antisterility Antioxidant Sterility in animals,
vitamin It keeps the skin healthy Ruptured red blood cells
by reducing the process of
ageing.
K Anti haemorrahagic Required for the synthesis of Defect in blood clotting
vitamin. prothrombin in the liver. called Haemorrhagic
manifestations.
Table 5.2 Water soluble vitamins

Vitamins Functions Symptoms of Deficiency
B1 (Thiamine) Involved in carbohydrate Beriberi: affects muscular, nervous and
metabolism. cardiovascular system
Act as a coenzyme
B2 (Riboflavin) Acts as coenzyme in Inflammation, soreness and fissures in the
oxidation and reduction corners of the mouth, lips and tongue.
reactions Loss of appetite.
Skin and eye disorder.
B3 (Pantothenic Acts as coenzyme A and is Gastrointestinal disorders, anaemia,

acid) essential for the metabolism Burning feet syndrome, etc.
of fats and carbohydrates
B4 (Choline) Precursor for acetylcholine Fatty liver.
B5 (Niacin / Derivatives of coenzymes Pellagra (4D Syndrome) characterised
Nicotinic acid) by dermatitis, diarrhoea and dementia
(mental deterioration) and death.
B6 (Pyridoxine) Haemoglobin formation, Dermatitis, convulsions, muscular
brain, heart and liver twitching and anaemia
activities
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B7 (Biotin) / Acts as a coenzyme in Dermatitis

Vit.H synthesis of fat, glycogen and
amino acids
B9 (Folic acid) It acts as a co-enzyme for Megaloblastic anaemia (large,
synthesis of nucleic acid immature, nucleated RBC in blood)
and essential for growth and
formation of RBC
B12 (Cobalamine) Promotes DNA synthesis. Pernicious anaemia (immature
Necessary for maturation of nucleated RBC without haemoglobin).
RBC and formation of myelin Causes nervous disorder.
sheath.
C (Ascorbic acid) Acts as an antioxidant. Scurvy (Sailor’s disease) characterized
Strengthens the immune by spongy and bleeding gums, falling
system. of teeth, fragile bones, delayed wound
Necessary for healthy gums healing etc. - Infantile scurvy)
and teeth.
Food adulterants cause harmful effects in the form of headaches,

palpitations, allergies, cancers and in addition reduces the quality
of food. Common adulterants are addition of citric acid to lemon
juice, papaya seeds to pepper, melamine to milk, vanillin for natural
vanillin, red dyes to chillis, lead chromate and lead tetraoxide to
turmeric powder, etc.,
5.6. Caloric value of energy. Fat has a caloric value of 9.45 Kcal
and a physiological fuel value of 9 Kcal per
carbohydrates, proteins
gram.
and fats
We obtain 50% energy from carbohydrates Many research
35% from fats and 15% from proteins. We findings have proven
require about 400 to 500 gm of carbohydrates, that usage of chemical
60 to 70 gm of fats and 65 to 75 gm of proteins preservatives and
per day. Balanced diet of each individual will artificial enhancers lead to highly
vary according to their age, gender, level of harmful effects. It includes heart
physical activity and others conditions such ailments, hypertension, infertility,
as pregnancy and lactation. gastrointestinal disorders, early puberty
Carbohydrates are sugar and starch. in girls, weakening of bones, damage
These are the major source of cellular fuel in organs like kidney and liver, chronic
which provides energy. The caloric value of obstructive pulmonary diseases,
carbohydrate is 4.1 Kcal per gram and its headache, allergies, asthma, skin rashes
physiological fuel value is 4 Kcal per gram. and even cancer. Remember that
nothing will beat and overtake the taste
Lipids are fats and derivatives of fats,
and safety of homemade foods. "East or
are also the best reserved food stored in
west home preparation is the best."
our body which is used for production of
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Proteins are source of amino acids of fullness of stomach. It may be due to

required for growth and repair of body
inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food
cells. They are stored in the body only poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.
to a certain extent large quantities are Constipation:
excreted as nitrogenous waste. The caloric In this condition, the faeces are retained
value and physiological fuel value of within the rectum because of irregular
one gram of protein are 5.65 Kcal and 4 bowel movement due to poor intake of fibre
Kcal respectively. According to ICMR in the diet and lack of physical activities.
(Indian Council of Medical Research and
WHO (World Health Organization), the Vomiting:
daily requirement of protein for an average It is reverse peristalsis. Harmful substances
Indian is 1gm per 1 kg body weight. and contaminated food from stomach are
ejected through the mouth. This action is
controlled by the vomit centre located in
5.7 N
utritional and the medulla oblongata. A feeling of nausea
digestive disorders precedes vomiting.
Intestinal tract is more prone to bacterial, Jaundice:
viral and parasitic worm infections. This It is the condition in which liver is affected
infection may cause inflammation of the and the defective liver fails to break down
inner lining of colon called colitis. The most haemoglobin and to remove bile pigments
common symptoms of colitis are rectal from the blood. Deposition of these
bleeding, abdominal cramps, and diarrhoea. pigments changes the colour of eye and skin
Protein energy malnutrition: (PEM) yellow. Sometimes, jaundice is caused due
Growing children require more amount of to hepatitis viral infections.
protein for their growth and development. Liver Cirrhosis:
Protein deficient diet during early stage Chronic disease of liver results in
of children may lead to protein energy degeneration and destruction of liver cells
malnutrition such as Marasmus and resulting in abnormal blood vessel and bile
Kwashiorkor. Symptoms are dry skin, duct leading to the formation of fibrosis. It
pot-belly, oedema in the legs and face, is also called deserted liver or scarred liver.
stunted growth, changes in hair colour, It is caused due to infection, consumption of
weakness and irritability. Marasmus is an poison, malnutrition and alcoholism.
acute form of protein malnutrition. This Gall Stones:
condition is due to a diet with inadequate Any alteration in the composition of the
carbohydrate and protein. Such children are bile can cause the formation of stones in
suffer from diarrhoea, body becomes lean the gall bladder. The stones are mostly
and weak (emaciated) with reduced fat and formed of crystallized cholesterol in the
muscle tissue with thin and folded skin. bile. The gall stone causes obstruction in the
Indigestion: cystic duct, hepatic duct and also hepato-
It is a digestive disorder in which the food pancreatic duct causing pain, jaundice and
is not properly digested leading to a feeling pancreatitis.
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Appendicitis: lining of the intestine is damaged by the

It is the inflammation of the pathogens, thereby the colon is unable to
vermiform appendix, leading absorb fluid. The abnormal frequency of
to severe abdominal pain. bowel movement and increased liquidity of
The treatment involves the the faecal discharge is known as diarrhoea.
removal of appendix by surgery. If treatment is Unless the condition is treated, dehydration
delayed the appendix may rupture and results can occur. Treatment is known as oral
in infection of the abdomen, called peritonitis. hydration therapy. This involves drinking
plenty of fluids – sipping small amounts of
Hiatus Hernia (Diaphragmatic Hernia):
water at a time to rehydrate the body.
It is a structural abnormality in which superior
part of the stomach p rotrudes slightly above the Peptic Ulcer:
diaphragm. The exact cause of hiatus hernias It refers to an eroded area of the tissue lining
(mucosa) in the stomach or duodenum.
is not known. In some people, injury or other
Duodenal ulcer occurs in people in the age
damage may weaken muscle tissue, by applying
group of 25 - 45 years. Gastric ulcer is more
too much pressure (repeatedly) on the muscles
common in persons above the age of 50 years.
around the stomach while coughing, vomiting,
Ulcer is mostly due to infections caused by
and straining during bowel movement
the bacterium Helicobacter pylori. It may
and lifting heavy object. Heart burn is also
also be caused due to uncontrolled usage of
common in those with a hiatus hernia. In this aspirin or certain antiinflammatory drugs.
condition, stomach contents travel back into Ulcer may also be caused due to smoking,
the oesophagus or even into oral cavity and alcohol, caffeine and psychological stress.
causes pain in the centre of the chest due to
the eroding nature of acidity ( Figure.5.10). Nobel Prize for the year 2005 was
awarded to Robin Warren and Barry
2HVRSKDJXV
Marshall for the discovery of Helicobacter
pylori which c auses peptic ulcer.
+HULQD
'LDSKUDJP
Obesity:
It is caused due to the storage of excess of
body fat in adipose tissue. It may induce
hypertension, atherosclerotic heart disease
6WRPDFK and diabetes. Obesity may be genetic or due to
excess intake of food, endocrine and metabolic
disorders. Degree of obesity is assessed by
body mass index (BMI). A normal BMI range
Figure 5.10 Hiatus hernia
for adult is 19-25 above 25 is considered as
Diarrhoea: obese. BMI is calculated as body weight in Kg,
It is the most common gastrointestinal divided by the square of body height in meters.
disorder worldwide. It is sometimes caused For example, a 50 Kg person with a height of
by bacteria or viral infections through food 160 cms would have a BMI of 19.5.
2
or water. When the colon is infected, the That is BMI = 50 /(1.6) = 19.5
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The human digestive system

Digestion begins as
D is pretty amazing. Turning the food we eat Mouth:
1
ssoon
o as food enters into fuel the body uses for energy and to help us
into the mouth.
in grow. However sometimes even small changes in Three pairs of salivary glands
secrets saliva.
Oesophagus:
2 our everyday routine can get in the way of
healthy digestion.
Enzymes in the saliva mix with
food particles and start breaking
them down while chewing.
The oesophagus is a tube
connecting the mouth to the Digestive system associated
stomach. After swallow, the
food travels down through the Do you
disorders are gastritis, bloating,
diarrhoea, constipation, heartburn Cardiac sphincter:
3
esophagus to the stomach. know? and acid reflux, jaundice, gall stones
obesity, etc...
The Cardiac sphincter is where
Do you know?
The oesophagus takes your the oesophagus meets the
chewed food and squeezes it stomach. This group of muscles
downward using muscle acts like a gate to prevent
contractions called peristalsis. stomach acid from going back up
(refluxing) into the oesophagus.
Liver:
5
The liver secrete bile. Bile helps Stomach:
4
the small intestine by breaking
downs fats and making them 2 Gastric juice contain HCl and
easier to absorb. gastric enzymes.
Gall bladder stores
bile secretion. 6 3
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) helps to
digest proteins and other foods
Do you know? The liver is also by pepsin enzymes while
an important detoxification
organ. It helps to filter and
5 minimizing harmful bacteria.
elimate harmful toxins from
our body.
4 7
8 Pancreas
Small intestine:
6 The pancreas is connected to the
Most of the nutrients form duodenum where three important
food are digested digestive enzmyes are made:
and absorbed in the
small intestine. Protease Lipase Amylase
Do you know? 7 Helps
digest
Helps Helps digest
digest carbohydrates
Small intestine is lined protein
with mucosa, a layer of fats
tissue that helps to
absorb nutrients, Fun fact:
produce digestive There are two kinds of fibre, and
enzymes, and make
mucus to protect the 8 both support a healthy colon.
delicate intestinal wall. Soluble Insolube fibre
Large intestine (Colon):
9 fibre soaks
up toxins
(”roughage”) moves
bulk through the
and waste intestine to help
Most of the bacteria living in the with regular
in the digestive tract digestive bowel movements.
can be found in the large
intestine. This is where 9 system
the digestive process
comes to an end.
Do you Up to 70% of our natural immune

There are more then know? system support is in the digestive tract.
100 trillion
bacterial cells in your body. Here are 5 simple things you can do every day
to maintain a healthy, balanced gut:
The digestive tract is home
to a natural balance of good,
bad, and neutral bacteria.
Do you know?
Good bacteria, also called probiotics,
Eat a Drink Stay Manage Take a
support overall digestive and healthy plenty phyically stress daily probiotic
immune health. diet of water active supplement
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Summary whereas those required in small quantities

are called micronutrients. Essential
The digestive system of human consists
nutrients cannot be synthesized by the
of the mouth (oral cavity), pharynx,
body; they have to be included in the diet.
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
Macronutrients are lipids, carbohydrates,
intestine, rectum and anus. The accessory
proteins and the micronutrients are vitamins
digestive glands include the salivary
glands, the liver (with gall bladder) and the and minerals. Water plays an important role
pancreas. The process of digestion involves in the metabolic processes and prevents
intake of the food (Ingestion), breakdown of dehydration of the body.
the food into micromolecules (Digestion), Intestinal tract is more prone to bacterial,
absorption of these molecules into the viral and parasitic worm infections.
blood stream (Absorption), the absorbed Such infection, called colitis, may couse
substances becoming components of cells inflammation of the inner lining of the colon.
(Assimilation) and elimination of the Growing children require more protein
undigested substances (Egestion).
for their growth and development. Protein
Food comprises of macronutrients and deficient diet during early stage of children
micronutrients. The nutrients required in may lead to protein energy malnutrition
larger quantities are called macronutrients, such as Marasmus and Kwashiorkor.
Alimentary canal faces a conflict between the need of nutrient absorption

and to keep our intestinal tract free from pathogenic bacteria and virus.
About 7 litres of digestive juice are poured into the alimentary canal and
are reabsorbed each day. If this does not happen the body gets rapidly
dehydrated and may lead to reduction in the blood pressure.
Activity
Test for Starch: Add a few drops of iodine to the given warm food sample. If any
starch is present in the given food sample it will change the colour of the iodine
from brown to blue-black.
Test for protein: Mix the given food sample with 3mL of water in a test tube. Shake
the mixture, and then add a few drops of Biuret solution. If protein is present, the
colour of the solution will change to purple.
Test for glucose: Mix the given food sample with 3mL of water in a test tubes. Shake
the mixture, and then add a few drops of Benedict’s solution. Keep the test tube in
a water bath and heat carefully. If glucose is present, the colour of the solution will
change from blue to green to brick red depending upon the amount of glucose.
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Evaluation 6. Which one is incorrectly matched?

a. Pepsin – stomach
1. Choose the incorrect
b. Renin – liver
sentence from the
c. Trypsin – intestine
following:
d. Ptyalin – mouth
a. Bile juice emulsifies
the fat. 7. Absorption of glycerol, fatty acids and
b. Chyme is a digestive acidic food monoglycerides takes place by
in stomach. a. Lymph vessels within villi
c. Pancreatic juice converts lipid
b. Walls of stomach
into fatty acid and glycerol.
d. Enterokinase stimulates the c. Colon
secretion of pancreatic juice. d. Capillaries within villi
2. What is chyme….?
8. First step in digestion of fat is
a. The process of conversion of fat into
small droplets. a. Emulsification
b. The process of conversion of micelles b. Enzyme action
substances of glycerol into fatty droplet. c. Absorption by lacteals
c. The process of preparation of d. Storage in adipose tissue
incompletely digested acidic food 9. Enterokinase takes part in the
through gastric juice. conversion of
d. The process of preparation of a. Pepsinogen into pepsin
completely digested liquid food in
b. Trypsinogen into trypsin
midgut.
c. Protein into polypetide
3. Which of the following hormones
stimulate the production of pancreatic d. Caseinogen into casein
juice and bicarbonate? 10. Which of the following combinations
a. Angiotensin and epinephrine are not matched?
b. Gastrin and insulin a. Vitamin D - Rickets
c. Cholecystokinin and secretin b. Thiamine - Beriberi
d. Insulin and glucagon c. Vitamin K - Sterility
4. The sphincter of Oddi guards
d. Niacin - Pellagra
a. Hepatopancreatic duct
11. Which of the following combinations
b. Common bile duct
are not matched?
c. Pancreatic duct
Column I Column II
d. Cystic duct
5. In small intestine, active absorption a. Bilirubin and (i) intestinal
biliverdin juice
occurs in case of
a. Glucose b. Amino acids b. Hydrolysis of starch (ii) Amylases
c. Na+ d. All the above c. Digestion of fat (iii) Lipases
d. Salivary gland (iv) Parotid
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12.
Match column I with column II and 15. Which of the following is not the
choose the correct option function of liver?
Column – I Column – II a. Production of insulin
(P) Small (i) Largest factory b. Detoxification
intestine c. Storage of glycogen
(Q) Pancreas (ii) A bsorption of d. Production of bile
Water
16. Assertion : (A) Large intestine also shows
(R) Liver (iii) Carrying
the presence of villi like small intestine.
electrolytic
solution Reason: (B) Absorption of water takes
(S) Colon (iv) D igestion and place in large intestine.
absorption a. Both A and B are true and B is the
a. ( P-iv ) ( Q -iii ) ( R- i ) ( S – ii ) correct explanation of A
b. ( P-iii ) ( Q -ii ) ( R- i ) ( S – iv ) b. Both A and B are true but B is not
c. ( P-iv ) ( Q -iii ) ( R- ii ) ( S – i) the correct explanation of A
d. ( P-ii ) ( Q -iv ) ( R- iii ) ( S – i ) c. A is true but B is false
d. A is false but B is true
13.
Match column I with column II and
choose the correct option 17.
Which of the following is not true
regarding intestinal villi?
Column – I Column – II
(P) Small intestine (i) 23 cm a. They possess microvilli.
(Q) Large intestine (ii) 4 meter b. They increase the surface area.
(R) Oesophagus (iii) 12.5 cm c. They are supplied with capillaries
(S) Pharynx (iv) 1.5 meter and the lacteal vessels.
d. They only participate in digestion
a. ( P-iv ) ( Q -ii ) ( R- i ) ( S – iii )
of fats.
b. ( P-ii ) ( Q -iv ) ( R- i ) ( S – iii )
18. Why are villi present in the intestine
c. ( P-i ) ( Q -iii ) ( R- ii ) ( S – iv )
and not in the stomach?
d. ( P-iii ) ( Q -i ) ( R- ii ) ( S – iv )
19. Bile juice contains no digestive enzymes,
14.
Match column I with column II and yet it is important for digestion. Why?
choose the correct option
20. List the chemical changes that starch
Column – I Column – II molecule undergoes from the time it
(P) Lipase (i) Starch reaches the small intestine.
(Q) Pepsin (ii) Cassein 21. How do proteins differ from fats in their
(R) Renin (iii) Protein energy value and their role in the body?
(S) Ptyalin (iv) Lipid 22. Digestive secretions are secreted only
a. ( P-iv ) ( Q -ii ) ( R- i ) ( S – iii ) when needed. Discuss.
b. ( P-iii ) ( Q -iv ) ( R- ii ) ( S – i )
c. ( P-iv ) ( Q -iii ) ( R- ii ) ( S – i )
d. ( P-iii ) ( Q -ii ) ( R- iv ) ( S – i )
91

Concept Map

Digestive system
Alimentary canal Digestive

glands
Small intestine-bears Salivary

Mouth Oesophagus Pharynx Large intestine Anus glands
Four layers Stomach Bruner’s gland & crypts
of leiberkuhn
Buccal cavity Dilations Liver
Gastric glands Secrete
Serosa succus called
Caecum haustra
entericus Colon
Pancreas
92
Mechanical Chemical Cardiac portion
Muscularis digestion digestion Duodenum
Ascending colon
Vermiform
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By By appendix
Fundic portion Transverse colon
Sub-mucosa Salivary Jejunum
Chewing teeth enzymes
and tongue. (Ptyalin) Descending colon
Pyloric portion
Mucosa Ileum
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
17/12/2021 10:53:06
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ICT Corner
Digestion begins as
D
ssoon
Oesophagus:
o as food enters
into the mouth.
in
2
The human digestive system
is pretty amazing. Turning the food we eat
into fuel the body uses for energy and to help us
grow. However sometimes even small changes in
our everyday routine can get in the way of
healthy digestion.
Mouth:
Three pairs of salivary glands

secrets saliva.
Enzymes in the saliva mix with
1
food particles and start breaking

them down while chewing.
Let's Digest
The oesophagus is a tube
connecting the mouth to the Digestive system associated
stomach. After swallow, the
food travels down through the Do you
disorders are gastritis, bloating,
diarrhoea, constipation, heartburn Cardiac sphincter:
3
esophagus to the stomach. know? and acid reflux, jaundice, gall stones
obesity, etc...
The Cardiac sphincter is where
Do you know?
The oesophagus takes your the oesophagus meets the
chewed food and squeezes it stomach. This group of muscles
downward using muscle acts like a gate to prevent
contractions called peristalsis. stomach acid from going back up
(refluxing) into the oesophagus.
Liver:
5
The liver secrete bile. Bile helps Stomach:
4
the small intestine by breaking
downs fats and making them 2 Gastric juice contain HCl and
easier to absorb. gastric enzymes.
Gall bladder stores
bile secretion. 6 3
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) helps to
digest proteins and other foods
Do you know? The liver is also by pepsin enzymes while
an important detoxification
organ. It helps to filter and
5 minimizing harmful bacteria.
elimate harmful toxins from
our body.
4 7
8 Pancreas
Let’s explore the

Small intestine:
6 The pancreas is connected to the
Most of the nutrients form duodenum where three important
food are digested digestive enzmyes are made:
and absorbed in the
small intestine. Protease Lipase Amylase
Do you know? 7 Helps
digest
Helps Helps digest
digest carbohydrates
Small intestine is lined protein fats
with mucosa, a layer of
tissue that helps to
absorb nutrients, Fun fact:
produce digestive There are two kinds of fibre, and
activity to know
enzymes, and make
mucus to protect the 8 both support a healthy colon.
delicate intestinal wall. Soluble Insolube fibre
Large intestine (Colon):
9 fibre soaks
up toxins
(”roughage”) moves
bulk through the
and waste intestine to help
Most of the bacteria living in the with regular
in the digestive tract digestive bowel movements.
can be found in the large
intestine. This is where 9 system
the digestive process
comes to an end.
process of digestion.
Do you Up to 70% of our natural immune
There are more then know? system support is in the digestive tract.
100 trillion
bacterial cells in your body. Here are 5 simple things you can do every day
to maintain a healthy, balanced gut:
The digestive tract is home
to a natural balance of good,
bad, and neutral bacteria.
Do you know?
Good bacteria, also called probiotics,
Eat a Drink Stay Manage Take a
support overall digestive and healthy plenty phyically stress daily probiotic
immune health. diet of water active supplement
Step – 1
Use the URL to open the ‘Interactive Digestive System’ page. Click the ‘View
Digestive System’.
Step – 2
Roll the mouse over the interactive diagram and place the cursor on any of the parts
to learn about the parts.
Step – 3
Click the ‘Explore the digestive system’ to observe the process of digestion right from
the mouth to the anus.
Step – 4
During the exploration, questions will be asked and only correct answers will lead you
to proceed. Answer all the questions and finish the process of digestion.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Explore your digestive system’sURL:
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/natural-history/
explore-your-digestive-system

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UNIT III Chapter 6
Respiration
Chapter Outline
6.1 Respiratory function

6.2 Respiratory organs in various organisms
6.3 Mechanism of breathing
6.4 Exchange of gases
6.5 Transport of gases
6.6 Regulation of respiration
6.7 Problems in oxygen transport
6.8 Disorders of respiratory system Exercise increases the rate and depth of breathing
and supplies extra oxygen to the muscles and
6.9 Effects of smoking removes more CO2 from the tissues.
Learning Objectives: We inhale and exhale air. Why is breathing
so important for life? What happens when
• Learns to describe we breathe? Why energy is required for the
the gross structure of body to perform various life processes?
the human gaseous Where does the energy come from? We
exchange system eat food for energy. Though the above
• Observes and raised questions look disconnected, we
draws the tissues should know that the process of breathing
and organs associated with the is connected to the process of release of
respiratory system energy from food. Oxygen is utilized by the
• Understands the process of organisms to breakdown the biomolecules
gaseous exchange and transport of like glucose and to derive energy. During
respiratory gases this breakdown carbondioxide, which is
• Knows the problems associated a harmful gas is also released. It is very
with oxygen transport obvious that oxygen has to be provided
to cells continuously and the CO2 to be
• Gains knowledge on the ill–effects
released immediately by the cells. So the
of smoking.
need of a respiratory system is essential
for life.
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We have discussed in the previous chapter In animals like sponges, coelenterates

how food provides energy for growth and and flatworms exchange of gases takes
repair of tissues. As mentioned earlier place through the body surface by simple
along with food, oxygen is necessary for diffusion. Earthworms use their moist
breakdown of glucose to energy. In this skin, whereas insects have tracheal tubes.
chapter we shall discuss the respiratory Gills are used as respiratory organs in most
organs of human, the mechanism of of the aquatic Arthropods and Molluscs.
breathing, exchange and transport of Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas
gases and a few respiratory disorders. amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
The term respiration refers to the have well vascularised lungs. Frogs spend
exchange of oxygen and carbondioxide most of their time in water and also use
between environment and cells of our their moist skin for respiration along with
body where organic nutrients are broken lungs and bucco pharynx
down enzymatically to release energy.
6.2.1 Human Respiratory System
6.1 Respiratory functions The respiratory system includes external
The five primary functions of the nostrils, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
respiratory system are – trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and lungs
which contain alveoli (Figure 6.1). The
i. To exchange O2 and CO2 between
parts starting from the external nostrils
the atmosphere and the blood.
up to the terminal bronchioles constitute
ii. To maintain homeostatic regulation
the conducting zone, whereas the alveoli
of body pH.
and the ducts are called the respiratory
iii. To protect us from inhaled
zone. The parts of the conducting zone,
pathogens and pollutants. humidifies and warms the incoming air.
iv. To maintain the vocal cords
In human beings, air enters the upper
for normal communication
respiratory tract through the external
(vocalization).
nostrils. The air passing through the
v. To remove the heat produced
nostrils is filtered by fine hairs and mucus
during cellular respiration.
lining the passage. The external nostrils
lead to the nasal chamber which opens into
6.2 Respiratory organs in
the nasopharynx which opens through
various organisms the glottis of the larynx region into the
Different animals have different organs trachea. The ciliated epithelial cells lining
for exchange of gases, depending upon the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles
their habitats and levels of organization. secrete mucus. Mucus membrane lining
The amount of dissolved oxygen is very the airway contains goblet cells which
low in water compared to the amount of secrete mucus, a slimy material rich in
oxygen in the air. So the rate of breathing glycoprotein. Microorganisms and dust
in aquatic organisms is much faster than particles attach in the mucus films and
land animals. are carried upwards to pass down the
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meant for gaseous

(SLJORWWLV exchange (Figure 6.2,
/DU\Q[ 6.3). The diffusion
7UDFKHD
membrane of alveolus is
made up of three layers
%URQFKXV – the thin squamous
3OHXUDO
PHPEUDQHV epithelial cells of the
&XWHQG alveoli, the endothelium
RIULE
+HDUW $OYHROL of the alveolar capillaries
/XQJ
3OHXUDOIOXLG and the basement
'LDSKUDJP substance
found in
%URQFKLROH
between them. The thin
squamous epithelial
Figure 6.1 The Human respiratory system cells of the alveoli are
composed of Type I and
gullet during normal swallowing. During Type II cells. Type I cells are very thin
swallowing a thin elastic flap called so that gases can diffuse rapidly through
epiglottis prevents the food from entering them. Type II cells are thicker, synthesize
into the larynx and avoids choking of and secrete a substance called Surfactant.
food.
The lungs are light spongy tissues
The trachea is semiflexible tube
enclosed in the thoracic cavity surrounded
supported by multiple cartilaginous rings
by an airtight space. The thoracic cavity is
which extends up to the midthoracic
bound dorsally by the vertebral column
cavity and at the level of the 5th thoracic
and ventrally by the sternum, laterally by
vertebra where it divides into right and
the ribs and on the lower side by the dome
left primary bronchi, one bronchus to each
shaped diaphragm.
lung. Within the lungs the bronchi divides
The lungs are covered by double
repeatedly into secondary and tertiary
walled pleural membrane containing a
bronchi and further divides into terminal
several layers of elastic connective tissues
bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles.
and capillaries, which encloses the pleural
Bronchi have ‘C’ shaped curved
fluid. Pleural fluid reduces friction when
cartilage plates to ensure that the air
the lungs expand and contract.
passage does not collapse or burst as the
air pressure changes during breathing. Characteristic features of respiratory
The b ronchioles are without cartilaginous surface:
rings and have rigidity that prevent them
• surface area must be very large and richly
from collapsing but are surrounded by
supplied with blood vessels
smooth muscle which contracts or relaxes
to a djust the diameter of these airways. • should be extremely thin and kept moist
The fine respiratory bronchioles • should be in direct contact with the

terminate into highly vascularised thin
environment
walled pouch like air sacs called alveoli • should be permeable to respiratory gases
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7UDFKHD
&DUWLODJHULQJV SURFACTANTS
&DUWLODJHSODWHV
are the thin non–
cellular films
/HIWSULPDU\EURQFKXV made of protein
5RRWRIOXQJ
and phospholipids covering the
alveolar membrane. The surfactant
lowers the surface tension in the
6HFRQGDU\EURQFKXV
alveoli and prevents the lungs
from collapsing. It also prevents
7HUWLDU\
EURQFKL
pulmonary oedema. Premature
6PDOOHU Babies have low levels of surfactant
EURQFKL
%URQFKLROHV
in the alveoli may develop the new
5HVSLUDWRU\
born respiratory distress syndrome
7HUPLQDO
Figure 6.2 EURQFKLROH
EURQFKLROH (NRDS) because the synthesis of
The Human Respiratory tract
$OYHROLLQ
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surfactants begins only after the
OREXOH 25th week of gestation.
3XOPRQDU\
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$OYHROXV
6.3 Mechanism of breathing
GHR[\JHQDWHG
EORRG The movement of air between the atmosphere
%URQFKLROH and the lungs is known as ventilation or
breathing. Inspiration and expiration are the
two phases of breathing. Inspiration is the
3XOPRQDU\
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movement of atmospheric air into the lungs
R[\JHQDWHG and expiration is the movement of alveolar
EORRG
&DSLOODULHV air that diffuse out of the lungs. (Figure 6.4)
VXUURXQGLQJ
DOYHROL
Lungs do not contain muscle fibres but
Figure 6.3 Structure of alveoli expands and contracts by the movement of
the ribs and diaphragm. The diaphragm is
The steps involved in respiration are a sheet of tissue which separates the thorax
from the abdomen. In a relaxed state, the
i. The exchange of air between the
atmosphere and the lungs. diaphragm is domed shaped. Ribs are moved
by the intercostal muscles. External and
ii. The exchange of O2 and CO2
internal intercostal muscles found between
between the lungs and the blood.
the ribs and the diaphragm helps in creating
iii. Transport of O2 and CO2 by the pressure gradients. Inspiration occurs if the
blood. pressure inside the lungs (intrapulmonary
iv. Exchange of gases between the pressure) is less than the atmospheric
blood and the cells. pressure likewise expiration takes place
v. Uptake of O2 by the cells for various when the pressure within the lungs is higher
activities and the release of CO2. than the atmospheric pressure.
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Rib cage
Air gets Air
Rib cage inhaled. exhaled.
smaller.
expands.
Lung
Diaphragm
Inspiration Expiration
Figure 6.4 Mechanism of breathing
Events in inspiration and expiration

Inspiration Expiration
Respiratory centre initiates the stimuli Respiratory centre terminates the stimuli
during inspiration. during expiration.
The diaphragm and exspiratory muscles The diaphragm relax but internal
contract.
intercostal muscles contract.
The thoracic volume increases as the

chest wall expands. The thoracic volume decreases as the chest
wall contracts.
The intra pulmonary pressure is
reduced. The intra pulmonary pressure is increased.
The alveolar pressure decreases than The alveolar pressure increases than the
the atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure.
Air is taken inside due to expansion of Air is sent out due to the contraction of
alveoli. alveoli.
Air flows into the alveoli until the alveolar

Air flows out of the alveoli until the alveolar
pressure equalizes the atmospheric
pressure equalizes the atmospheric
pressure and the alveoli get inflated.
pressure and the alveoli get deflated.
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Inspiraton is initiated by the contraction Respiratory volumes: (Figure 6.5)

of the diaphragm muscles and external
• Tidal Volume (TV) Tidal volume is the
intercostal muscles, which pulls the ribs
amount of air inspired or expired with
and sternum upwards and outwards and each normal breath. It is approximately
increases the volume of the thoracic 500 mL., i.e. a normal human adult can
chamber in the dorso–ventral axis, forcing inspire or expire approximately 6000
the lungs to expand the pulmonary volume. to 8000mL of air per minute. During
The increase in pulmonary volume and vigorous exercise, the tidal volume is
decrease in the intrapulmonary pressure about 4–10 times higher.
forces the fresh air from outside to enter the
• Inspiratory Reserve volume (IRV)
air passages into the lungs to equalize the
Additional volume of air a person can
pressure. This process is called inspiration.
inspire by forceful inspiration is called
Relaxation of the diaphragm allows the Inspiratory Reserve Volume. The
diaphragm and sternum to return to its normal value is 2500–3000 mL.
dome shape and the internal intercostal
• Expiratory Reserve volume (ERV)
muscles contract, pulling the ribs
Additional volume of air a person
downward reducing the thoracic volume
can forcefully exhale by forceful
and pulmonary volume. This results in an
expiration is called Expiratory
increase in the intrapulmonary pressure
Reserve Volume. The normal value is
slightly above the atmospheric p ressure
1000–1100 mL.
causing the expulsion of air from the lungs. • Residual Volume (RV) The volume
This process is called expiration. of air remaining in the lungs after a
On an average, a healthy human breathes forceful expiration. It is approximately
12–16 times/minute. An instrument called 1100–1200 mL.
Spirometer is used to measure the volume
Respiratory capacities:
of air involved in breathing movements for
clinical assessment of a person’s pulmonary • Vital capacity (VC) the maximum
function. volume of air that can be moved out
during a single breath following a
You are at high level in a mountain maximal inspiration. A person first
above the sea level. Suddenly you get inspires maximally then expires
palpitation and nausea. What condition maximally. VC = ERV+TV+IRV
are you suffering from? What are the
other symptoms for this disease and how • Inspiratory capacity (IC) The total
can it be reduced? volume of air a person can inhale
after normal expiration. It includes
tidal volume and inspiratory reserve
6.3.1 R espiratory volumes and volume. IC = TV+IRV
c apacities
• Expiratory capacity (EC) The total
The volume of air present in various volume of air a person can exhale
phases of respiration is denoted as after normal inspiration. It includes
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Inspiratory
Inspiratory capacity
reserve volume
(IRV)
Vital
Resting tidal capacity
volume
(VT = 500 mL)
Volume (mL)
Expiratory
reserve volume
(ERV)
Functional
Residual residual
volume capacity
Minimal volume
(30-120mL)
Figure 6.5 Lung volumes and capacity

tidal volume and expiratory reserve
Why do some people snore? – Breathing
volume. EC=TV+ERV
with a hoarse sound during sleep is
• Total Lung Capacity (TLC) The total caused by the vibration of the soft palate.
volume of air which the lungs can Snoring is caused by a partially closed
accommodate after forced inspiration upper air way (nose and throat) which
is called Total Lung Capacity. This becomes too narrow for enough air to
travel through the lungs. This makes
includes the vital capacity and the

the surrounding tissues to vibrate and
residual volume. It is approximately
produces the snoring sound.
6000mL. TLC=VC+RV
• Minute Respiratory Volume The Healthy lungs contain large amounts
amount of air that moves into the of elastic connective tissue around
respiratory passage per minute is the alveoli, containing elastin, which
called minute respiratory volume. makes the lung tissue elastic. People
Normal TV = 500mL; Normal with emphysema and bronchitis have
respiratory rate = 12 times/minute difficulty in exhaling because the
enzyme elastase destroys the elastin
Therefore, minute respiratory
around the alveoli and reduces the
volume = 6 Litres/minute (for a normal elasticity of the lungs.
healthy man).
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Dead space daltons and contains four atoms of

Some of the inspired air never reaches the iron, each of which can combine with a
gas exchange areas but fills the respiratory molecule of oxygen.
passages where exchange of gases does not Methaemoglobin
occur. This air space is called dead space. If the iron component of the haem is in
Dead space is not involved in gaseous the ferric state, than the normal ferrous
exchange. It amounts to approximately state, it is called methaemoglobin.
150mL. Methaemoglobin does not bind with O2.
Normally RBC contains less than 1%
6.4 Exchange of gases methaemoglobin.
The primary site for the exchange ,QVSLUHGDLU ([SLUHGDLU
32 PP+J
of gases is the alveoli. The uptake 32 PP+J
3&2 PP+J 3&2 PP+J
of O2 and the release of CO2 occur
between the blood and tissues by
simple diffusion driven by partial
pressure gradient of O2 and CO2. $OYHRODUDLU
32 PP+J
Partial pressure is the pressure 3&2 PP+J
contributed by an individual
gas in a mixture of gases. It is
represented as pO2 for o xygen and &2 2
pCO2 for carbon–dioxide. Due to 3XOPRQDU\ 3XOPRQDU\

DUWHULHV YHLQV
pressure gradients, O2 from the 32 PP+J 32 PP+J
3&2 PP+J 3&2 PP+J
alveoli enters into the blood and
reaches the tissues. CO2 enters
into the blood from the tissues and
reaches alveoli for elimination.
As the solubility of CO2 is 20–25
times higher than that of O2, the
partial pressure of CO2 is much 6\VWHPLF +HDUW 6\VWHPLF
YHLQV DUWHULHV
higher than that of O2 (Table 6.1 32 PP+J 32 PP+J
3&2 PP+J 3&2 PP+J
and Figure 6.6).
(Carrying (Carrying
deoxygenated oxygenated
Respiratory pigments blood) blood)
&2 2
Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin belongs to the class
of conjugated protein. The iron 7LVVXHV
containing pigment portion haem 32 PP+J
3&2 PP+J
constitutes only 4% and the rest
colourless protein globin belongs Figure 6.6 Exchange of gases at the alveolus and
to histone class. Haemoglobin the tissue with blood and transport of oxygen
has a molecular weight of 68,000 and carbondioxide
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Partial pressure mm Hg
Respiratory
gases Atmospheric Deoxygenated Oxygenated
Alveoli Tissues
air Blood blood
O2 159 104 40 95 40
CO2 0.3 40 45 40 45
Table 6.1 Partial pressure of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide (in mmHg) in comparison to
those gases in the atmosphere
6.5 Transport of gases Breathing through nose is healthier

6.5.1 Transport of oxygen than through mouth– Why?
Molecular oxygen is carried in blood in oxygen. In the alveoli high pO 2, low
two ways bound to haemoglobin within
pCO 2, low temperature and less H +
the red blood cells and dissolved in
concentration, favours the formation of
plasma. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water,
so only 3% of the oxygen is transported oxyhaemoglobin, whereas in the tissues
in the dissolved form. 97% of oxygen low pO2, high pCO 2, high H + and high
binds with haemoglobin in a reversible temperature favours the dissociation of
manner to form oxyhaemoglobin oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin.
(HbO 2). The rate at which haemoglobin A sigmoid curve (S–shaped) is
binds with O 2 is regulated by the partial
obtained when percentage saturation
pressure of O 2. Each haemoglobin
of haemoglobin with oxygen is plotted
carries maximum of four molecules of
against pO2. This curve is called
oxygenhaemoglobin dissociation
3HUFHQWDJHVDWXUDWLRQRIKDHPRJORELQZLWKR[\JHQ
curve (Figure 6.7). This

S–shaped curve has a steep slope
for pO2 values between 10 and

50mmHg and then flattens b etween
70 and 100 mm Hg.

Under normal physiological
conditions, every 100mL of

oxygenated blood can deliver
about 5mL of O 2 to the t issues.

6.5.2 T
ransport of
Carbon–dioxide

Blood transports CO2 from the
3DUWLDOSUHVVXUHRIR[\JHQPP+J
tissue cells to the lungs in three
Figure 6.7 Oxygen dissociation curve ways
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i. Dissolved in plasma About Bohr effect and Haldane effect

7 – 10% of CO2 is transported in a Increase in pCO2 and decrease in pH
dissolved form in the plasma. decrease the affinity of haemoglobin for
ii. Bound to haemoglobin About oxygen and shifts the oxyhaemoglobin
20 – 25% of dissolved CO2 is dissociation curve to the right and
bound and carried in the RBCs as facilitates unloading of oxygen from
carbaminohaemoglobin (Hb CO2) hemoglobin in the tissue. This effect of
CO2 + Hb Hb CO2 pCO2 and pH on the oxyhaemoglobin
iii. As bicarbonate ions in plasma dissociation curve is called the Bohr
about 70% of CO2 is transported as effect.
bicarbonate ions The Haldane effect, on the other hand
describes how oxygen concentrations
This is influenced by pCO2 and the
determines hemoglobin’s affinity for
degree of haemoglobin oxygenation.
carbon dioxide. The amount of carbon
RBCs contain a high concentration of
dioxide transported in blood is remarkably
the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, whereas
affected by the degree of oxygenation of
small amounts of carbonic anhydrase is
the blood. The lower the partial pressure
present in the plasma.
of O2 lower is the affinity of haemoglobin
At the tissues the pCO2 is high due to saturation with oxygen hence more CO2
catabolism and diffuses into the blood is carried in the blood. This phenomenon
to form HCO3– and H+ ions. When CO2 is called Haldane effect. This effects CO2
diffuses into the RBCs, it combines with exchanges in both the tissues and lungs.
water forming carbonic acid (H2CO3) In the lungs the process is reversed as
catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. the blood moves through the pulmonary
Carbonic acid is unstable and dissociates capillaries, its pCO2 declines from
into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. 45mm Hg to 40mm Hg. For this to occur
Carbonic anhydrase facilitates the carbondioxide is freed from HCO3- ions
reaction in both directions. and Cl- ions moves in to the plasma and
CO2 + H2O carbonic anhydrase H2CO3 reenters the RBC and binds with H+ to
form carbonic acid which dissociates into
H2CO3 carbonic anhydrase HCO3– + H+ CO2 and water. This CO2 diffuses along
The HCO3– moves quickly from the RBCs its partial gradient from the blood to the
into the plasma, where it is carried to the alveoli (Figure 6.8).
lungs. At the alveolar site where pCO2
is low, the reaction is reversed leading 6.6 Regulation of Respiration
to the formation of CO2 and water. Thus
A specialised respiratory centre present
CO2 trapped as HCO3– at the tissue level
in the medulla oblongata of the hind
is transported to the alveoli and released
brain called respiratory rhythm centre
out as CO2. Every 100mL of deoxygenated
is responsible for this regulation.
blood delivers 4mL of CO2 to the alveoli
Pneumotaxic centre present in pons varoli
for elimination.
region of the brain moderates the function
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&HOO
PHWDEROLVP
&2
SURGXFHG &2
&DSLOODU\
HQGRWKHOLXP &2 3XOPRQDU\
&2
FDSLOODU\
&2+2 &2+2
&DUERQLF &DUERQLF
5HGEORRG DQK\GUDVH DQK\GUDVH
FHOO +&2 +&2
+&2 +o+E
±
+&2 +m+E
±
± ±
+&2 +&2
± ±
&O &O
Figure 6.8 Chloride shift mechanism
of the respiratory rhythm centre to ensure the atmospheric pressure and partial
normal breathing. The chemosensitive pressure of oxygen are lowered, the
area found close to the rhythm centre is individual responds with symptoms
highly sensitive to CO2 and H+. And H+ of acute mountain sickness (AMS)–
are eliminated out by respiratory process. headache, shortness of breath, nausea and
Receptors associated with the aortic arch dizziness due to poor binding of O2 with
and carotid artery send necessary signals haemoglobin. When the person moves on
to the rhythm centre for remedial action. a long–term basis to mountains from sea
The role of O2 is insignificant in the level, the body begins to make respiratory
regulation of respiratory rhythm. and haematopoietic adjustments.
To overcome this situation kidneys
Particulate matter PM 2.5 in the air
accelerate production of the hormone
is increasing day by day which causes
erythropoietin, which stimulates the bone
respiratory illness. Central Pollution
marrow to produce more RBCs.
Control Board (CPCB) reports that the
quality of air is not good due to soot and When a person descends deep into
smoke. So some cities in India are using the sea, the pressure in the surrounding
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) as fuel. water increases which causes the lungs
to decrease in volume. This decrease in
volume increases the partial pressure of
the gases within the lungs. This effect can
6.7 Problems in Oxygen be beneficial, because it tends to drive
transport additional oxygen into the circulation,
When a person travels quickly from sea but this benefit also has a risk, the
level to elevations above 8000ft, where increased pressure can also drive nitrogen
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gas into the circulation. This increase Asthma

in blood nitrogen content can lead to It is characterized by narrowing and
a condition called nitrogen narcosis. inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles
When the diver ascends to the surface and difficulty in breathing. Common
too quickly a condition called ‘bends’ allergens for asthma are dust, drugs, pollen
or decompression sickness occurs and grains, certain food items like fish, prawn
nitrogen comes out of solution while and certain fruits etc.
still in the blood forming bubbles. Small Emphysema
bubbles in the blood are not harmful, Emphysema is chronic breathlessness caused
but large bubbles can lodge in small
by gradual breakdown of the thin walls of
capillaries, blocking blood flow or can
the alveoli decreasing the total surface area
press on nerve endings. Decompression
of a gaseous exchange. i.e., widening of the
sickness is associated with pain in joints
alveoli is called emphysema. The major
and muscles and neurological problems
cause for this disease is cigarette smoking,
including stroke. The risk of nitrogen
which reduces the respiratory surface of the
narcosis and bends is common in scuba
alveolar walls.
divers.
During carbon–dioxide poisoning, the Bronchitis
demand for oxygen increases. As the O2 level The bronchi when it gets inflated due to
in the blood decreases it leads to suffocation pollution smoke and cigarette smoking,
and the skin turns bluish black. causes bronchitis. The symptoms are cough,
shortness of breath and sputum in the lungs.
Allergy is caused by Pneumonia
allergens. When we Inflammation of the lungs due to infection
enter a polluted area, caused by bacteria or virus is called
immediately we start pneumonia. The common symptoms are
sneezing and coughing. The allergens sputum production, nasal congestion,
in that place affect our respiratory tracts shortness of breath, sore throat etc.
and the responses to the allergens start
Tuberculosis
within minutes. Allergens provoke an
Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium
inflammatory response. A common
tuberculae. This infection mainly occurs
manifestation of allergy is Asthma.
in the lungs and bones. Collection of fluid
between the lungs and the chest wall is the
6.8 Disorders of the main complication of this disease.
Respiratory system Occupational respiratory disorders
Respiratory system is highly affected by The disorders due to one’s occupation of
environmental, occupational, personal working in industries like grinding or
and social factors. These factors may be stone breaking, construction sites, cotton
responsible for a number of respiratory industries, etc. Dust produced affects the
disorders. Some of the disorders are respiratory tracts. Long exposure can give
discussed here. rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis.
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Silicosis and asbestosis are occupational smokers, are also affected. Guidance or
respiratory diseases resulting from counselling should be done in such users
inhalation of particle of silica from sand to withdraw this habit.
grinding and asbestos into the respiratory
tract. Workers, working in such industries Summary
must wear protective masks. The process of intake of oxygen rich air
and giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide
6.9 Effects of Smoking is generally called respiration. Pollutants
and microorganisms are filtered from the
Today due to curiosity, excitement or
inspired air by the hair and mucus present
adventure youngsters start to smoke and
in the nostrils. The two main steps in the
later get addicted to smoking. Research
mechanism of respiration are inspiration and
says about 80% of the lung cancer is due
expiration which takes place due to pressure
to cigarette smoking.
gradient in the atmosphere and lungs.
Smoking is inhaling the smoke from
O2 is transported in blood in dissolved
burning tobacco. There are thousands of
known chemicals which includes nicotine, form and is also bound to haemoglobin.
tar, carbon monoxide, ammonia, sulphur– One molecule of haemoglobin can bind four
dioxide and even small quantities of molecules of O2. The Sigmoid shape of the
arsenic. Carbon monoxide and nicotine O2 haemoglobin dissociative curve shows
damage the cardiovascular system and tar increased affinity for each O2 molecule.
damages the gaseous exchange system. CO2 is transported in blood in dissolved
Nicotine is the chemical that causes form as carbamino haemoglobin and as
addiction and is a stimulant which makes H2CO3. It is produced in RBCs from CO2
the heart beat faster and the narrowing and water catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
of blood vessels results in raised blood Breathing is controlled by medullary
pressure and coronary heart diseases. respiratory centre.
Presence of carbon monoxide reduces Respiratory volumes and capacities
oxygen supply. Lung cancer, cancer of the indicate the amount of air inspired and
mouth and larynx is more common in expired during normal respiration. Our
smokers than non–smokers. Smoking also respiratory system can be affected by
causes cancer of the stomach, pancreas and pollutants, pathogens and other chemical
bladder and lowers sperm count in men. substances found in air. Lung cancer and
Smoking can cause lung diseases by emphysema cannot be cured and these
damaging the airways and alveoli and results diseases are common among cigarette
in emphysema and chronic bronchitis. smokers.
These two diseases along with asthma are People at higher level than the sea level
often referred as Chronic Obstructive are prompted to altitude sickness as the
Pulmonary Disease (COPD). When a barometric pressure is low in those regions.
person smokes, nearly 85% of the smoke Surfactant, emphysema, Asthma and Dead
released is inhaled by the smoker himself
space have been discussed. During vigorous
and others in the vicinity, called passive
exercise the rate of respiration increases.
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Disorders of Respiratory System
Asthma
Normal Asthmatic
airway airway
Healthy
Lung
Mucus
Mucus Cancerous
Constricted tumor
airway
lymph node
Bronchitis Airway Lung cancer
narrowing
Blood clot
in lung Normal
air sacs
air sacs
Pulmonary Pneumonia
embolism
Lining of the lung Normal
Pulmonary
Edema
Clear alveoli, no
in lungs
Fluid build-up in
into lungs
Pleurisy
Active TB infection
Emphysema Pulmonary
in the lungs edema
Destructiuon and
Collapsed
Tuberculosis Lung
enlargement of Emphysema
Tuberculosis air spaces
bacteria
Atelectasis
• Pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that occurs in • Pulmonary edema

the lungs. tissue and air spaces of the lungs.
• Bronchitis • Emphysema A lung condition that causes shortness
bronchial tubes. of breath due to widening of alveoli.
• Asthma is a condition in which airways narrow and • Atelectasis is a collapse of a lung or lobe of a lung
swell and produce extra mucus. develops when alveoli within the lung become
• Lung cancer
deaths. Smoking is the risk factor for lung cancer. • Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused due to
• Pneumonia Mycobacterium tuberculae .
• Pleurisy is a condition in which the pleura becomes
alveoli.
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Activity
To test the presence of CO2 in e xhaled air Take two test tubes A and B with few mL
of clear lime water. Blow exhaled air into A with a help of a straw and pass normal air
into B with a help of a syringe for about 15 times and observe the changes that occur in
the tubes A and B. The lime water (Calcium Hydroxide) in the test tube A turns milky.
Evaluation
1. Breathing is controlled by 8. CO2 is transported through blood to
a. cerebrum lungs as
b. medulla oblongata a. carbonic acid
c. cerebellum b. oxyhaemoglobin
d. pons c. carbamino haemoglobin
2. Intercostal muscles are d. carboxy haemoglobin
found between the 9. When 1500 mL air is in the lungs, it is
a. vertebral column b. sternum called
c. ribs d. glottis
a. vital capacity
3. The respiratory structures of insects
b. tidal volume
are
c. residual volume
a. tracheal tubes b. gills
d. inspiratory reserve volume
c. green glands d. lungs
4. Asthma is caused due to 10. Vital capacity is
a. inflammation of bronchus and a. TV + IRV b. TV + ERV
bronchioles. c. RV + ERV d. TV + IRV + ERV
b. inflammation of bronchione 11. After a long deep breath, we do not
c. damage of diaphragm. respire for some seconds due to
d. infection of lungs a. more CO2 in the blood
5. The Oxygen Dissociation Curve is b. more O2 in the blood
a. sigmoid c. less CO2 in the blood
b. straight line d. less O2 in the blood
c. curved 12. Which of the following substances
d. rectangular hyperbola in tobacco smoke damage the gas
6. The Tidal Volume of a normal person is exchange system?
a. 800 mL b. 1200 mL a. carbon monoxide and carcinogens
c. 500 mL d. 1100 – 1200 mL b. carbon monoxide and nicotine
7. During inspiration, the diaphragm c. carcinogens and tar
a. expands. d. nicotine and tar
b. unchanged 13. Column I represents diseases and
c. relaxes to become domed–shaped. column II represents their symptoms.
d. contracts and flattens Choose the correctly paired option
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Column I Column II 16. Make the correct pairs.

Column–I Column–II
(P) Asthma (i) R ecurring of
bronchitis (P) Tidal i. 1000 to 1100 ml
(Q) Emphysema (ii) A ccumulation of volume
W.B.C in alveolus (Q) Residual ii. 500 ml
(R) Pneumonia (iii) Allergy volume
(R) Expiratory iii. 2500 to 3000 ml
a. P = iii, Q = ii, R = i reserve
b. P = iii, Q = i, R = ii volume
c. P = ii, Q = iii, R = i (S) Inspiratory iv. 1100 to 1200 ml
d. P = ii, Q = i, R = iii reserve
14. Which of the following best describes volume
the process of gas exchange in the (a) P – ii , Q – iv , R – i , S – iii
lungs? (b) P – iii , Q – ii , R – iv , S – i
a. Air moves in and out of the alveoli (c) P – ii , Q – iv , R – iii , S – i
during breathing.
(d) P – iii , Q – iv , R – i , S – ii
b. Carbon dioxide diffuses from
17. Name the respiratory organs of
deoxygenated blood in capillaries
flatworm, earthworm, fish, prawn,
into the alveolar air.
cockroach and cat.
c. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse
18. Name the enzyme that catalyses the
down their concentration gradients
bicarbonate formation in RBCs.
between blood and alveolar air.
19. Air moving from the nose to the
d. Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air
trachea passes through a number
into deoxygenated blood.
of structures. List in order of the
15. Make the correct pairs. structures.
Columan–I Column–II 20. Which structure seals the larynx when
(P) IC i. maximum volume of we swallow?
air breathed in after 21. Resistance in the airways is typically
forced inspiration. low. Why? Give two reasons.
(Q) EC ii. Volume of air present 22. How the body makes long–term
after expiration in adjustments when living in high
lungs. altitude.
(R) VC iii. Volume of air inhaled 23. Why is pneumonia considered a
dangerous disease?
after expiration.
24. Diffusion of gases occurs in the
(S) FRC iv. Volume of air present
alveolar region only and not in any
after inspiration in
other part of the respiratory system.
lungs. Discuss.
(a) P – i , Q – ii , R – iii , S – iv 25. Sketch a flow chart to show the path
(b) P – ii , Q – iii , R – iv , S–i way of air flow during respiration.
(c) P – ii , Q – iii , R – i , S – iv 26. Explain the conditions which creates
(d) P – iii , Q – iv , R – i , S – ii problems in oxygen transport.
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Concept map
Mechanism of Respiraon

By the contracon and
expansion of diaphragm,
Inspiraon and Expiraon The act of breathing is INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
external intercostal muscles
happens due to pressure performed by expansion
and internal intercostal
changes in the thoracic and contracon of the
muscles the volume of the
cavity. thoracic cavity.
thoracic cavity is reduced or
increased.
An acve process by which A passive process by which

fresh air is drawn into the air is exhaled
Air lungs. from the lungs.
drawn in Air
110
drawn out
The contracon of external

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ribs ribs The diaphragm relaxes and

intercostal muscle causes
obliquely up obliquely rises to resume its original
the ribs to move anteriorly
down dome shape.
and outwardly.
The contracon of the

The ribs take their original
diaphragm leads to
posion as a result of
flaening of inelasc, dome
contracon of the internal
shaped central part of the
intercostal muscles.
diaphragm.
Diaphragm Diaphragm
down up
20/12/2021 10:41:07
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ICT Corner 7UDFKHD

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anatomy and function
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‘Pharynx’ from the grid and explore its anatomical regions.
Step – 3
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Step – 4
Use the reference given below the page to acquire additional details.
Respiratory System’s URL:
https://www.getbodysmart.com/respiratory-system
Schematics of Gas exchange:
https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/general-education/anatomy-and-
physiology2/ap2404/respiratory-system-gas-exchange
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UNIT III Chapter 7

Body Fluids and
Circulation
Chapter Outline
7.1 Body fluids

7.2 Blood vessels – Arteries,
Veins and capillaries
7.3 Circulatory path ways
7.4 Human circulatory system
7.5 Double circulation
7.6 Regulation of cardiac activity
7.7 Disorders of the circulatory system
Stroke volume is dependent on venous return
7.8 Diagnosis and Treatment
Learning Objectives: consuming process. Nervous system is

• Understands the required to coordinate activities by sending
importance of body nerve impulses that involves energy. All
fluids. living cells have to be supplied with nutrients,
• Identifies and oxygen and other substances and have to
describes the blood remove CO2 and waste products from them.
cells, different types It is therefore essential to have efficient
of blood groups and mechanisms for transport of these substances
blood coagulating factors. to and from the cells. Different groups of
• Differentiate the blood vessels and its animals have evolved different methods of
properties transport. Very small organisms like the
• Understands the human circulatory sponges and coelenterates lack a circulatory
system. system. Water from their surroundings
• Understands the cardiac cycle and enters their body cavity to facilitate the cells
relate with the peaks of ECG. to exchange substances by diffusion. More
• Identifies the disorders of circulatory complex organisms use special fluids and
system. well organized transport systems within
their body to transport such materials by
Animals particularly larger animals like bulk flow or connective transport with
mammals, are more active. They depend on pumps. The phenomenon of bulk flow is
locomotion to find food which is an energy fundamental to many physiological processes
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like respiration, digestion and excretion. The blood and it tends to force water and small
bulk flow of fluids can transport substances molecules out through the permeable walls
to long distances faster than by diffusion. of the capillary into the tissue fluid.
The human circulatory system can circulate The volume of fluid which leaves the
a millilitre of blood from the heart to feet and capillary to form tissue fluid is the result
back again within 60 sec, rather than 60 years of two pressure (hydrostatic pressure and
which may be needed if it were by diffusion. Oncotic pressure). At the anterior end
Within our body the oxygen and carbon of the capillary bed, the water potential
dioxide are exchanged in the lungs and is lesser than hydrostatic pressure inside
tissues whereas nutrients from the digestive the capilary bed which is enough to push
system are carried to the liver and the fluid into the tissues. The tissue fluid has
wastes from the tissues are carried by the low concentration of protien than that of
blood and finally removed by the kidneys. plasma. At the venous end of the capillary
The hormones are transported to their bed, the water potential is greater than the
target organs. Circulatory system helps to hydrostatic pressure and the fluid from the
maintain the homeostasis of the body fluids tissues flows into the capillary and water is
and body temperature (heat exchange). drawn back into the blood, taking with it
The homeostatic regulation of the waste products produced by the cells.
cardio vascular system maintains blood
flow, or perfusion, to the heart and brain. In Composition of Blood
vasovagal syncope (fainting), signals from Blood is the most common body fluid that
the nervous system cause a sudden decrease transports substances from one part of the
in blood pressure, and the individual faints body to the other. Blood is a connective
from lack of oxygen to the brain. tissue consisting of plasma (fluid matrix)
In this chapter you will learn how the and formed elements. The plasma
heart and blood vessels work together most constitutes 55% of the total blood volume.
of the time to prevent such problems. The remaining 45% is the formed elements
that consist of blood cells. The average
7.1 Body Fluids blood volume is about 5000ml (5L) in an
adult weighing 70 Kg.
The body fluid consists of water and
substances dissolved in them. There are
7.1.1 Plasma
two types of body fluids, the intracellular
fluid present inside the cells and the Plasma mainly consists of water (80-92%)
extracellular fluid present outside the cells. in which the plasma proteins, inorganic
The three types of extracellular fluids are the constituents (0.9%), organic constituents
interstitial fluid or tissue fluid (surrounds (0.1%) and respiratory gases are dissolved.
the cell), the plasma (fluid component of The four main types of plasma proteins
the blood) and lymph. The blood flowing synthesized in the liver are albumin,
into the capillary from an arteriole has a globulin, prothrombin and
fibrinogen.
high hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is Albumin maintains the osmotic pressure of
brought about by the pumping action of the the blood. Globulin facilitates the transport
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of ions, hormones, lipids and assists in P

immune function. Both Prothrombin and
Fibrinogen are involved in blood c lotting.
Organic constituents include urea, &URVVVHFWLRQ
amino acids, glucose, fats and vitamins

and the inorganic constituents include
chlorides, carbonates and phosphates
of potassium, sodium, c alcium and P
magnesium. The composition of plasma is

not always constant. Immediately after a
meal, the blood in the hepatic portal vein 7RSYLHZ
has a very high concentration of glucose

as it is transporting glucose from the Figure 7.1 Structure of RBC
intestine to the liver where it is stored. The
Red Blood Cells
concentration of the glucose in the blood
Red blood cells are abundant than the other
gradually falls after sometime as most of
blood cells. There are about 5 million to 5.5
the glucose is absorbed. If too much of
millions of RBC mm23 of blood in a healthy
protein is consumed, the body cannot
man and 4.5-5.0 millions of RBC mm23 in
store the excess amino acids formed from
healthy women. The RBCs are very small with
the digestion of proteins. The liver breaks
the diameter of about 7µm ( micrometer). The
down the excess amino acids and produces structure of RBC is shown in Figure 7.1. The
urea. Blood in the hepatic vein has a high red colour of the RBC is due to the presence of
concentration of urea than the blood in a respiratory pigment, haemoglobin dissolved
other vessels namely, hepatic portal vein in the cytoplasm. Haemoglobin plays an
and hepatic artery. important role in the transport of respiratory
gases and facilitates the exchange of gases with
Liver receives its blood supply from the fluid outside the cell (tissue fluid). The
two sources: the hepatic artery brings biconcave shaped RBCs increases the surface
oxygenated blood from the heart, area to volume ratio, hence oxygen diffuses
while the hepatic portal vein brings quickly in and out of the cell. The RBCs are
blood from the intestine and other devoid of nucleus, m itochondria, ribosomes
abdominal organs. The blood is re- and endoplasmic reticulum. The absence
turned from the liver to the heart by of these organelles accommodates more
the hepatic veins. haemoglobin thereby maximising the oxygen
carrying capacity of the cell. The average life
span of RBCs in a healthy individual is about
7.1.2 Formed Elements
120 days after which they are destroyed in the
Red blood cells/corpuscles (erythrocytes), spleen (graveyard / cemetery of RBCs) and the
white blood cells/corpuscles (Leucocytes) iron component returns to the bone marrow for
and platelets are collectively called formed reuse. Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted
elements. by the kidneys in response to low oxygen and
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helps in differentiation of stem cells of the delicate threads. Basophils secrete substances
bone marrow to erythrocytes (erythropoiesis) such as heparin, serotonin and histamines.
in adults. The ratio of red blood cells to blood They are also involved in inflammatory
plasma is expressed as Haematocrit (packed reactions.
cell volume).
Agranulocytes
White Blood Cells Agranulocytes are characterised by the
White blood cells (leucocytes) are absence of granules in the cytoplasm and are
colourless, amoeboid, nucleated cells differentiated in the lymph glands and spleen.
devoid of haemoglobin and other pigments. These are of two types, lymphocytes and
Approximately 6000 to 8000 per cubic mm monocytes.
of WBCs are seen in the blood of an average Lymphocytes constitute 28% of WBCs.
healthy individual. The different types of These have large round nucleus and small
WBCs are shown in Figure 7.2. Depending amount of cytoplasm. The two types of
on the presence or absence of granules, WBCs lymphocytes are B and T cells. Both B and T
are divided into two types, granulocytes and cells are responsible for the immune responses
agranulocytes. of the body. B cells produce antibodies to
Granulocytes neutralize the harmful effects of foreign
Granulocytes are characterised by the substances and T cells are involved in cell
presence of granules in the cytoplasm and mediated immunity.
are differentiated in the bone marrow. Monocytes (Macrophages) are
The granulocytes include neutrophils, phagocytic cells that are similar to mast
eosinophils and basophils.
Neutrophils are also called heterophils (RVLQRSKLOV
or (RVLQRSKLOV
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polymorphonuclear (cells with 3-4 lobes of

nucleus connected with delicate threads) cells
which constitute about 60%- 65% of the total
WBCs. They are phagocytic in nature and
appear in large numbers in and around the Granular leucocytes
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Eosinophils have distinctly bilobed
nucleus and the lobes are joined by thin strands.
They are non-phagocytic and constitute about
2-3% of the total WBCs. Eosinophils increase 6RPH 6RPH
during certain types of parasitic infections and6RPH 6RPH EHFRPH 6RPH 6RPH 6RPH EHFRPH
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allergic reactions.
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Basophils are less numerous than any
other type of WBCs constituting 0.5%-
1.0% of the total number of leucocytes. The
cytoplasmic granules are large sized, but fewer
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than eosinophils. Nucleus is large sized and Agranular leucocytes
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constricted into several lobes but not joined by Figure 7.2 Different types of WBC
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cells and have kidney shaped nucleus. genes in ABO systems. All agglutinogens
They constitute 1-3% of the total WBCs. contain sucrose, D-galactose, N-acetyl
The macrophages of the central nervous glucosamine and 11 terminal amino acids.
system are the ‘microglia’, in the sinusoids The attachments of the terminal amino
of the liver they are called ‘Kupffer cells’ acids are dependent on the gene products
and in the pulmonary region they are the of A and B. The reaction is catalysed by
‘alveolar macrophages’. glycosyl transferase.
Platelets
Table 7.1 Distribution of antigens and
Platelets are also called thrombocytes
antibodies in different blood groups
that are produced from megakaryocytes
(special cells in bone marrow) and lack Blood Agglutinogens Agglutinin
nuclei. Blood normally contains 1, 50,000 group (antigens) on (antibodies)
-3, 50,000 platelets mm23 of blood. They the RBC in the plasma
secrete substances involved in coagulation A A Anti B
or clotting of blood. The reduction in B B Anti A
platelet number can lead to clotting AB AB No antibodies
disorders that result in excessive loss of O No antigens Anti A and Anti B
blood from the body.
Rh factor is a protein (D antigen)
present on the surface of the red blood cells
7.1.3 Blood Groups
in majority (80%) of humans. This protein
Commonly two types of blood groupings
is similar to the protein present in Rhesus
are done. They are ABO and Rh which are
monkey, hence the term Rh. Individuals
widely used all over the world.
who carry the antigen D on the surface of the
red blood cells are Rh1 (Rh positive) and the
ABO Blood Grouping individuals who do not carry antigen D, are
Depending on the presence or absence of Rh2 (Rh negative). Rh factor compatibility
surface antigens on the RBCs, blood group is also checked before blood transfusion.
in individual belongs to four different types When a pregnant women is Rh2 and the
namely, A, B, AB and O. The plasma of A, B foetus is Rh1 incompatibility (mismatch)
and O individuals have natural antibodies is observed. During the first pregnancy,
(agglutinins) in them. Surface antigens the Rh2 antigens of the foetus does not get
are called agglutinogens. The antibodies exposed to the mother’s blood as both their
(agglutinin) acting on agglutinogen blood are separated by placenta. However,
A is called anti A and the agglutinin small amount of the foetal antigen becomes
acting on agglutinogen B is called anti B. exposed to the mother’s blood during
Agglutinogens are absent in O blood group. the birth of the first child. The mother’s
Agglutinogens A and B are present in AB blood starts to synthesize D antibodies.
blood group and do not contain anti A and But during subsequent pregnancies the Rh
anti B in them. Distribution of antigens antibodies from the mother (Rh2) enters
and antibodies in blood groups are shown the foetal circulation and destroys the foetal
in Table 7.1. A, B and O are major allelic RBCs. This becomes fatal to the foetus
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because the child suffers from anaemia

STIMULUS
and jaundice. This condition is called
erythroblastosis foetalis. This condition
can be avoided by administration of
Tissue damage
anti D antibodies (Rhocum) to the mother
immediately after the first child birth.
Muscle spasm, platelet plug
7.1.4 Coagulation of Blood formation
If you cut your finger or when you get yourself
hurt, your wound bleeds for some time after INTRINSIC CLOTTING MECHANISM
which it stops to bleed. This is because the
blood clots or coagulates in response to
Production of prothrombin
trauma. The mechanism by which excessive activator substance
blood loss is prevented by the formation of
clot is called blood coagulation or clotting
of blood. Schematic representation of blood
Prothrombin converted to
coagulation is shown Figure 7.3. The clotting thrombin
process begins when the endothelium of the
blood vessel is damaged and the connective
tissue in its wall is exposed to the blood. Thrombin acts
Platelets adhere to collagen fibres in the enzymatically on fibrinogen
connective tissue and release substances
that form the platelet plug which provides
Fibrinogen forms
emergency protection against blood loss.
threads of fibrin
Clotting factors released from the clumped
platelets or damaged cells mix with clotting
factors in the plasma. The protein called Fibrin threads at the
prothrombin is converted to its active form damaged site, traps blood
called thrombin in the presence of calcium cells and platelets.
and vitamin K. Thrombin helps in the Figure 7. 3 Schematic representation of

conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin threads. blood coagulation in an injured blood vessel
The threads of fibrins become interlinked
into a patch that traps blood cell and seals 7.1.5 C
omposition of Lymph and its
the injured vessel until the wound is healed.
Functions
After sometime fibrin fibrils contract,
squeezing out a straw-coloured fluid through About 90% of fluid that leaks from
a meshwork called serum (Plasma without capillaries eventually seeps back into
fibrinogen is called serum). Heparin is an the capillaries and the remaining 10% is
anticoagulant produced in small quantities collected and returned to blood system
by mast cells of connective tissue which by means of a series of tubules known as
prevents coagulation in small blood vessels. lymph vessels or lymphatics. The fluid
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inside the lymphatics is called lymph. The nodes successfully prevent the invading
lymphatic system consists of a complex microorganisms from reaching the blood
network of thin walled ducts (lymphatic stream. Cells found in the lymphatics are
vessels), filtering bodies (lymph nodes) the lymphocytes. Lymphocytes collected
and a large number of lymphocytic cell in the lymphatic fluid are carried via the
concentrations in various lymphoid arterial blood and are recycled back to the
organs. The lymphatic vessels have lymph. Fats are absorbed through lymph
smooth walls that run parallel to the blood in the lacteals present in the villi of the
vessels, in the skin, along the respiratory intestinal wall.
and digestive tracts. These vessels serve
1. Why protein molecules of larger size
as return ducts for the fluids that are
can pass through the lymph vessel?
continually diffusing out of the blood
capillaries into the body tissues. The end 2. We have seen that capillary walls are
of a vessel is shown in Figure 7.4. not permeable to plasma proteins.
Suggest where the protein comes
7LVVXHIOXLG
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from.
3. The disease kwashiorkor is caused
by a diet which is very low in pro-
tein. The concentration of proteins
in blood becomes much lower than
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kwashiorkor is edema. Give reasons.
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7.2 Blood Vessels – Arteries,
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Veins and Capillaries
Figure 7.4 Drainage of tissue fluid into The vessels carrying the blood are of three
a lymph vessel types; they are the arteries, veins and
Lymph fluid must pass through the capillaries. These vessels are hollow
lymph nodes before it is returned to the structures and have complex walls
blood. The lymph nodes that filter the fluid surrounding the lumen. The blood vessels
from the lymphatic vessels of the skin are in humans are composed of three layers,
highly concentrated in the neck, inguinal, tunica intima, tunica media and tunica
axillaries, respiratory and digestive tracts. externa. The inner layer, tunica intima
The lymph fluid flowing out of the lymph or tunica interna supports the vascular
nodes flow into large collecting duct endothelium, the middle layer, tunica
which finally drains into larger veins media is composed of smooth muscles and
that runs beneath the collar bone, the an extra cellular matrix which contains
subclavian vein and is emptied into the a protein, elastin. The contraction and
blood stream. The narrow passages in relaxation of the smooth muscles results
the lymph nodes are the sinusoids that in vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
are lined with macrophages. The lymph The outer layer, tunica externa or tunica
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adventitia is composed of collagen fibres. are small, narrow, and thin walled which
The structure of blood vessels is illustrated are connected to the capillaries. A small
in Figure 7.5. sphincter lies at the junction between
the arterioles and capillaries to regulate
Arteries the blood supply. Arteries do not always
The blood vessels that carry blood away branch into arterioles, they can also form
from the heart are called arteries. The anastomoses.
arteries usually lie deep inside the body.
The walls of the arteries are thick, non- What are anastomoses? These are
collapsible to withstand high pressure. connections of one blood vessel (ar-
Valves are absent and have a narrow lumen. teries) with another blood vessel. They
All arteries carry oxygenated blood, except provide alternate route of blood flow if
the pulmonary artery. The largest artery, the original blood vessel is blocked. For
the aorta (2.5 cm in diameter and 2 mm e.g., Arteries in the joints contain nu-
thick) branch into smaller arteries and merous anastomoses. This allows blood
culminates into the tissues as feed arteries. to flow freely even if one of the arteries
In the tissues the arteries branches into closes during bending of the joints.
arterioles.
As blood enters an arteriole it may have Capillaries
a pressure of 85 mm Hg (11.3 KPa) but as
Capillary beds are made up of fine
it leaves and flows into the capillary, the
networks of capillaries. The capillaries
pressure drops to 35 mm Hg (4.7 KPa).
are thin walled and consist of single layer
(Note 1 mm Hg =0.13 KPa. SI unit of
of squamous epithelium. Tunica media
mm Hg is KiloPascal (KPa)). Arterioles
and elastin fibres are
absent. The capillary
TunicaTunica externa
externa TunicaTunica externa
externa
beds are the site for
TunicaTunica
mediamedia mediamedia exchange of materials
TunicaTunica
TunicaTunica
intimaintima intimaintima between blood and
TunicaTunica
Endothelium
Endothelium Endothelium
Endothelium tissues. The walls
LargeLarge
vein vein Elastic
Elastic arteryartery of the capillaries
externa TunicaTunica externa
externa
are guarded by
TunicaTunica
mediamedia mediamedia semilunar
TunicaTunica valves.
Tunica intima
TunicaTunica
intimaintima
Endothelium
Tunica intima
The blood volume
Endothelium Endothelium
Endothelium
in the capillaries is
Vein Vein Muscular
Muscular arteryartery
high but the flow of
externa Tunica externa
Tunica externa blood is slow. Mixed
Endothelium
Endothelium Endothelium blood
Endothelium (oxygenated
Venule
Venule Arteriole
Arteriole
and deoxygenated)
is present in the
Figure 7.5 Structure ofEndothelium
Endothelium capillaries. The capillary bed may be
Blood vessels Capillary flooded with blood or may be completely
Capillary
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bypassed depending on the body

The Law of Laplace is used to
conditions in a particular organ.
understand the structure and
Why there are no blood capillaries in function of blood vessels and the
the cornea of the eye and cartilage? heart. Laplace law states that the
How are these regions supplied with tension in the walls of the blood vessel
the required nutrients? is proportional to the blood pressure
and vessel radius. Blood vessels such as
Suggest why arteries close to the heart
aorta that is subjected to high pressures
have more elastic fibers in their walls than
have thicker walls than the arterioles
arteries further away from the heart?
that are subjected to low pressures.
Veins 7.3 Circulatory Pathways

Veins have thinner walls and a larger
There are two types of
lumen and hence can be easily stretched.
circulatory systems,
They carry deoxygenated blood except, open and closed
the pulmonary vein. The blood pressure is circulatory systems.
low and the lumen has a wide wall which Open circulatory system
is collapsible. Tunica media is thinner in has haemolymph as the
veins than in arteries. Unidirectional flow circulating fluid and is
of blood in veins is due to the presence of pumped by the heart, which flows through
semilunar valves that prevents backflow blood vessels into the sinuses. Sinuses are
of blood. Blood samples are usually taken referred as haemocoel. Open circulatory
from the veins rather than artery because system is seen in Arthropods and most
of low pressure in the veins. Molluscs. In closed circulatory system
blood is pumped by the heart and flows
7.2.1 Coronary Blood Vessels through blood vessels. Closed circulating
Blood vessels that supply blood to the system is seen in Annelids, Cephalopods
cardiac muscles with all nutrients and and Vertebrates.
removes wastes are the coronary arteries All vertebrates have muscular chambered
and veins. Heart muscle is supplied by two heart. Fishes have two chambered heart.
arteries namely right and left coronary The heart in fishes consists of sinus
arteries. These arteries are the first branch venosus, an atrium, one ventricle and
of the aorta. Arteries usually surround the bulbus arteriosus or conus arteriosus.
heart in the manner of a crown, hence called Single circulation is seen in fishes.
coronary artery (L. Corona - crown). Amphibians have two auricles and one
ventricle and no inter ventricular septum
Right ventricle and posterior portion
whereas reptiles except crocodiles have
of left ventricle are supplied by the right two auricles and one ventricle and an
coronary artery. Anterior and lateral part incomplete inter ventricular septum. Thus
of the left ventricle is supplied by the left mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
coronary arteries.
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blood takes place in the ventricles. This The space present between the membranes
type of circulation is called incomplete is called pericardial space and is filled with
double circulation. The left atrium pericardial fluid.
receives oxygenated blood and the right The two auricles are separated by inter
atrium receives deoxygenated blood. auricular septum and the two ventricles
Pulmonary and systemic circuits are are separated by inter ventricular septum
seen in Amphibians and Reptiles. The
The separation of chambers avoids mixing
Crocodiles, Birds and Mammals have
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The
two auricles or atrial chambers and two
auricle communicates with the ventricle
ventricles, the auricles and ventricles are
through an opening called auriculo
separated by inter auricular septum and
ventricular aperture which is guarded
inter ventricular septum. Hence there is
by the auriculo ventricular valves. The
complete separation of oxygenated blood
from the deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary opening between the right atrium and the
and systemic circuits are evident. This right ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid
type of circulation is called complete valve (three flaps or cusps), whereas a
double circulation. bicuspid (two flaps or cusps) or mitral
valve guards the opening between the left
7.4 Human Circulatory System atrium and left ventricle (Figure 7.6). The
valves of the heart allows the blood to flow
The structure of the heart was described
only in one direction, i.e., from the atria to
by Raymond de viessens, in 1706. Human
the ventricles and from the ventricles to the
heart is made of special type of muscle
pulmonary artery or the aorta. These valves
called the cardiac muscle. It is situated
prevent backward flow of blood.
in the thoracic cavity
and its apex portion is 6XSHULRU
$RUWD
slightly tilted towards YHQDFDYD

/HIW
SXOPRQDU\
left. It weighs about 300g 5LJKW DUWHULHV
SXOPRQDU\
in an adult. The size DUWHULHV
of our heart is roughly 5LJKW /HIW
SXOPRQDU\
SXOPRQDU\
equal to a closed fist. YHLQV YHLQV
5LJKWDWULXP /HIWDWULXP
Heart is divided into four
$WULRYHQWULFXODU
chambers, upper two $WULRYHQWULFXODU PLWUDOYDOYH
small auricles or atrium WULFXVSLGYDOYH 6HPLOXQDUYDOYHV
and lower two large &KRUGDH /HIWYHQWULFOH
WHQGLQHDH
ventricles. The walls of 5LJKWYHQWULFOH 6HSWXP
the ventricles are thicker ,QIHULRU
YHQDFDYD
than the auricles due to
Figure 7.6 L.S of Heart
the presence of papillary
muscles. The heart wall is made up of The opening of right and left ventricles
three layers, the outer epicardium, middle into the pulmonary artery and aorta are
myocardium and inner endocardium. guarded by aortic and pulmonary valves
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and are called semilunar valves. Each auriculo ventricular node and are called
semilunar valve is made of three half- the bundle of His which runs down into
moon shaped cusps. The myocardium the interventricular septum and the fibres
of the ventricle is thrown into irregular spread into the ventricles. These fibres are
muscular ridges called trabeculae corneae. called the Purkinje fibres.
The trabeculae corneae are modified Pacemaker cells produce excitation
into chordae tendinae. The opening through depolarisation of their cell
and closing of the semilunar valves are membrane. Early depolarisation is slow
achieved by the chordae tendinae. The and takes place by sodium influx and
chordae tendinae are attached to the lower reduction in potassium efflux. Minimum
end of the heart by papillary muscles. Heart potential is required to activate voltage
receives deoxygenated blood from various gated calcium (Ca+) channels that causes
parts of the body through the inferior rapid depolarisation which results in
venacava and superior venacava which action potential. The pace maker cells
open into the right auricle. Oxygenated repolarise slowly via K1 efflux.
blood from lungs is drained into the left HEART BEAT- Rhythmic contraction
auricle through four pulmonary veins. and expansion of heart is called heart
7.4.1 Origin and Conduction of beat. The contraction of the heart is called
systole and the relaxation of the heart is
Heart Beat
called diastole. The heart normally beats
The heart in human is myogenic 70-72 times per min in a human adult.
(cardiomyocytes can produce During each cardiac cycle two sounds
spontaneous rhythmic depolarisation are produced that can be heard through
that initiates contractions). The sequence a stethoscope. The first heart sound
of electrical conduction
of heart is shown in 7KHVLQRDWULDO6$
QRGHSDFHPDNHU
Figure 7.7. The cardiac JHQHUDWHVLPSXOVHV
cells with fastest rhythm
,QWHUQRGDOSDWKZD\
are called the Pacemaker
7KHLPSXOVHVSDXVH
cells, since they determine VDWWKH
the contraction rate of DWULRYHQWULFXODU
$9QRGH
the entire heart. These %XQGOHRI+LV
cells are located in the 7KHDWULRYHQWULFXODU
right sinuatrial (SA) $9EXQGOHFRQQHFWV
WKHDWULDWRWKH
node/ Pacemaker. On YHQWULFOHV
the left side of the right
7KH%XQGOHRI+LV
atrium is a node called FRQGXFWWKHLPSXOVHV
auriculo ventricular WKURXJKWKHVHSWXP
LQWHUYHQWULFXODUVHSWXP
node (AV node). Two ,QWHUYHQWULFXODU

special cardiac muscle 7KH3XUNLQMHILEHUV VHSWXP
GHSRODUL]HWKH
fibres originate from the FRQWUDFWLOHFHOOVRIERWK Figure 7.7 The sequence of electrical
YHQWULFOHV
conduction of heart.
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(lub) is associated with the closure of the ventricular pressure forces the semilunar
tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas valves to open and blood is ejected out of
second heart sound (dub) is associated the ventricles without backflow of blood.
with the closure of the semilunar valves. This point is the end of systolic volume
These sounds are of clinical diagnostic (ESV).
significance. An increased heart rate is PHASE 5: (Ventricular diastole) -The
called tachycardia and decreased heart ventricles begins to relax, pressure in
rate is called bradycardia. the arteries exceeds ventricular pressure,
resulting in the closure of the semilunar
7.4.2 Cardiac Cycle
valves. The heart returns to phase 1 of the
The events that occur at the beginning of cardiac cycle.
heart beat and lasts until the beginning of
next beat is called cardiac cycle. It lasts for 7.4.3 Cardiac Output
0.8 seconds. The series of events that takes
place in a cardiac cycle. The amount of blood pumped out by each
ventricle per minute is called cardiac
PHASE 1: Ventricular diastole- The
output(CO). It is a product of heart rate
pressure in the auricles increases than
(HR) and stroke volume (SV). Heart
that of the ventricular pressure. AV valves
rate or pulse is the number of beats per
are open while the semi lunar valves are
minute. Pulse pressure = systolic pressure
closed. Blood flows from the auricles into
the ventricles passively. – diastolic pressure. Stroke volume (SV)
is the volume of blood pumped out by
PHASE 2: Atrial systole - The atria
one ventricle with each beat. SV depends
contracts while the ventricles are still
on ventricular contraction. CO = HR X
relaxed. The contraction of the auricles
SV. SV represents the difference between
pushes maximum volume of blood to
EDV (amount of blood that collects in a
the ventricles until they reach the end
ventricle during diastole) and ESV (volume
diastolic volume (EDV). EDV is related
of blood remaining in the ventricle after
to the length of the cardiac muscle fibre.
contraction). SV = EDV - ESV. According
More the muscle is stretched, greater the
to Frank – Starling law of the heart, the
EDV and the stroke volume.
critical factor controlling SV is the degree
PHASE 3: Ventricular systole
to which the cardiac muscle cells are
(isovolumetric contraction) - The
stretched just before they contract. The
ventricular contraction forces the AV
most important factor in stretching cardiac
valves to close and increases the pressure
muscle is the amount of blood returning
inside the ventricles. The blood is then
to the heart and distending its ventricles,
pumped from the ventricles into the aorta
venous return. During vigorous exercise,
without change in the size of the muscle
SV may double as a result of venous
fibre length and ventricular chamber
return. Heart’s pumping action normally
volume (isovolumetric contraction).
maintains a balance between cardiac
PHASE 4: Ventricular systole output and venous return. Because the
(ventricular ejection) - Increased
heart is a double pump, each side can fail
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independently of the other. If the left side and increased peripheral resistance which
of the heart fails, it results in pulmonary together increase the mean arterial pressure.
congestion and if the right side fails, it
results in peripheral congestion. Frank
7. 4. 4 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
– Starling effect protects the heart from An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the
abnormal increase in blood volume. electrical activity of the heart over a period
of time using electrodes placed on the skin,
When blood volume drops down arms, legs and chest. It records the changes
abruptly, what happens to the stroke
in electrical potential across the heart during
volume? State whether it increases or
one cardiac cycle. The special flap of muscle
decreases?
which initiates the heart beat is called as
sinu-auricular node or SA node in the right
Blood Pressure atrium. It spreads as a wave of contraction in
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted on the heart. The waves of the ECG are due to
the surface of blood vessels by the blood. depolarization and not due to contraction of
This pressure circulates the blood through the heart. This wave of depolarisation occurs
arteries, veins and capillaries. There are two before the beginning of contraction of the
types of pressure, the systolic pressure and cardiac muscle. A normal ECG shows 3 waves
the diastolic pressure. Systolic pressure is designated as P wave, QRS complex and T
the pressure in the arteries as the chambers wave as shown in Figure 7.8 and the stages of
of the heart contracts. Diastolic pressure the ECG graph are shown in Figure 7.9.
is the pressure in the arteries when the
456FRPSOH[
heart chambers relax. Blood pressure is
5
measured using a sphygmomanometer (BP
9HQWULFXODU
apparatus). It is expressed as systolic pressure GHSRODUL]DWLRQ
/ diastolic pressure. Normal blood pressure $WULDO 9HQWULFXODU

UHSRODUL]DWLRQ
in man is about 120/80mm Hg. Mean GHSRODUL]DWLRQ
arterial pressure is a function of cardiac 3 7
output and resistance in the arterioles. The

primary reflex pathway for homeostatic
4
control of mean arterial pressure is the 34 67
VHJPHQW
baroreceptor reflex. The baroreceptor LQWHUYDO
6
47
reflex functions every morning when you LQWHUYDO
get out of bed. When you are lying flat the
7LPHV
gravitational force is evenly distributed.
When you stand up, gravity causes blood to Figure 7.8 Graph of a normal ECG
pool in the lower extremities. The decrease
P Wave (Atrial Depolarisation)
in blood pressure upon standing is known
as orthostatic hypotension. Orthostatic It is a small upward wave and indicates the
reflex normally triggers baroreceptor reflex. depolarisation of the atria. This is the time
This results in increased cardiac output taken for the excitation to spread through
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atria from SA node. Contraction of both simultaneously throughout the ventricular

atria lasts for around 0.8-1.0 sec. depolarisation.
PQ Interval (AV Node Delay) 5
It is the onset of P wave to the onset of

3 7
QRS complex. This is from the start of
depolarisation of the atria to the beginning 4
6
of ventricular depolarisation. It is the time
$WULDOGHSRODUL]DWLRQLQLWLDWHGE\WKH6$QRGH
taken for the impulse to travel from the FDXVHVWKH3ZDYH
atria to the ventricles (0.12-0.21sec). It is the 5

measure of AV conduction time.
3 7
QRS Complex (Ventricular
4
Depolarisation) 6
:LWKDWULDOGHSRODUL]DWLRQFRPSOHWHWKH
No separate wave for atrial depolarisation LPSXOVHLVGHOD\HGDWWKH$9QRGH
in the ECG is visible. Atrial depolarisation 5

occurs simultaneously with the ventricular
depolarisation. The normal QRS complex 3 7
lasts for 0.06-0.09 sec. QRS complex is shorter

4
than the P wave, because depolarisation 6
spreads through the Purkinjie fibres. 9HQWULFXODUGHSRODUL]DWLRQEHJLQVDWDSH[

FDXVLQJWKH456FRPSOH[$WULDO
Prolonged QRS wave indicates delayed UHSRODUL]DWLRQRFFXUV
conduction through the ventricle, often 5
caused due to ventricular hypertrophy or

due to a block in the branches of the bundle 3 7
of His.
4
6
ST Segment 9HQWULFXODUGHSRODUL]DWLRQLVFRPSOHWH
It lies between the QRS complex and T
5
wave. It is the time during which all regions
of the ventricles are completely depolarised
3 7
and reflects the long plateau phase before
repolarisation. In the heart muscle, 4
6
the prolonged depolarisation is due to 9HQWULFXODUUHSRODUL]DWLRQEHJLQVDWDSH[
FDXVLQJWKH7ZDYH
retardation of K+ efflux and is responsible
for the plateau. The ST segment lasts for 5
0.09 sec.
3 7
T wave (Ventricular Repolarisation)
4
It represents ventricular repolarisation. The 6
duration of the T wave is longer than QRS 9HQWULFXODUUHSRODUL]DWLRQLVFRPSOHWH
complex because repolarisation takes place Figure 7.9 Stages of ECG graph
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7.5. Double Circulation The complete double blood circulation is

more prominent in mammals because of
Circulation of the blood was first
the complete partition of all the chambers
described by William Harvey (1628).
(Auricles and ventricles) in the heart.
There are two types of blood c irculation
in vertebrates, single circulation and In systemic circulation, the oxygenated
double circulation which is shown in blood entering the aorta from the left
Figure 7.10 (a and b) and 7.11. ventricle is carried by a network of arteries,
arterioles and capillaries to the
tissues. The deoxygenated blood
*LOOFDSLOODULHV
*LOOFDSLOODULHV /XQJFDSLOODULHV
/XQJFDSLOODULHV
from the tissue is collected by
venules, veins and vena cava and
emptied into the right atrium. In
pulmonary circulation, the blood
+HDUW +HDUW from heart (right ventricle) is
taken to the lungs by pulmonary
+HDUW +HDUW
artery and the oxygenated blood
$OORWKHU
$OORWKHU $OORWKHU
$OORWKHU from the lungs is emptied into the
FDSLOODULHV
FDSLOODULHV FDSLOODULHV
FDSLOODULHV
left auricle by the pulmonary vein.
Completely separated
D D E E
circuits have an important
Figure 7.10 Diagrammatic representation of (a) single advantage. Different pressures
circulation (b) double circulation
Lung
are maintained in the pulmonary
Arterioles Venules
capillaries
and systemic circulation. Why is
Pulmonary
this advantageous? In the lungs
Pulmonary Pulmonary circulation
artery veins
the capillaries must be very thin
Heart to allow gas exchange, but if the
RA LA blood flows through these thin
capillaries under high pressure
RV
LV Aorta
the fluid can leak through or
Venae ruptures the capillary walls and
cavae
can accumulate in the tissues. This
Veins and
venules
Arteries and
arterioles
increases the diffusion distance and
Systemic circulation
reduces the efficiency of the gas
exchange. In contrast high pressure
Systemic is required to force blood through
capillaries
Figure 7.11 Diagrammatic representation the long systemic circuits. Hence

of the Double Circulation the arteries close to the heart have
The blood circulates twice through the increased pressure than the arteries
heart first on the right side then on the away from the heart. Completely separated
left side to complete one cardiac cycle. circuits (pulmonary and systemic) allow
these two different demands to be met with.
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7. 6 Regulation of Cardiac up of atheroma contains cholesterol,

fibres, dead muscle and platelets and is
Activity
termed Atherosclerosis. The cholesterol
The type of heart in human is myogenic rich atheroma forms plaques in the inner
because the heart beat originates from lining of the arteries making them less
the muscles of the heart. The nervous and elastic and reduces the blood flow. Plaque
endocrine systems work together with grows within the artery and tends to form
paracrine signals (metabolic activity) to
blood clots, forming coronary thrombus.
influence the diameter of the arterioles and
Thrombus in a coronary artery results in
alter the blood flow. The neuronal control
heart attack.
is achieved through autonomic nervous
system (sympathetic and parasympathetic). Stroke
Sympathetic neurons release nor- Stroke is a condition when the blood vessels
epinephrine and adrenal medulla releases in the brain bursts, (Brain haemorrhage)
epinephrine. The two hormones bind to β – or when there is a block in the artery that
adrenergic receptors and increase the heart supplies the brain, (atherosclerosis) or
rate. The parasympathetic neurons secrete thrombus. The part of the brain tissue that
acetylcholine that binds to muscarinic is supplied by this damaged artery dies due
receptors and decreases the heart beat. to lack of oxygen (cerebral infarction).
Vasopressin and angiotensin II, involved
in the regulation of the kidneys, results in Angina Pectoris
vasoconstriction while natriuretic peptide Angina pectoris (ischemic pain in the
promotes vasodilation. Vagus nerve is a heart muscles) is experienced during
parasympathetic nerve that supplies the early stages of coronary heart disease.
atrium especially the SA and the AV nodes. Atheroma may partially block the
coronary artery and reduce the blood
7.7 Disorders of the supply to the heart. As a result, there is
Circulatory System tightness or choking with difficulty in
breathing. This leads to angina or chest
Hypertension pain. Usually it lasts for a short duration
Hypertension is the most common of time.
circulatory disease. The normal blood
pressure in man is 120/80 mmHg. In cases Myocardial Infarction (Heart Failure)
when the diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mm The prime defect in heart failure is a
Hg and the systolic pressure exceeds 150 decrease in cardiac muscle contractility.
mm Hg persistently, the condition is called The Frank- Starling curve shifts downwards
hypertension. Uncontrolled hypertension and towards the right such that for a given
may damage the heart, brain and kidneys. EDV, a failing heart pumps out a smaller
stroke volume than a normal healthy heart.
Coronary Heart Disease
When the blood supply to the heart
Coronary heart disease occurs when the muscle or myocardium is remarkably
arteries are lined by atheroma. The build- reduced it leads to death of the muscle
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fibres. This condition is called heart attack stent is left in place. This scaffolding keeps
or myocardial infarction. The blood clot the blood vessel open and allows free flow of
or thrombosis blocks the blood supply to blood. Slow releasing stents are now available
the heart and weakens the muscle fibres. that can release chemicals to prevent further
It is also called Ischemic heart disease block of the artery.
due to lack of oxygen supply to the heart
muscles. If this persists it leads to chest Varicose veins The veins are so dilated
pain or angina. Prolonged angina leads that the valves prevent back flow of
to death of the heart muscle resulting in blood. The veins lose their elasticity
heart failure. and become congested. Common
sites are legs, rectal-anal regions
(haemorrhoids), the oesophagus and
Rheumatoid Heart Disease
the spermatic cord.
Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune Embolism is the obstruction of the
disease which occurs 2-4 weeks after blood vessel by abnormal mass of
throat infection usually a streptococcal materials such as fragment of the
infection. The antibodies developed to blood clot, bone fragment or an air
combat the infection cause damage to the bubble. Embolus may lodge in the
heart. Effects include fibrous nodules on lungs, coronary artery or liver and
the mitral valve, fibrosis of the connective leads to death.
tissue and accumulation of fluid in the
Aneurysm The weakened regions of
pericardial cavity.
the wall of the artery or veins bulges
to form a balloon like sac. Unruptured
7.8 Diagnosis and
aneurysm may exert pressure on the
Treatment
adjacent tissues or may burst causing
Angiogram massive haemorrhage.
Angiogram is a procedure that uses a special
dye and X-ray to see how blood flows through Bypass Surgery
the coronary arteries of the heart and it can When the arteries that bring blood to the
be used to detect abnormality in the blood
heart muscles (coronary artery) are blocked
vessels through out the body.
by plaque (accumulation of fat, cholesterol
Angioplasty and other substances) the person is advised
Angioplasty is the stretching of an artery that to undergo Bypass surgery. After the surgery
is narrowed due to atherosclerosis. The risk the blood flow to coronary artery is increased
involved in this procedure is minimal. During and the person is relieved from chest pain.
an angioplasty a small long balloon catheter This is a major surgery where damaged blood
is threaded through the blocked artery. A vessel is replaced by the healthy one taken
deflated balloon is attached to the catheter from different part of the body. Mostly it is
and the balloon is inflated to widen the taken from legs. During this surgery patients
arterial wall. Then the tube and the balloon blood system is connected with a pump
are removed. A small metal scaffold called oxygenator (heart lung machine). After the
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completion of the surgery the blood vessel is must be performed within 4 to 6 minutes
connected to normal the circulation and the after cessation of breath to prevent brain
blood flows freely. damage or death. Along with CPR,
Heart Transplantation defibrillation is also done. Defibrillation
A heart transplant is a surgical means a brief electric shock is given to the
transplantation procedure which is done to heart to recover the function of the heart.
replace a diseased or a damaged heart. This Each year over several million people
procedure is performed on a patient with worldwide die of heart disease, than from
end stage heart failure or severe coronary other conditions. For some patients heart
artery disease, when other medical transplant is the only hope. Raju was
ailments or surgical treatments have failed. 62 years old when muscles of both the
The most common procedure is to take ventricles had deteriorated. He was lucky
a functioning heart from a brain dead enough because biomedical engineers
person (organ donor) and is transplanted were able develop a pumping device called
in a person with a damaged heart. After the ‘total artificial heart’. Raju’s heart was
heart transplant the average life span of the completely removed and an artificial heart
person increases. was put in place. He was able to go home
within a few weeks. This artificial heart
Cardio Pulmonary would have kept him in alive until suitable
Resuscitation (CPR) real heart was available for transplant.
In 1956, James Elam and

Peter Safar were the first First heart
to use mouth to mouth resuscitation. transplantation was
CPR is a life saving procedure that is performed in the
done at the time of emergency conditions year 1959. Human
such as when a person’s breath or heart heart transplant was performed by
beat has stopped abruptly in case of Prof. Christian Bernard in South
drowning, electric shock or heart attack. Africa in the year 1967, December
CPR includes rescue of breath, which is 3 at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape
achieved by mouth to mouth breathing, Town. Dr Anangipalli Venugopal was
to deliver oxygen to the victim’s lungs by the first to perform heart transplant
external chest compressions which helps to at AIIMS, India on August 3, 1994.
circulate blood to the vital organs. CPR
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Summary pressure is the force exerted by blood on the

walls of blood vessels, and it is responsible
Vertebrates circulate blood in their body, to
for moving blood through the vessels.
transport essential substances to the cells
Cardiovascular disease accounts for more
and to carry waste substances from them.
deaths each year in the India. Cardiovascular
Blood is carried away from the heart, passes
conditions include systemic hypertension,
through tissues in capillaries and is returned
atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease,
to the heart in veins. Blood pressure drops
angina pectoris, myocardial infarction and
gradually as it passes along this system.
stroke. Cardiovascular diagnostic techniques
Arteries have thick, elastic walls which allow
and treatments include cardiac angiography,
them to withstand high blood pressure.
balloon angioplasty, and coronary artery
Arterioles are small arteries that help to
bypass. The circulatory system contributes
reduce blood pressure and control the
to homeostasis by transporting O2, CO2,
amount of blood flow to different tissues.
wastes, electrolytes, and hormones from one
Capillaries are only just wide enough to allow
part of the body to another.
the passage of red blood cells, and have very
thin wall to allow efficient and rapid transfer
of materials between blood and cells. Veins Evaluation
have thinner walls than arteries and possess 1. What is the function
valves that allow blood to flow back to the of lymph?
heart even at low pressure. a. T
ransport of O2
Blood consist of plasma and formed into brain
elements. Blood plasma leaks from b. Transport of CO2 into lungs
capillaries to form tissue fluid. This is
c. Bring interstitial fluid in blood
collected into lymphatics as lymph, and
returned to the blood in the subclavian d. Bring RBC and WBC in lymph node
veins. Tissue fluid and lymph are almost 2. Which one of the following plasma
identical in composition. They contain proteins is involved in the coagulation
fewer plasma protein molecules than blood of blood?
plasma as these proteins are too large to pass a. Globulin b. Fibrinogen
through the pores in the capillary walls. The c. Albumin d. Serum amylase
formed elements of blood constitute RBC, 3. Which of the following is not involved
WBC and Platelets. in blood clotting?
The mammalian heart has four a. Fibrin b. Calcium
chambers, right and left artia and right
c. Platelets d. Bilirubin
and left ventricles. The separation of
4. Lymph is colourless because
chambers in the heart results in complete
double circulation. The cardiac cycle is a a. WBC are absent
continuous process but can be considered in b. WBC are present
five stages. Beating of the heart is initiated c. H
eamoglobin is absent
by the sinoatrial node (SAN) or pacemaker d. RBC are absent
which has its own myogenic rhythm. Blood
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5. Blood group is due to the presence or 10.

An unconscious patient is rushed
absence of surface into the emergency room and needs
a. Antigens on the surface of WBC a fast blood transfusion. Because
b. Antibodies on the surface of there is no time to check her medical
RBC history or determine her blood type,
which type of blood should you as
c. Antigens on the surface of RBC
her doctor, give her?
d. Antibodies on the surface of WBC
a. A2 b. AB c. O1 d. O2
6. A person having both antigen A and
11.
Which of these functions can be
antigen B on the surface of RBCs
carried out by a matured red blood
belongs to blood group
cell?
a. A b. B c. AB d. O a. Protein synthesis
7. Erythroblastosis foetalis is due to the b. Cell division
destruction of c. Lipid synthesis
a. Foetal RBCs d. Active transport
b. Foetus suffers from atherosclerosis 12. At the venous end of the capillary
c. Foetal WBCs bed, the osmotic pressure is
d. Foetus suffers from mianmata a. Greater than the hydrostatic pressure
8. Dub sound of heart is caused by b. Result in net outflow of fluids
a. Closure of atrio-ventricular valves c. Results in net absorption of fluids
b. Opening of semi-lunar valves
d. No change occurs
c. Closure of semi-lunar values
13. A patient’s chart reveals that he has a
d. Opening of atrio-ventricular cardiac output of 7500mL per minute
valves. and a stroke volume of 50 mL. What
9. Why is the velocity of blood flow the is his pulse rate (in beats / min)
lowest in the capillaries?
a. 50 b. 100 c. 150 d. 400
a. The systemic capillaries are
supplied by the left ventricle, 14. At any given time there is more blood
which has a lower cardiac output in the venous system than that of the
than the right ventricle. arterial system. Which of the following
features of the veins allows this?
b. C
apillaries are far from the heart,
and blood flow slows as distance a. relative lack of smooth muscles
from the heart increases. b. presence of valves
c. The total surface area of the c. proximity of the veins to lymphatic’s
capillaries is larger than the total
surface area of the arterioles. d. thin endothelial lining
d. The capillary walls are not thin 15. Distinguish between arteries and veins.
enough to allow oxygen to 16. Distinguish between open and closed
exchange with the cells. circulation.
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17. Distinguish between mitral valve and i. Another name for red blood cells.
semi lunar valve. j. Blood that has been changed to a jelly.
18. Right ventricular wall is thinner than
k. A word that means cell eater.
the left ventricular wall. Why?
l. Cells without nucleus.
19. What might be the effect on a person
whose diet has less iron content? m. White cells made in the lymphatic
tissue.
20.
Describe the mechanism by which
the human heart beat is initiated and n. Blocks wound and prevent
controlled. excessive bleeding.
21. What is lymph? Write its function. o. Fragment of cells which are made
in the bone marrow.
22. What are the heart sounds? When
and how are these sounds produced? p. Another name for white blood
23. Select the correct biological term. cells.
Lymphocytes, red cells, leucocytes, q. Slowly releases oxygen to blood cells.
plasma, erythrocytes, white cells, r. Their function is to help blood clot
haemoglobin, phagocyte, platelets, in wounds.
blood clot.
24. Name and Label the given diagrams
a. Disc shaped cells which are to show A, B, C, D, E, F, and G
concave on both sides.
b. Most of these have a large, bilobed A
nucleus. A
B
c. Enable red cells to transport blood.
d. The liquid part of the blood. C
B
e. Most of them move and change D
shape like an amoeba.

E
f. Consists of water and important
F
dissolved substances.
C
g. Destroyed in the liver and spleen G
after circulating in the blood for

four months.
h. The substances which gives red
cells their colour.
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Concept Map
Eosinophils Lymphocytes

Basophils
inculding
Neutrophils including Monocytes
Fibrin to form a clot
Granular A granular
Heamoglobin
Fibrinogen can be
which is converted to Erythrocytes Leukocytes in lymphatic vessels to
Plasma
proteins consists of Liquid plasma contains Platelets
such as
collects
water salts Blood Lymphatic system
consists of includes
Open in arthropods
is
134
Closed in vertebrates some
invertebrates
includes
has
Semilunar valves has
guarding entrance/exits
to Blood Vessels
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Veins Two circuits

sends has Systemic circuit
AV bundles impulse AV node sends im- the
Sinoatrial node is enclosed by such as
through pulse to (pascemaker) Venules
Pulmonary circuit
Pericardium Capillaries (heart and lunges)
has goes though 2
phases Arteries Arterioles
Right Atrium
Systole Diastole
can
Right AV/ Tricuspid Valve
Separates by angiotensin/ aldosterone
Vasodialate vasoconstrict
Right Ventricle
to adjust
is adjusted
Blood pressure
Left / Ventricle by baroreseptors
Separates
20/12/2021 10:43:39
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ICT Corner
The vital flow
Let’s explore the

circulatory system
and learn the the
‘Phases of Cardiac Cycle’.
Step – 1
Type the following URL in the browser. ‘Circulatory System page will open. Select
‘Phases of Cardiac Cycle’ from the grid.
Step – 2
From the given Phases of Cardiac Cycle, Play one after another using ‘Play’ button
and observe the valve movements and blood circulation in the heart.
Step – 3
The last animation shows the entire functions and flows of the Cardiac cycle. Use Play,
Forward and Backward buttons and observe the nuances of Heart function.
Step – 4
Use the links below the Phases to get more details about the locations, size, chambers
and pericardium structures.
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle’s URL:
https://www.getbodysmart.com/circulatory-system
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UNIT III Chapter 8
Excretion
Chapter Outline
8.1 Modes of Excretion

8.2 Human excretory system
8.3 Mechanism of urine formation in human
8.4 Regulation of kidney function
8.5 Micturition
8.6 Role of other organs in excretion
8.7 Disorders related to the excretory system Seabirds have no problem in
8.8 Haemodialysis drinking sea water
Learning Objectives: by sea water, but it maintains an

intracellular ionic composition different
• Understands different from that of the sea water. Evolution
modes of excretion in led to changes in the organisation of the
animals. tissue layers followed by formation of
specialized external tissue layers. This
• Learns the structure of
provided a barrier between the external
the human excretory
environment and internal fluid resulting
system.
in the formation of extracellular fluid.
• Understands the structure of a Major changes in osmoregulation and
nephron, mechanism of urine ionic regulation occurred during the
formation - glomerular filtration evolution of chordates. The ability to
reabsorption and secretion from control extracellular fluid composition
the renal tubules. was essential for the diversification of
• Visualizes the blood supply to the animals to inhabit brackish water, fresh
kidney including the nephrons water and land. Animals that invaded
• Learns about the possible kidney land had the risk of desiccation and
related diseases. were unable to excrete metabolic waste
directly into the water; hence there was a
Earliest animal life forms arose around need for an alternate pathway to dispose
700 million years ago. They were marine the nitrogenous wastes.
organisms like the modern sponges. Each Most animals rely on kidneys to
cell of a modern sponge is surrounded control ionic and water balance. Some
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animals depend on external tissues such to tolerate wide fluctuations in the salt
as the gills, skin and digestive mucosa to concentrations eg., Artemia, Tilapia and
collectively regulate three homeostatic Salmons.
processes namely, osmotic regulation, The major nitrogenous waste products
ionic regulation and nitrogen excretion. are ammonia, urea and uric acid. Other
Osmotic regulation is the control of tissue waste products of protein metabolism
osmotic pressure which acts as a driving are trimethyl amine oxide (TMO) in
force for movement of water across marine teleosts, guanine in spiders,
biological membranes. Ionic regulation hippuric acid, allantonin, allantoic acid,
is the control of the ionic composition
ornithuric acid, creatinine, creatine,
of body fluids. The process by which
purines, pyramidines and pterines.
the body gets rid of the nitrogenous
waste products of protein metabolism 8.1 Modes of Excretion
is called excretion. Nitrogen excretion
Excretory system helps in collecting
is the pathway by which animals excrete
nitrogenous waste and expelling it into
ammonia, the toxic nitrogenous end
the external environment. Animals have
product of protein catabolism. The
evolved different strategies to get rid
removal of ammonia or other metabolic
of these nitrogenous wastes. Ammonia
alternatives such as urea and uric acid is
produced during amino acid breakdown
linked to ionic and osmotic homeostasis.
is toxic hence must be excreted either
Fresh water vertebrates maintain
as ammonia, urea or uric acid. The type
higher salt concentrations in their body
of nitrogenous end product an animal
fluids; marine vertebrates maintain
excretes depends upon the habitat of the
lower salt concentrations in their body
animal. Ammonia requires large amount
fluids and terrestrial animals have
of water for its elimination, whereas uric
more water in their body than the
acid, being the least toxic can be removed
surrounding hence tend to lose water
with the minimum loss of water, and urea
by evaporation. Osmoconformers are
can be stored in the body for considerable
able to change their internal osmotic
periods of time, as it is less toxic and less
concentration with change in external
environment as in marine molluscs soluble in water than ammonia.
and sharks. Osmoregulators maintain Animals that excrete most of its
their internal osmotic concentration nitrogen in the form of ammonia are
irrespective of their external osmotic called ammonoteles. Many fishes, aquatic
environment (example: Otters). amphibians and aquatic insects are
Depending on the ability to tolerate ammonotelic. In bony fishes, ammonia
changes in the external environment, diffuses out across the body surface or
animals are classified as stenohaline and through gill surface as ammonium ions.
euryhaline. The stenohaline animals can Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects
tolerate only narrow fluctuations in the excrete uric acid crystals, with a minimum
salt concentration (example: Gold fish), loss of water and are called uricoteles.
whereas the euryhaline animals are able In terrestrial animals, less toxic urea and
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Most aquatic animals Birds and most Mammals, most

reptiles, insects and amphibians, sharks,
Animals
land snails reptiles and terrestrial
invertebrates
Nitrogenous
wastes Ammonia Uric acid Urea
Figure 8.1 Excretory products in different groups of animals.

uric acid are produced to conserve water. urine, whereas mammalian kidneys produce
Mammals and terrestrial amphibians concentrated (hyperosmotic) urine due to
mainly excrete urea and are called ureoteles. the presence of long Henle’s loop. The Loop
Earthworms while in soil are ureoteles and of Henle of the nephron has evolved to form
when in water are ammonoteles. Figure 8.1 hypertonic urine. Aglomerular kidneys of
shows the excretory products in different marine fishes produce little urine that is
groups of animals. isoosmotic to the body fluid. Amphibians
The animal kingdom presents a wide and fresh water fish lack Henle’s loop hence
variety of excretory structures. Most produce dilute urine (hypoosmotic).
invertebrates have a simple tubular
structure in the form of primitive kidneys The average bladder holds between
called protonephridia and metanephridia. 300ml and 600ml of urine. If the urinary
system is healthy, urine may stay in the
Vertebrates have complex tubular organs
bladder for up to about 5 hours before
called kidneys. Protonephridia are excretory excretion, depending on the amount of
structures with specialized cells in the form liquid consumed.  Nerves send signals to
of flame cells (cilia) in Platyhelminthes the brain when the bladder needs to be
(example tapeworm) and Solenocytes emptied, with this indication one will feel
the urge to empty the bladder.  The muscle
(flagella) in Amphioxus. Nematodes have
in the bladder wall is called the ‘detrusor’
rennette cells, Metanephridia are the muscle. One may suffer from stress if
tubular excretory structures in annelids the muscles supporting the bladder are
and molluscs. Malpighian tubules are weakened. Pelvic floor exercise helps to
the excretory structures in most insects. strengthen these muscles. 
Antennal glands or green glands perform
excretory function in crustaceans like
prawns. Vertebrate kidney differs among taxa
8.2 Human excretory system
in relation to the environmental conditions. 8.2.1 Structure of kidney
Nephron is the structural and functional
Excretory system in human consists of a
unit of kidneys. Reptiles have reduced
pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary
glomerulus or lack glomerulus and Henle’s bladder and urethra (Figure. 8.2). Kidneys
loop and hence produce very little hypotonic
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are reddish brown, bean shaped structures pelvis and ureter have smooth muscles which
that lie in the superior lumbar region contracts rhythmically. The calyces collect
between the levels of the last thoracic and the urine and empties into the ureter, which
third lumber vertebra close to the dorsal is stored in the urinary bladder temporarily.
inner wall of the abdominal cavity. The The urinary bladder opens into the urethra
right kidney is placed slightly lower than through which urine is expelled out.
the left kidney. Each kidney weighs an Capsule
average of 120-170 grams. The outer layer
Cortical
of the kidney is covered by three layers of nephron
Cortex
supportive tissues namely, renal fascia, Medulla
Minor calyx
Juxtamedullary
perirenal fat capsule and fibrous capsule. Renal Artery nephron
Renal Vein Major calyx

Aorta
Vena cava Renal pyramid
Kidney pelvis
Renal artery Renal column

Ureter of Bertini
Renal vein
Kidney
Figure 8.3 L S of kidney
Ureter
8.2.2 Structure of a nephron
Each kidney has nearly one million complex
tubular structures called nephron (Figure 8.4).
Bladder Each nephron consists of a filtering corpuscle
called renal corpuscle (malpighian body) and
Urethra a renal tubule. The renal tubule opens into a
longer tubule called the collecting duct. The
Figure 8.2 Human excretory system renal tubule begins with a double walled
The longitudinal section of kidney (Figure. cup shaped structure called the Bowman’s
8.3) shows, an outer cortex, inner medulla capsule, which encloses a ball of capillaries
and pelvis. The medulla is divided into a that delivers fluid to the tubules, called the
few conical tissue masses called medullary glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule and the
pyramids or renal pyramids. The part of glomerulus together constitute the renal
cortex that extends in between the medullary corpuscle. The endothelium of glomerulus
pyramids is the renal columns of Bertini. has many pores (fenestrae). The external
The centre of the inner concave surface parietal layer of the Bowman's capsule is
of the kidney has a notch called the renal made up of simple squamous epithelium
hilum, through which ureter, blood vessels and the visceral layer is made of epithelial
and nerves innervate. Inner to the hilum is cells called podocytes. The podocytes end in
a broad funnel shaped space called the renal foot processes which cling to the basement
pelvis with projection called calyces. The membrane of the glomerulus. The openings
renal pelvis is continuous with the ureter once between the foot processes are called filtration
it leaves the hilum. The walls of the calyces, slits.
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Glomerulus Distal tubule

%RZPDQ¶V
FDSVXOH
Efferent 3UR[LPDO
arteriole WXEXOH
%RZPDQ¶V 5HQDO
Bowman’s FDSVXOH FRUWH[
3UR[LPDO
capsule WXEXOH
4
Macula 1
densa 5 'LVWDO
Granular WXEXOH
cells 2
Afferent 3 'LVWDO
Proximal WXEXOH
arteriole tubule /RRS
RIKHQOH
&ROOHFWLQJ /RRS 5HQDO
RI PHGXOOD
GXFW
+HQOH
&ROOHFWLQJ
Collecting GXFW
duct
D&RUWLFDOQHSKURQ E-X[WDPHGXOODU\QHSKURQ
Loop Figure 8.5 (a) Cortical nephrons are

of
henle
located predominantly in the outer cortex.
(b) Juxtamedullary nephrons are mainly
Figure 8.4 Structure of a Nephrons located in the inner medulla.
The renal tubule continues further
to form the proximal convoluted tubule Efferent
arteriole Glomerulus
Afferent
arteriole
[PCT] followed by a U-shaped loop
of Henle (Henle’s loop) that has a thin
descending and a thick ascending limb.
Peritubular
The ascending limb continues as a highly capillaries
coiled tubular region called the distal

convoluted tubule [DCT]. The DCT of Cortex
many nephrons open into a straight tube
Medulla
called collecting duct. The collecting duct
runs through the medullary pyramids in
the region of the pelvis. Several collecting Vasa
ducts fuse to form papillary duct that recta
delivers urine into the calyces, which

opens into the renal pelvis.
In the renal tubules, PCT and DCT of the
nephron are situated in the cortical region of
Figure 8.6 Blood vessels of the nephron.
the kidney whereas the loop of Henle is in the
medullary region. In majority of nephrons, The capillary bed of the nephrons-
the loop of Henle is too short and extends First capillary bed of the nephron is the
only very little into the medulla and are called glomerulus and the other is the peritubular
cortical nephrons. Some nephrons have capillaries. The glomerular capillary bed is
very long loop of Henle that run deep into different from other capillary beds in that
the medulla and are called juxta medullary it is supplied by the afferent and drained
nephrons (JMN) (Figure 8.5 a and b) by the efferent arteriole. The efferent
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arteriole that comes out of the glomerulus i) Glomerular Filtration: Blood enters

forms a fine capillary network around the kidney from the renal artery, into the
the renal tubule called the peritubular glomerulus. Blood is composed of large
capillaries. The efferent arteriole serving quantities of water, colloidal proteins,
the juxta medullary nephron forms sugars, salts and nitrogenous end product.
bundles of long straight vessel called The first step in urine formation is the
vasa recta and runs parallel to the loop of filtration of blood that takes place in the
glomerulus. This is called glomerular
Henle. Vasa recta is absent or reduced in
filtration which is a passive process. The
cortical nephrons (Figure 8.6).
fluid that leaves the glomerular capillaries
and enters the Bowman’s capsule is called
What is the importance of having a long the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular
loop of Henle and short loop of Henle membrane has a large surface area and
in a nephron? is more permeable to water and small
molecules present in the blood plasma.
Blood enters the glomerulus faster with
8.3 Mechanism of urine greater force through the afferent arteriole
formation in human and leaves the glomerulus through the
efferent arterioles, much slower. This
The nitrogenous waste
force is because of the difference in sizes
formed as a result of
between the afferent and efferent arteriole
breakdown of amino
(afferent arteriole is wider than efferent
acids is converted to arteriole) and glomerular hydrostatic
urea in the liver by the pressure which is around 55mm Hg.
Ornithine cycle or urea
Kidneys produce about 180L of
cycle (Figure 8.7). glomerular filtrate in 24 hours. The
Glutamine molecules such as water, glucose, amino
NH4 Carbamoyl phosphate
acids and nitrogenous substances pass
Mitochondria synthetase I freely from the blood into the glomerulus.
Carbamoyl phosphate Glutamine
Carbamoyl phosphate
synthetase III
Molecules larger than 5nm are barred from
Citrulline entering the tubule. Glomerular pressure
Ornithine Citrulline
is the chief force that pushes water and
solutes out of the blood and across the
Ornithine
filtration membrane. The glomerular
Urea Argininasuccinate
blood pressure (approximately 55 mmHg)
is much higher than in other capillary beds.
Cell Cytoplasm
The two opposing forces are contributed
Arginine
by the plasma proteins in the capillaries.
Fumarate These includes, colloidal osmotic pressure
Figure 8.7 Ornithine cycle (30 mmHg) and the capsular hydrostatic
pressure (15 mmHg) due to the fluids in
Urine formation involves three main the glomerular capsule. The net filtration
processes namely, glomerular filtration, pressure of 10 mmHg is responsible for
tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion. the renal filtration.
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Net filtration Pressure 5 Glomerular

A person with cirrhosis of the liver
hydrostatic pressure 2 (Colloidal osmotic
has lower than normal levels of plasma
pressure 1 Capsular hydrostatic pressure).
proteins and higher than normal GFR.
Net filtration pressure 5 55 mmHg Explain why a decrease in plasma
2 (30 mmHg 1 15 mmHg)5 10mmHg protein would increase GFR.
The effective glomerular pressure of
10 mmHg results in ultrafiltration. ii) Tubular Reabsorption
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the This involves movement of the filtrate back
volume of filtrate formed min21 in all into the circulation. The volume of filtrate
nephrons (glomerulus) of both the kidneys. formed per day is around 170-180 L and the
In adults the GFR is approximately 120- urine released is around 1.5 L per day, i.e.,
125mL/min. Blood from the glomerulus is nearly 99% of the glomerular filtrate that
passed out through the efferent arteriole. has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules
The smooth muscle of the efferent arteriole as it contains certain substances needed by
contract resulting in vasoconstriction. the body. This process is called selective
Table 8.1 shows the relative concentrations
reabsorption. Reabsorption takes place
of substances in the blood plasma and the
by the tubular epithelial cells in different
glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate
segments of the nephron either by active
is similar to blood plasma except that
transport or passive transport, diffusion and
there are no plasma proteins. In cortical
osmosis.
nephrons, blood from efferent arteriole
flows into peritubular capillary beds and Proximal convoluted Tubule (PCT)-
enters the venous system carrying with Glucose, lactate, amino acids, Na1 and
it recovered solutes and water from the water in the filtrate is reabsorbed in the
interstitial fluid that surrounds the tubule. PCT. Sodium is reabsorbed by active
transport through sodium- potassium
Table 8.1 Concentration of substances in the (Na1 K1) pump in the PCT. Small amounts
blood plasma and in the glomerular filtrate of urea and uric acid are also reabsorbed.
Concentration Concentration Descending limb of Henle’s loop is
Substance in blood in glomerular permeable to water due the presence of
Plasma/g dm filtrate/g dm-3
-3 aquaporins, but not permeable to salts.
Water 900 900 Water is lost in the descending limb,
hence Na1 and Cl2 gets concentrated in
Proteins 80.0 0.05
the filtrate.
Aminoacids 0.5 0.5
Glucose 1.0 1.0 Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is
impermeable to water but permeable to
Urea 0.3 0.3
solutes such as Na1, Cl2 and K1.
Uric acid 0.04 0.04
Creatinine 0.01 0.01 The distal convoluted tubule recovers
water and secretes potassium into the
Inorganic 7.2 7.2
tubule. Na1, Cl2 and water remains
ions (mainly
Na1, K1 and Cl2) in the filtrate of the DCT. Most of the
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reabsorption from this point is dependent

Osmolarity - The solute concentration
on the body’s need and is regulated by
of a solution of water is known as the
hormones. Reabsorption of bicarbonate
solutions osmolarity, expressed as
(HCO32) takes place to regulate the blood
milliosmoles /liter (mOsm/L)
pH. Homeostasis of K1 and Na1 in the
blood is also regulated in this region.
Formation of concentrated urine
Formation of concentrated urine is
Aquaporins are water–permeable
accomplished by kidneys using counter
channels (membrane transport
current mechanisms. The major function
proteins) that allow water to move
of Henle’s loop is to concentrate Na1 and
across the epithelial cells in relation
Cl2. There is low osmolarity near the cortex
to the osmotic difference from the
and high osmolarity towards the medulla.
lumen to the interstitial fluid.
This osmolarity in the medulla is due to
the presence of the solute transporters
Collecting duct is permeable to water, and is maintained by the arrangement of
secretes K1 (potassium ions are actively the loop of Henle, collecting duct and vasa
transported into the tubule) and reabsorbs recta. This arrangement allows movement
Na1 to produce concentrated urine. The of solutes from the filtrate to the
change in permeability to water is due interstitial fluid. At the transition between
to the presence of number of water- the proximal convoluted tubule and the
permeable channels called aquaporins. descending loop of Henle the osmolarity
Tubular secretion- Substances such as of the interstitial fluid is similar to that of
H , K1, NH41, creatinine and organic acids
1
the blood – about 300mOsm.
move into the filtrate from the peritubular Ascending and descending limbs
capillaries into the tubular fluid. Most of Henle, create a counter current
of the water is absorbed in the proximal multiplier (interaction between flow of
convoluted tubule and Na1 is exchanged filtrate through the limbs of Henle’s and
for water in the loop of Henle. Hypotonic JMN) by active transport. Figure 8.8 (a)
fluid enters the distal convoluted tubule shows the counter current multiplier
and substances such as urea and salts pass created by the long loops of Henle of the
from peritubular blood into the cells of JM nephrons which creates medullary
DCT. The urine excreted contains both osmotic gradient.
filtered and secreted substances. Once
As the fluid enters the descending
it enters the collecting duct, water is
limb, water moves from the lumen into
absorbed and concentrated hypertonic
the interstitial fluid and the osmolarity of
urine is formed. For every H1 secreted
interstitial fluid decreases. To counteract
into the tubular filtrate, a Na1 is absorbed
this dilution the region of the ascending
by the tubular cell. The H1 secreted
limb actively pumps solutes from the
combines with HCO32, HPO32 and NH32
lumen into the interstitial fluid and the
and gets fixed as H2CO41, H2PO41 and
osmolarity increases to about 1200mOsm
NH41 respectively. Since H1 gets fixed in
in medulla. This mismatch between water
the fluid, reabsorption of H1 is prevented.
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and salts creates osmotic gradient in the results in passive uptake of solutes and loss
medulla. The osmotic gradient is also due of water in descending vasa recta. As the
to the permeability of the collecting duct blood enters the cortex, the osmolarity in
to urea. the blood decreases (300mOsm) and the
The vasa recta, maintains the blood loses solutes and gains water.
medullary osmotic gradient via counter At the final stage in collecting duct to
current exchanger (the flow of blood form concentrated urine (hypertonic).
through the ascending and descending vasa Human kidneys can produce urine nearly
recta blood vessels) by passive transport. four times concentrated than the initial
Figure 8.8 (b) shows counter current filtrate formed.
exchanger where the vasa recta preserves
List the pathways involved in the
the medullary gradient while removing
homeostatic compensation in case of
reabsorbed water and solutes. This system
severe dehydration.
does not produce an osmotic gradient,
but protects the medulla by removal of
excess salts from the interstitial fluid and 8.4 Regulation of kidney
removing reabsorbed water. The vasa recta function
leave the kidney at the junction between the
cortex and medulla. The interstitial fluid at ADH and Diabetes insipidus
this point is iso-osmotic to the blood. The functioning of kidneys is efficiently
When the blood leaves the efferent monitored and regulated by hormonal
arteriole and enters vasa recta the osmolarity feedback control mechanism involving
in the medulla increases (1200mOsm) and the hypothalamus, juxta glomerular
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Figure 8.8 (a) Counter current multiplier – the long loops of Henle of the juxtamedullary
nephrons create the medullary osmotic gradient (b) Counter current exchanger – Vasa recta
preserves the medullary gradient while removing reabsorbed water and solutes.
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apparatus and to a certain extent the heart. Renin angiotensin

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are
Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) is a
activated by changes in the blood volume,
specialized tissue in the afferent arteriole of
body fluid volume and ionic concentration.
the nephron that consists of macula densa
When there is excessive loss of fluid from
the body or when there is an increase in the and granular cells. The macula densa cells
blood pressure, the osmoreceptors of the sense distal tubular flow and affect afferent
hypothalamus respond by stimulating the arteriole diameter, whereas the granular
neurohypophysis to secrete the antidiuretic cells secrete an enzyme called renin. A fall
hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (a positive in glomerular blood flow, glomerular blood
feedback). ADH facilitates reabsorption pressure and glomerular filtration rate,
of water by increasing the number of can activate JG cells to release renin which
aquaporins on the cell surface membrane of converts a plasma protein, angiotensinogen
the distal convoluted tubule and collecting
duct. This increase in aquaporins causes the Angiotensin Converting Enzyme
movement of water from the lumen into the inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) are used
interstitial cells, thereby preventing excess to treat high blood pressure. Using a
loss of water by diuresis. When you drink flow chart, explain why these drugs are
excess amounts of your favourite juice, helpful in treating hypertension.
osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus is no
longer stimulated and the release
of ADH is suppressed from Decreased
extracellular
the neurohypophysis (negative fluid volume
feedback) and the aquaporins of

Increased Decreased fluid (and/
Decreased
the collecting ducts move into blood pressure
sympathetic or sodium) delivery to
stimulation the distal tubule
the cytoplasm. This makes the
collecting ducts impermeable to Increased renin
secretion
water and the excess fluid flows
down the collecting duct without
Increased
any water loss. Hence dilute urine plasma Increased conversion
of angiotensinogen to
concentration
is produced to maintain the blood of angiotensin I
potassium
volume. Vasopressin secretion
is controlled by positive and Severe Increased conversion
of angiotensin I to
negative feedback mechanism. decrease plasma
in
angiotensin II by
concentration converting enzyme
Defects in ADH receptors or of sodium
inability to secrete ADH leads
to a condition called diabetes Increased
secretion of
Constriction of Increased Increased
blood vessels reabsorption of thirst
insipidus, characterized by aldosterone sodium by
proximal tubule
excessive thirst and excretion of
large quantities of dilute urine Increased reabsorption Figure 8.9 Schematic representations
of sodium by distal tubule
resulting in dehydration and fall increased secretion of of the various hormones in the
in blood pressure.
potassium regulation of body fluid concentration
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(synthesized in the liver) to angiotensin urination. Urine formed by the nephrons

I. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is ultimately carried to the urinary
converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II. bladder where it is stored till it receives a
Angiotensin II stimulates Na1 reabsorption voluntary signal from the central nervous
in the proximal convoluted tubule by system. The stretch receptors present
vasoconstriction of the blood vessels and in the urinary bladder are stimulated
increases the glomerular blood pressure. when it gets filled with urine. Stretching
Angiotensin II acts at different sites such of the urinary bladder stimulates the
as heart, kidney, brain, adrenal cortex and CNS via the sensory neurons of the
blood vessels. It stimulates adrenal cortex to parasympathetic nervous system and
secrete aldosterone that causes reabsorption brings about contraction of the bladder.
of Na1, K1 excretion and absorption of Simultaneously, somatic motor neurons
water from the distal convoluted tubule induce the sphincters to close. Smooth
and collecting duct. This increases the muscles contracts resulting in the opening
glomerular blood pressure and glomerular of the internal sphincters passively and
filtration rate. This complex mechanism is relaxing the external sphincter. When
generally known as Renin- Angiotensin- the stimulatory and inhibitory controls
Aldosterone System (RAAS). Figure 8.9 exceed the threshold, the sphincter opens
shows the schematic representation of the and the urine is expelled out.
various hormones in the regulation of body
An adult human on an average excretes
fluid concentration.
1 to 1.5 L of urine per day. The urine
formed is a yellow coloured watery fluid
Atrial natriuretic factor
which is slightly acidic in nature (pH 6.0),
Excessive stretch of cardiac atrial cells cause Changes in diet may cause pH to vary
an increase in blood flow to the atria of the between 4.5 to 8.0 and has a characteristic
heart and release Atrial Natriuretic Peptide odour. The yellow colour of the urine
or factor (ANF) travels to the kidney where is due to the presence of a pigment,
it increases Na1 excretion and increases urochrome. On an average, 25-30 gms of
the blood flow to the glomerulus, acting
on the afferent glomerular arterioles as a Hypotonic urine is formed when
vasodilator or on efferent arterioles as a osmotic pressure of the body fluid is
vasoconstrictor. It decreases aldosterone decreased due to water retention or
release from the adrenal cortex and solute loss when ADH secretion is
also decreases release of renin, thereby lowered. If you drink large volume of
decreasing angiotensin II. ANF acts water without eating anything salty,
antagonistically to the renin- angiotensin the total body fluid volume increases
system, aldosterone and vasopressin. quickly and the osmolarity decreases.
The kidneys increases the volume of
8.5 Micturition urine excreted. The reverse happens
when you eat salty food without
The process of release of urine from
drinking water.
the bladder is called micturition or
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urea is excreted per day. Various metabolic bacteria into the urethra. The urethral mucosa
disorders can affect the composition is continuous with the urinary tract and the
of urine. Analysis of urine helps in inflammation of the urethra (urethritis) can
clinical diagnosis of various metabolic ascend the tract to cause bladder inflammation
disorders and the malfunctioning of the (cystitis) or even renal inflammation (pyelitis
kidneys. For example the presence of or pyelonephritis). Symptoms include
glucose (glucosuria) and ketone bodies dysuria (painful urination), urinary urgency,
(ketonuria) in the urine are indications fever and sometimes cloudy or blood tinged
of diabetes mellitus. urine. When the kidneys are inflammed,
back pain and severe headache often occur.
8.6 Role of other organs in Most urinary tract infections can be treated
excretion by antibiotics.
Apart from kidneys, organs such as lungs, Renal Failure (Kidney Failure)
liver and skin help to remove wastes. Our Failure of the kidneys to excrete wastes
lungs remove large quantities of carbon may lead to accumulation of urea with
dioxide (18 L/day) and significant quantities marked reduction in the urine output.
Renal failure are of two types, Acute and
of water every day. Liver secretes bile
chronic renal failure. In acute renal failure
containing substances like, bilirubin and
the kidney stops its function abruptly, but
biliverdin, cholesterol, steroid hormones,
there are chances for recovery of kidney
vitamins and drugs which are excreted out functions. In chronic renal failure there
along with the digestive wastes. is a progressive loss of function of the
Sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin nephrons which gradually decreases the
eliminate certain wastes through their function of kidneys.
secretions. Sweat produced by the sweat Uremia
glands primarily helps to cool the body and Uremia is characterized by increase in
secondarily excretes Na1 and Cl2, small urea and other non-protein nitrogenous
quantities of urea and lactate. Sebaceous substances like uric acid and creatinine in
glands eliminate certain substances like blood. Normal urea level in human blood
sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes through is about 17-30mg/100mL of blood. The urea
sebum that provides a protective oily covering concentration rises as 10 times of normal
for the skin. Small quantities of nitrogenous levels during chronic renal failure.
wastes are also excreted through saliva. Renal calculi
Kidney stone or calculi, also called renal
8.7 Disorders related to the stone or nephrolithiasis, is the formation of
Excretory System hard stone like masses in the renal tubules
Urinary tract infection of renal pelvis. It is mainly due to the
accumulation of soluble crystals of salts of
Female’s urethra is very short and its external
sodium oxalates and certain phosphates.
opening is close to the anal opening, hence
This result in severe pain called “renal colic
improper toilet habits can easily carry faecal
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Figure 8.10 Simplified diagram of hemodialysis
pain” and can cause scars in the kidneys. adding an anticoagulant like heparin. The
Renal stones can be removed by techniques tiny pores in the dialysis tube allows small
like pyleothotomy or lithotripsy. molecules such as glucose, salts and urea
Glomerulonephritis to enter into the water bath, whereas blood
cells and protein molecules do not enter
It is also called Bright’s disease and is
these pores. This stage is similar to the
characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli
of both kidneys and is usually due to post- filtration process in the glomerulus. The
streptococcal infection that occurs in children. dialysing liquid in the water bath consists
Symptoms are haematuria, proteinuria, salt of solution of salt and sugar in correct
and water retention, oligouria, hypertension proportion in order to prevent loss of
and pulmonary oedema. glucose and essential salts from the blood.
The cleared blood is then pumped back to
8.8 Haemodialysis the body through a vein Figure 8.10.
Malfunctiong of the kidneys can lead Kidney Transplantation
to accumalation of urea and other toxic It is the ultimate method for correction
substances, leading to kidney failure. In of acute renal failures. This involves transfer
such patients toxic urea can be removed of healthy kidney from one person (donor)
from the blood by a process called to another person with kidney failure. The
haemodialysis. A dialyzing machine or an donated kidney may be taken from a healthy
artificial kidney is connected to the patient’s person who is declared brain dead or from
body. A dialyzing machine consists of a sibling or close relatives to minimise the
long cellulose tube surrounded by the chances of rejection by the immune system
dialysing fluid in a water bath. The patient’s of the host. Immunosuppressive drugs are
blood is drawn from a conveinent artery usually administered to the patient to avoid
and pumped into the dialysing unit after tissue rejection.
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by Malphigian tubules. Ion and water

The world’s first
regulation in vertebrates are carried out by
successful human
the kidneys. The functional units of kidney is
kidney transplantation
the nephron. Urine is formed by 3 processes,
was performed from
Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption
one twins to antoher by Joseph
and tubular secretion. Filtration occurs
E. Murray and his colleagues at Peter
at the glomerulus, a ball of capillaries
Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston in 1954.
surrounded by the Bowman’s capsule. From
The first ever human kidney transplant
the Bowman’s capsule the primary urine
performed in India was done at the
enters the proximal tubule, and proceeds
King Edward Memorial Hospital at
to the loop of Henle, with its ascending and
Mumbai in May 1965, using a cadaver
descending limbs. The hypertonic fluid then
donor in a non-renal failure patient
flows to the distal tubule and through the
who had had hypernephroma. The first
collecting duct into the ureters, the urinary
successful live donor kidney transplant
bladder, after a short storage it is sent out of
in India was done at Christian
the urethra. Central to the nephron is the
Medical College Hospital, Vellore
counter current system set up between the
in January 1971 by Dr. Johnny and
loop of Henle and the collecting duct along
Dr. Mohan Rao.
with the capillaries that serve the nephron.
Kidney function is regulated at different
Summary levels. GFR is affected by colloidal osmotic
Epithelial tissues are the interface pressure and capsular hydrostatic pressure
between internal fluids and the external between the glomerulus and Bowman’s
environment, creating osmotic barriers capsule, surface area available for filtration
in lower organisms. Other specialized are the factors that affect filtration pressure.
epithelial tissues that mediate osmotic and The kidneys act only on the plasma, yet the
ionic regulation are gills, digestive tract and extra cellular fluid consists of both plasma
specialized excretory tissues in different and interstitial fluid. The interstitial fluid is
animal groups. Animals remove toxic the true internal fluid environment of the
ammonia to less toxic forms by excretion. body. Interstitial fluid is the only component
Three main strategies of nitrogen excretion that comes in direct contact with the cells.
are ammonoteles (ammonium), Uricoteles Thus by performing regulatory and excretory
(uric acid) and Ureotelism (Urea). Most roles on the plasma, the kidneys maintains
aquatic animals are ammonotelic, whereas the proper interstitial fluid environment for
terrestrial animals are uricotelic (reptiles optimum cell functioning.
and birds) or ureoteles (mammals). Urea is
produced by the Ornithine cycle/Urea cycle Various hormones control diuresis.
in the liver. Vasopressin alters the permeability of the
collecting duct, the renin- angiotensin
Invertebrates have primitive kidneys system, sympathetic system and aldosterone
such as protonephridia and metanephridia. act together to regulate Na1, K1, water and
Water balance in insects is regulated pressure balance.
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Activity
Visit a nearby health center to observe the analysis of urine. Dip strips can be used to
test urine for a range of different factors such as pH, glucose, ketones and proteins.
Dip sticks used for detecting glucose contain two enzymes namely, glucose oxidase
and peroxidase. These two enzymes are immobilized on a small pad at one end of the
stick. The pad is immersed in urine. If the urine contains glucose, a brown coloured
compound is produced. The resulting colour pad is matched against a colour chart.
The colour does not indicate the current blood glucose concentrations.
Both the kidneys of Ravi (28 years) were not functioning and he
was undergoing dialysis. He was admitted to a hospital with renal
failure. His mother Suganthi (47 years) was willing to donate one
of her kidneys to her son after she was given counseling. Their
blood groups were matching and later approval was obtained from
transplant committee and technical committee. Operation was performed for 5 hrs.
He was administered with immunosuppressive drugs and anti inflammatory drugs. He
recovered from the operation and returned home.
1. Name the disease Ravi was suffering from.
2. What relation is the donor of the kidney
3. Name the type of matching done to perform the transplant.
4. Why approval has to be got from transplant committee and technical committee?
5. What do you think about Suganthi donating her kidney?
Evaluation formed
1. Concentration of urine depends upon c. The urine will be more concentrated
which part of the nephron d. The urine will be more dilute
a. Bowman’s capsule 3.
What will happen if the stretch
b. Length of Henle’s receptors of the urinary bladder wall
loop are totally removed?
c. P.C.T. a. Micturition will continue
d. Network of b. Urine will be continue to collect
capillaries arising from glomerulus normally in the bladder
2.
If Henle’s loop were absent from c. There will be micturition
mammalian nephron, which one of
d. Urine will not collection the bladder
the following is to be expected?
4. The end product of Ornithine cycle is
a. There will be no urine formation
a. carbon dioxide b. uric acid
b. There will be hardly any change in
the quality and quantity of urine c. urea d. ammonia
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5. Identify the wrong match 11.

The hormone which helps in the
a. Bowman’s - Glomerular reabsorption of water in kidney tubules is
capsule filteration a. cholecystokinin
b. DCT - Absorption of b. angiotensin II
glucose
c. antidiuretic hormone
c. Henle’s loop - Concentration
of urine d. pancreozymin
12. Malpighian tubules remove excretory
d. PCT - Absorption of
products from
Na1 and K1
ions a. mouth b. oesophagus
6. Podocytes are the cells present on the c. haemolymph d. alimentary canal.
a. Outer wall of Bowman’s capsule 13. Arrange the following structures in the
b. Inner wall of Bowman’s capsule order that a drop of water entering the
nephron would encounter them.
c. Neck of nephron e. Afferent arteriole
d. Wall glomerular capillaries f. Bowman’s capsule
7. Glomerular filtrate contains g. Collecting duct
a. Blood without blood cells and h. Distal tubule
proteins i. Glomerulus
b. Plasma without sugar j. Loop of Henle
c. Blood with proteins but without k. Proximal tubule
cells l. Renal pelvis
d. Blood without urea 14. Name the three filtration barriers that
8.
Kidney stones are produced due to solutes must come across as they move
deposition of uric acid and from plasma to the lumen of Bowman’s
capsule. What components of the blood
a. silicates are usually excluded by these layers?
b. minerals 15.
What forces promote glomerular
c. calcium carbonate filtration? What forces opposes
d. calcium oxalate them? What is meant by net filtration
pressure?
9.
Animal requiring minimum amount
of water to produce urine are 16. Identify the following structures and
explain their significance in renal
a. ureotelic b. ammonotelic physiology?
b. uricotelic d. chemotelic a. Juxtaglomerular apparatus
10.
Aldosterone acts at the distal b. Podocytes
convoluted tubule and collecting duct
resulting in the absorption of water c. Sphincters in the bladder
through 17. In which segment of the nephron most
a. Aquaphorins b. spectrins of the re-absorption of substances
takes place?
c. GLUT d. Chloride channels
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18. When a molecule or ion is reabsorbed k. Removal of useful substances from

from the lumen of the nephron, where glomerular filtrate.
does it go? If a solute is filtered and l. What solute the blood contains that
not reabsorbed from the tubule, where are not present in the glomerular
does it go? filtrate?
19. Which segment is the site of secretion 24. With regards to toxicity and the need
and regulated reabsorption of ions and for dilution in water, how different are
pH homeostasis? ureotelic and uricotelic excretions?
20. What solute is normally present in the Give examples of animals that use
body to estimate GFR in humans? these types of excretion?
21. Which part of the autonomic nervous 25.
Differentiate protonephridia from
system is involved in micturition metanephridia.
process? 26.
What is the nitrogenous waste
22. If the afferent arteriole of the nephron produced by amphibian larvae and by
constricts, what happens to the GFR in the adult animal?
that nephron? If the efferent arteriole 27. How is urea formed in the human body?
constricts what happens to the GFR
in that nephron? Assume that no auto 28. Differentiate cortical from medullary
regulation takes place. nephrons.
23. Identfiy the biological term 29.
What vessels carry blood to the
kidneys? Is this blood arterial or

Excretion, glomerulus, urinary venous?
bladder, glomerular filtrate, ureters,
urine, Bowman’s capsule, urinary 30.
Which vessels drain filtered blood
system, reabsorption, micturition, from the kidneys?
osmosis, proteins, homeostasis. 31. What is tubular secretion? Name the
a. A liquid which gathers in the bladder. substances secreted through the renal
tubules.
b. Produced when blood is filtered in a
Bowman’s capsule. 32.
How are the kidneys involved in
controlling blood volume? How is the
c. Temporary storage of urine. volume of blood in the body related to
d. A ball of inter twined capillaries. arterial pressure?
e.
Removal of unwanted substances 33.
Name the three main hormones
from the body. involved in the regulation of the renal
f. Each contains a glomerulus. function?
g. C
arry urine from the kidneys to the 34. What is the function of antidiuretic
bladder. hormone? Where is it produced and
what stimuli increases or decreases its
h. Scientific term for urination. secretion?
i.
Regulation of water and dissolved 35. What is the effect of aldosterone on
substances in blood and tissue fluid. kidneys and where is it produced?
j. C onsists of the kidneys, ureters and 36. Explain the heart’s role in secreting a
bladder. hormone that regulates renal function?
What hormone is this?
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Concept Map
153

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ICT Corner
Let go away
Glomerulus Distal tubule
Efferent
arteriole
Bowman’s
capsule
Macula
densa
4
5
1
Let’s explore the
Biomed Heads-Kidney
Granular
cells 2
Afferent 3 Proximal
arteriole
and understand the

tubule
functions of the nephron.

Collecting
duct
Loop
Step – 1 of
henle
Use the URL to land in ‘Biomed heads-Kidney’ page. Click ‘Continue’ button near
the kidney diagram to download an interactive flash file.
Step – 2
Open the flash file and then click ‘Continue’ button to start the interactive activity.
Step – 3
By selecting the molecules given in the list, you can understand how the nephrons
process these molecules in accordance to their properties.
Step – 4
Use the drop-down menu on the top right corner of the window to understand the parts
of the nephron and their functions.
Biomed heads-Kidney function’s URL:
http://www.biomedheads.com/kidney--nephrons.html
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UNIT IV Chapter 9
Locomotion and
Movement
Chapter Outline
9.1 Types of movement

9.2 Types of muscles
9.3 Skeletal muscle
9.4 Structure of contractile proteins Leaping movement is effected by the coordination
of skeletal and neuromuscular systems.
9.5 Mechanism of muscle contraction
9.6 Types of skeletal muscle contraction
9.7 Properties of skeletal muscle
9.8 Skeletal system and its functions Learning Objectives:
9.9 The Axial skeleton
•• Relates the structure
9.10 The Appendicular skeleton
of skeletal muscle with
9.11 Types of joints its function.
9.12 Disorders of muscular and skeletal •• Learns to identify
system bones of the skeletal
9.13 Benefits of regular Exercise system.
9.14 Bone Fracture •• Gains knowledge about the disorders
9.15 Dislocation of joints and treatment related to muscular and skeletal
9.16 Physiotherapy systems.
•• Understands the benefits of regular
exercise.
Have you ever wondered how a dancer •• Learn different types of bone fracture
performs intricate dance steps or how and the mechanism of healing.
a swimmer skillfully does a butterfly
stroke? The muscles of our body work
simultaneously with one another and is capable of a wide range of movements
with the skeletal system to perform the from the gentle blinking of eye to running
various movements. Our muscles have a 20 km marathon. Movement of organism
two functions: to generate motion and from one place to another in search of food,
force. All these activities are controlled shelter, mate and to escape from predators
and coordinated by the skeletal, muscular is called locomotion. Locomotion has
and nervous system. The human body evolutionary significance.
155

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9.1 Types of movement as tendon. Each muscle is made up of

bundles of muscle fibres called fascicle.
The different types of movements that
Each muscle fibre contains hundreds
occur in the cells of our body are amoeboid,
to thousands of rod-like structures
ciliary, flagellar and muscular movement.
called myofibrils that run parallel to its
Amoeboid movement - Cells such as length. The connective tissue covering
macrophages exhibit amoeboid movement the whole muscle is the epimysium,
for engulfing pathogens by pseudopodia the covering around each fascicle is the
formed by the streaming movement of the perimysium and the muscle fibre is
cytoplasm. surrounded by the endomysium. They
Ciliary movement - This type of control the voluntary actions such as
movement occurs in the respiratory walking, running, swimming, writing
passages and genital tracts which are lined hence termed as voluntary muscles.
by ciliated epithelial cells.
Flagellar movement - This type of 9.3.1 S
tructure of a skeletal
movement occurs in the cells which muscle fibre
are having flagella or whip-like motile
Each muscle fibre is thin and elongated.
organelle. The sperm cells show flagellar
Most of them taper at one or both ends.
movement.
Muscle fibre has multiple oval nuclei
Muscular movement -The movement just beneath its plasma membrane or
of hands, legs, jaws, tongue are caused sarcolemma. The cytoplasm of the muscle
by the contraction and relaxation of the fibre is called the sarcoplasm. It contains
muscle which is termed as the muscular glycosomes, myoglobin and sarcoplasmic
movement. reticulum. Myoglobin is a red- coloured
respiratory pigment of the muscle fibre.
9.2 Types of muscles It is similar to haemoglobin and contains
iron group that has affinity towards oxygen
Muscles are specialized tissues which are
and serves as the reservoir of oxygen.
derived from the embryonic mesoderm.
Glycosomes are the granules of stored
They are made of cells called myocytes
glycogen that provide glucose during the
and constitute 40 – 50 percent of body
period of muscle fibre activity. Actin and
weight in an adult. These cells are bound
myosin are muscle proteins present in the
together by a connective tissue to form a
muscle fibre.
muscular tissue. The muscles are classified
into three types, namely skeletal, visceral Along the length of each myofibril
and cardiac muscles. there are a repeated series of dark and light
bands (Figure 9.1). The dark A-bands
(Anisotropic bands) and the light I-bands
9.3 Skeletal muscle (Isotropic bands) are perfectly aligned
(Voluntary muscle) with one another. This type of arrangement
Skeletal muscle is attached to the bone gives the cell a striated appearance. Each
by a bundle of collagen fibres known dark band has a lighter region in its middle
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by a dark line called the M-line (M-for
middle). The light I-bands also have
a darker mid line area called the
Z–disc (from the German
"Zwischenscheibe" the disc inbetween the
I-bands). Figure 9.1 Organizational level of a
skeletal muscle
The myofibrils contain the contractile
element, the sarcomere which is the 9.4 Structure of contractile
functional unit of the skeletal muscle. A proteins
Sarcomere is the region of a myofibril Contraction of the muscle depends on the
between two successive Z-discs. It presence of contractile proteins (Figure
contains an A-band with a half I-band at
9.2) such as actin and myosin in the
each end. Inside the sarcomere two types
myofilaments. The thick filaments are
of filaments are present namely the thick
composed of the protein myosin which are
and thin filaments.
bundled together whose heads produce
The thick filaments extend the entire at opposite ends of the filament. Each
length of the A-band, the thin filaments
myosin molecule is made up of a monomer
extend across the I-band and partly into
called meromyosin. The meromyosin has
the A-band. The invagination of the
two regions, a globular head with a short
sarcolemma forms transverse tubules
arm and a tail. The short arm constitutes
(T–tubules) and they penetrate into the
the heavy meromyosin (HMM). The
junction between the A and I-bands.
tail portion forms the light meromyosin
Muscle Terminology (LMM). The head bears an actin-binding
General Term Muscle Equivalent site and an ATP- binding site. It also
Cell Muscle fibre/ Myofibril contains ATPase enzyme that split ATP
Plasma membrane Sarcolemma to generate energy for the contraction of
Cytoplasm Sarcoplasm muscle. The thin filaments are composed
Endoplasmic Sarcoplasmic reticulum of two interwined actin molecules. Actin
reticulum has polypeptide subunits called globular
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actin or G–actin and filamentous form or 9.5 Mechanism of muscle

F-actin. Each thin filament is made of two
contraction
F-actins helically wound to each other.
Each F-actin is a polymer of monomeric Sliding filament theory: In 1954, Andrew F.
G-actins. It also contains a binding site Huxley and Rolf Niedergerke proposed the
for myosin. The thin filaments also sliding-filament theory to explain muscle
contain several regulatory proteins like contraction. According to this theory,
tropomyosin and troponin which help overlapping actin and myosin filaments of
in regulating the contraction of muscles fixed length slide past one another in an
along with actin and myosin. energy requiring process, resulting in muscle
7KLFNILODPHQW
contraction. The contraction of muscle fibre
(DFKWKLFNILODPHQWFRQVLVWVRIPDQ\P\RVLQ is a remarkable process that helps in creating
PROHFXOHVZKRVHKHDGVSURGXFHDWRSSRVLWH
HQGVRIWKHILODPHQW a force to move or to resist a load. The force
3RUWLRQRIDWKLFNILODPHQW which is created by the contracting muscle is
0\RVLQKHDG
called muscle tension. The load is a weight or
force that opposes contraction of a muscle.
Contraction is the creation of tension in
the muscle which is an active process and
relaxation is the release of tension created by
$FWLQELQGLQJVLWHV contraction. Muscle contraction is initiated by
+HDGV
7DLO a nerve impulse sent by the central nervous
$73ELQGLQJVLWH
system (CNS) through a motor neuron. The
)OH[LEOH +00 /00 junction between the motor neuron and the
KLQJHUHJLRQ
sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called the
0\RVLQPROHFXOH
neuromuscular junction or motor end plate.
7KLQILODPHQW When nerve impulse reaches a neuromuscular
$WKLQILODPHQWFRQVLVWVRIWZRVWUDQGVRIDFWLQ junction, acetylcholine is released. It initiates
VXEXQLWVWZLVWHGLQWRDKHOL[SOXVWZRW\SHVRI
UHJXODWRU\SURWHLQVWURSRQLQDQGWURSRP\RVLQ the opening of multiple gated channels in
3RUWLRQRIDWKLQILODPHQW sarcolemma. The action potential travels
7URSRP\RVLQ 7URSRQLQ $FWLQ along the T-tubules and triggers the release of
calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The released calcium ions bind to troponin
*DFWLQ )DFWLQ
on thin filaments. The tropomyosin uncovers
PROHFXOHV VWUDQGV the myosin-binding sites on thin filaments.
Now the active sites are exposed to the heads
of myosin to form a cross-bridge (Figure
$FWLQ 9.3). During cross-bridge formation actin
VXEXQLWV $FWLYHVLWHV
IRUP\RVLQ and myosin form a protein complex called
DWWDFKPHQW
actomyosin. Utilizing the energy released
$FWLQVXEXQLWV
from hydrolysis of ATP, the myosin head
Figure 9. 2 Composition of thick and thin rotates until it forms a 90o angle with the long
filaments axis of the filament. In this position myosin
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binds to an actin and activates a contraction – broken. At the end of each power stroke, each
relaxation cycle which is followed by a power myosin head detaches from actin, then swivels
stroke. back and binds to a new actin molecule to start
The power stroke (cross-bridge tilting) another contraction cycle. This movement is
begins after the myosin head and hinge region similar to the motion of an oar on a boat. At
tilt from a 90° angle to a 45° angle. The cross- the end of each power stroke, each myosin
bridge transforms into strong, high-force head detaches from actin, then swivels back
bond which allows the myosin head to swivel. and binds to a new actin molecule to start
When the myosin head swivels it pulls the another contraction cycle. The power stroke
attached actin filament towards the centre of repeats many times until a muscle fibre
the A-band. The myosin returns back to its contracts. The myosin heads bind, push and
relaxed state and releases ADP and phosphate release actin molecules over and over as the
ion. A new ATP molecule then binds to the thin filaments move toward the centre of the
head of the myosin and the cross-bridge is sarcomere. The repeated formation of cross-
bridge cycles cause the
6DUFRPHUH
sliding of the filaments
7KLFNILODPHQW only but there is no change
7KLQILODPHQW in the lengths of either the
thick or thin filaments.
The Z- discs attached to
$FWLQ &D

7KLQILODPHQW
the actin filaments are
also pulled inwards from
&RFNLQJRIP\RVLQ &URVVEULGJH
KHDG$V$73LV IRUPDWLRQ(QHUJL]HG
both the sides, causing the
0\RVLQKHDG $'3
K\GURO\]HGWR$'3DQG
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P\RVLQKHDGDWWDFKHV
WRDFWLQP\RILODPHQW
shortening of the sarcomere
UHWXUQVWRLWVSUHVWULNH
KLJKHQHUJ\RU
IRUPLQJ (i.e. contraction). This
DFURVVEULGJH
³FRFNHG´SRVLWLRQ process continues as long
7KLFNILODPHQW
as the muscle receives the
stimuli and with a steady
flow of calcium ions. When
$'3
motor impulse stops, the
$'3
3 3 calcium ions are pumped
back into the sarcoplasmic
$73 reticulum which result in
0\RVLQ
the masking of the active
7KHSRZHUZRUNLQJ sites of the actin filaments.
VWURNH$'3DQG3LDUH
&URVVEULGJH UHOHDVHGDQGWKHP\RVLQ The myosin head fails to
GHWDFKPHQW$IWHU$73 KHDGSLYRWVDQGEHQGV
DWWDFKHVWRP\RVLQWKH FKDQJLQJWRLWVEHQW
bind with the active sites
OLQNEHWZHHQP\RVLQ
DQGDFWLQZHDNHQVDQG $73
ORZHQHUJ\VKDSH$VD
UHVXOWLWSXOOVRQWKHDFWLQ
of actin and these changes
WKHP\RVLQKHDG ILODPHQWVOLGLQJLWWRZDUG cause the return of Z-
GHWDFKHVWKHFURVV WKH0OLQH
EULGJHEUHDNV discs back to their original
position, i.e. relaxation.
Figure 9.3 Cross-bridge cycle of muscle contraction (Figure 9.3)
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=GLVF =GLVF
,EDQG $EDQG ,EDQG

)XOO\UHOD[HGVDUFRPHUHRIDPXVFOHILEUH
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+
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Figure 9.4 Sliding filament model of muscle contraction

Schematic Presentation of Muscle 9.6. Types of skeletal muscle
Contraction contraction
0OLQH
Muscle contraction is initiated by the signal from CNS
There are two primary types of muscle
contractions. They are isotonic
Release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction
contraction and isometric contraction.
The types of contractions depend on the
changes in the length and tension of the
Causes action potential in muscle fibre
muscle fibres at the time of its contraction.
=GLVF =GLVF
Triggers
,EDQG the release of calcium ions ,EDQG
$EDQG from Isotonic contraction (iso- same, ton-
sarcoplasmic reticulum
)XOO\FRQWUDFWHGVDUFRPHUHRIDPXVFOHILEUH weight/resistance)
In isotonic contraction the length of the
Calcium ions combine with troponin and
tropomyosin uncovers the binding sites on actin and muscle changes but the tension remains
initiates contraction constant. Here, the force produced is
unchanged. Example: lifting dumb bells and
Myosin binding sites on actin exposed. Myosin head weightlifting.
binds to actin
Isometric contraction ( iso- same,
metric-distance)
Myosin head executes power stroke
In isometric contraction the length of the
Actin filament slides towards the centre of sarcomere muscle does not change but the tension
(contraction) of the muscle changes. Here, the force
produced is changed. Example: pushing
Signal from CNS stops; calcium ions are pumped back against a wall, holding a heavy bag.
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Types of skeletal muscle fibres
Tropomyosin masks the binding sites. Filaments The muscle fibres can be classified on the
pulled back to the original position (relaxation)
basis of their rate of shortening, either fast
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or slow and the way in which they produce are best suited for rapid, intense actions,
the ATP needed for contraction, either such as short sprint at maximum speed.
oxidative or glycolytic. Fibres containing
myosin with high ATPase activity are Which myofilament has the binding
classified as fast fibres and with lower sites for calcium? Name the specific
ATPase activity are classified as slow molecule that binds with calcium.
fibres. Fibres that contain numerous
mitochondria and have a high capacity for
oxidative phosphorylation are classified Skeletal Muscle
as oxidative fibres. Such fibres depend on Glycogen Analysis
blood flow to deliver oxygen and nutrients (SMGA) –Used to
to the muscles. The oxidative fibres are measure an Athlete’s
termed as red muscle fibres. Fibres that sporting performance by taking
contain few mitochondria but possess a muscle biopsies. It is a standard
high concentration of glycolytic enzymes method to measure muscle glycogen.
and large stores of glycogen are called Muscle glycogen provides the main
glycolytic fibres. The lack of myoglobin source of energy during anaerobic
gives pale colour to the fibres, so they are exercise. Furthermore, total glycogen
termed as white muscle fibres. stores within the body also contribute
significantly to energy metabolism
Skeletal muscle fibres are further
in endurance-type events lasting
classified into three types based on the
longer in duration. A single glycogen
above classification. They are slow –
molecule may contain 5000 glucose
oxidative fibres, fast – oxidative fibres and
units compared to that of 5000
fast – glycolytic fibres.
individual glucose molecules.
1. Slow – oxidative fibres have low rates
of myosin ATP hydrolysis but have the
ability to make large amounts of ATP.
9.7 Properties of Skeletal
These fibres are used for prolonged, Muscles
regular activity such as long distance The four major properties of skeletal
swimming. Long – distance runners muscles are
have a high proportion of these fibres Excitability/Irritability—The ability
in their leg muscles. to respond or contract in response to
2. Fast – oxidative fibres have high myosin chemical and electrical signals.
ATPase activity and can make large Contractility—The ability to shorten
amounts of ATP. They are particularly which causes movement of the structures
suited for rapid actions. to which the muscles are attached.
3. Fast – glycolytic fibres have myosin Conductivity —Stimulus acting on
ATPase activity but cannot make as much one region of muscle fibre spreads
ATP as oxidative fibres, because their to all parts of the muscle is known as
source of ATP is glycolysis. These fibres conductivity.
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Elasticity/Distensibility—The ability to
All muscles produce movement, but
return to the original resting length after
only skeletal muscle is responsible for
a muscle has been stretched.
locomotion. What is meant by this
statement?
9.8 Skeletal system and its
function •• Protection – It protects the delicate
The skeletal system is internal organs of the body.
constituted by a framework •• Acts as reservoir – It stores minerals
of bones and cartilages. It is such as calcium and phosphate. Fat
derived from the embryonic (Triglyceride) is stored in yellow bone
mesoderm. Muscles are marrow and represents a source of
attached to the bones by stored energy for the body.
means of tendons and provide the necessary
force required for the bones of the skeleton •• Locomotion – It acts as lever along
to operate as levers. There are three types of with the muscles attached to it.
skeletal systems. They are, •• Strength – It can withstand heavy
Hydrostatic skeleton, which is found weight and absorbs mechanical shock.
in soft-bodied invertebrates. It is a fluid •• As a haemopoietic tissue – Red and
filled-cavity encircled by muscles (e.g. Earth White blood cells are produced in the
worm). bone marrow of the ribs, spongy bones
Exoskeleton, which is found in invertebrates. of vertebrae and extremities of long
It is a rigid hard case present outside the body of bones.
animals (e.g. Cockroach).
Endoskeleton, which is found inside the 9.9 The Axial skeleton
body of vertebrates. It is composed of bones and Axial skeleton forms the main axis of the
cartilages, surrounded by muscles. (eg. Human body. It consists of the skull, hyoid bone,
being). vertebral column and thoracic cage.
In human beings, the skeletal system is a) The Skull
made up of 206 bones and cartilages. It is The skull is composed of two sets of bones
grouped into two principal divisions – the – cranial and facial bones. It consists of 22
axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. bones of which 8 are cranial bones and 14
The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones and the are facial bones (Figure 9.5). The cranial
appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones bones form the hard protective outer
(Figure 9.6 and Table.1). covering of the brain and called the brain
box. The capacity of the cranium is 1500
Functions of skeletal system
cm3.. These bones are joined by sutures
•• Support –It forms a rigid framework
which are immovable. They are a paired
and supports the weight of the body
parietal, paired temporal and individual
against gravity.
bones such as the frontal, sphenoid,
•• Shape - It provides and maintains the
occipital and ethmoid.
shape of the body.
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Figure 9. 5 Structure of the skull
The large hole in the temporal bone known as intervertebral disc (Figure 9.6).
is the external auditory meatus. In the The vertebral column extends from the
facial bones maxilla, zygomatic, palatine, base of the skull to the pelvis and forms the
lacrimal, nasal are paired bones whereas main frame work of the trunk. The vertebral
mandible or lower jaw and vomer are column has five major regions. They are,
unpaired bones. They form the front part the Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacrum
of the skull. A single U-shaped hyoid bone (5 sacral vertebrae found in the infant which
is present at the base of the buccal cavity. are fused to form one bone in the adult) and
It is the only one bone without any joint.
Each middle ear contains three tiny bones-
malleus, incus and stapes collectively
are called ear ossicles. The upper jaw is
formed of the maxilla and the lower jaw is

formed of the mandible. The upper jaw is &HUYLFDO

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fused with the cranium and is immovable.

The lower jaw is connected to the cranium

by muscles and is movable. The most

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orbits and the nasal cavity. Foramen

magnum is a large opening found at the
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Vertebral column is also called the back bone. &RFF\[
It consists of 33 serially arranged vertebrae IXVHG
which are interc onnected by cartilage Figure 9. 6 Vertebral Column

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Coccyx (4 coccygeal vertebrae found in the

infant which are fused to form one bone in
the adult).

Each vertebra has a central hollow 7UXHULEV 6WHUQXP
portion, the neural canal, through which
the spinal cord passes. The first vertebra is
called as the atlas and the second vertebra
is called as the axis. Atlas is articulated with
the occipital condyles.

)DOVHULEV
The vertebral column protects the
spinal cord, supports the head and serves 9HUWHEUDOERQH
as the point of attachment for the ribs and )ORDWLQJULEV

musculature of the back.
Figure 9.7 Rib cage
(c) The Sternum (Chest bone) 9.10 The Appendicular

Sternum is a flat bone on the mid ventral skeleton
line of the thorax. It provides space for
The bones of the upper and lower limbs
the attachment of the thoracic ribs and
along with their girdles constitute the
abdominal muscles.
appendicular skeleton. The appendicular
(d) The Rib cage skeleton is composed of 126 bones.
There are 12 pairs of ribs (Figure 9.7). Each (a) The Pectoral girdle
rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to The upper limbs are attached to the pectoral
the vertebral column and ventrally to the girdles. These are very light and allow the
sternum. It has two articulation surfaces upper limbs a degree of mobility not seen
on its dorsal end, hence called bicephalic. anywhere else in the body. The girdle is
The first seven pairs of ribs are called ‘true formed of two halves. Each half of the
ribs’ or vertebro–sternal ribs. Dorsally pectoral girdle (Figure 9.8) consists of a
they are attached to the thoracic vertebrae clavicle or collar bone and a scapula. The
and ventrally connected to the sternum scapula is a large, thin, triangular bone
with the help of hyaline cartilages. The 8th, situated in the dorsal surface of the ribcage
9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate between the second and seventh ribs. It has
directly with the sternum but joined with a slightly elevated ridge called the spine
the cartilaginous (hyaline cartilage) part of which projects as a flat, expanded process
the seventh rib. These are called ‘false ribs’ called the acromion. The clavicle articulates
or vertebro-chondral ribs. The last 11th and with this process. Below the acromion is a
12th pairs of ribs are not connected ventrally. depression called the glenoid cavity which
Therefore, they are called as ‘floating ribs’ articulates with the head of the humerus
or vertebral ribs. Thoracic vertebrae, ribs to form the shoulder joint. Each clavicle is
and sternum together form the ribcage. a long slender bone with two curvatures
Rib cage protects the lungs, heart, liver which lies horizontally and connects axial
and also plays a role in breathing. skeleton with appendicular skeleton.
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The Upper limb Carpals,the wrist bones, 8 in number

are arranged in two rows of four each. The
The upper limb consists of 30 separate
anterior surface of the wrist has tunnel-
bones and is specialized for mobility. The
like appearance, due to the arrangement of
skeleton of the arm, the region between
carpals with the ligaments. This tunnel is
the shoulder and elbow is the humerus.
termed as carpal tunnel.
The head of humerus articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula and forms the
CTS-(Carpal Tunnel Syndrome) –
shoulder joint. The distal end of humerus
The narrow passage (tunnel) bounded
articulates with the two forearm bones
by bones and ligaments in the wrist
the radius and ulna. The forearm is the
gets narrowed and pinches the median
region between the elbow and the wrist.
nerve. This syndrome is mostly seen
Olecranon process is situated at the upper
among the clerks, software professionals
end of the ulna which forms the pointed
and pregnant women and people who
portion of the elbow.The hand consists of
constantly play or text in mobile phones.
carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
&ODYLFOH Metacarpals,the palm bones are 5 in
$FURPLRQ
number and phalanges the digits bones are
*OHQRLG
FDYLW\ 14 in number.
6KRXOGHUMRLQW
6FDSXOD (b) Pelvic Girdle
The pelvic girdle is a heavy structure
+XPHUXV specialized for weight bearing. It is composed
of two hip bones called coxal bones that
secure the lower limbs to the axial skeleton
(Figure 9.9). Together, with the sacrum and
coccyx, the hip bones form the basin-like
bony pelvis.
(OERZMRLQW
2OHFUDQRQ Each coxal bone consists of three fused
SURFHVV
bones, ilium, ischium and pubis. At the
8OQD
point of fusion of ilium, ischium, and pubis
a deep hemispherical socket called the
5DGLXV
acetabulum is present on the lateral surface
of the pelvis. It receives the head of the femur
or thigh bone at the hip joint and helps in the
articulation of the femur. Ventrally the two
:ULVWMRLQW
&DUSDOV halves of the pelvic girdle meet and form
0HWDFDUSDOV
the pubic symphysis containing fibrous
cartilage.
3KDODQJHV
The ilium is the superior flaring
portion of the hip bone. Each ilium forms
Figure 9. 8 Pectoral girdle with upper limb
a secure joint with the sacrum posteriorly.
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The ischium is a curved bar of bone. The when we jump or run. The bones of the
V-shaped pubic bones articulate anteriorly lower limbs are thicker and stronger than
at the pubic symphysis. The pelvis of male is the upper limbs. The three segments of
deep and narrow with larger heavier bones each lower limb are the thigh, the leg
and the female is shallow, wide and flexible or the shank and the foot. The femur
in nature, and this helps during pregnancy is the single bone of the thigh. It is the
largest, longest and strongest bone in
which is influenced by female hormones.
the body. The head of femur articulates
with the acetabulum of the pelvis to
The pelvic girdle is a heavy, strong
form the hip joint. Two parallel bones,
girdle. How does its structure reflect its
the tibia and fibula, form the skeleton
function?
of the shank. A thick, triangular patella
forms the knee cap, which protects the
knee joint anteriorly and improves the
,OLXP leverage of thigh muscles acting across
the knee. The foot includes the bones
3XELV $FHWDEXOXP
+LSMRLQW of ankle, the tarsus, the metatarsus
,VFKLXP
and the phalanges or toe bones. The
3XELF foot supports our body weight and acts
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as a lever to propel the body forward,
while walking and running. The tarsus
)HPXU is made up of seven bones called tarsals.
The metatarsus consists of five bones
3DWHOOD
called metatarsals. The arrangement of
7LELD
the metatarsals is parallel to each other.
.QHH
MRLQW There are 14 phalanges in the toes which
)LEXOD are smaller than those of the fingers.
Structure of a typical long bone

A typical long bone has a diaphysis,
epiphyses (singular-epiphysis) and
membranes (Figure 9.10). A tubular
diaphysis or shaft, forms the long axis of
$QNOH
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MRLQW
the bone. It is constructed of a thick collar
0HWDWDUVDOV of compact bone that surrounds a central
3KDODQJHV medullary cavity or marrow cavity. The
epiphyses are the bone ends. Compact bone
Figure 9.9 Pelvic girdle with lower limb forms the exterior of epiphyses and their
The Lower limb interior contains spongy bone with red
The lower limb consists of 30 bones which marrow. The region where the diaphysis and
carries the entire weight of the erect body epiphyses meet is called the metaphysis. The
and is subjected to exceptional forces external surface of the entire bone except
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Table: 9.1 Bones of the skeletal system

Total
Number of
Skeleton Name of Bone number
bones
of bones
Cranium 8
Facial bone 14
Skull Bones of middle 6 29
ear (2 × 3)
Hyoid bone 1
Cervical 7
Axial skeleton Thoracic 12
(80 bones) Lumbar 5
26
Vertebral column Sacral 5 bones fused to
1 bone (in adults)
Coccyx 4 bones fused to
1 bone
Sternum 1 1
Ribs 12 × 2 = 24 24
Humerus 1
Radius 1
Ulna 1 (2 × 30)
Fore limb
Carpals 8 60
Metacarpals 5
Phalanges 14
Femur 1
Tibia 1
Appendicular Fibula 1
skeleton (2 × 30)
Hind limb Tarsal 7
(126bones) 60
Metatarsals 5
Phalanges 14
Patella (Knee bone) 1
Pectoral girdle Scapula 1 (2 × 2)
Clavicle 1 4
Pelvic girdle Innominate 1 (1 × 2)
(Ilium, ischium 2
and pubis fused
into one bone)
Total number of bones in adults 206
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the joint surface is covered by a double- 9.11 Types of joints

layered membrane called the periosteum.
Joints are essential for all types of movements
The outer fibrous layer is dense irregular
performed by the bony parts of the body.
connective tissue. The inner osteogenic
The joints are points of contact (Figure 9.11)
layer consists of osteoblasts (bone- forming
between bones.
cells) which secrete bone matrix elements
and osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells). Sometimes they are playing a protective
In addition, there are primitive stem role in the process. Force generated by the
cells, osteogenic cells, that give rise to muscles are used to carry out the movement
the osteoblasts. The periosteum is richly through joints which helps human functional
supplied with nerve fibres, lymphatic vessels activity of daily living and ambulation. The
and blood vessels. Internal bone surfaces joint acts as a fulcrum of a lever.
are covered with a delicate connective tissue (i) Fibrous joints or Synarthroses: They
membrane called the endosteum. The are immovable fixed joints in which no
endosteum covers the trabeculae of spongy movement between the bones is possible.
bone and lines the canals that pass through Sutures of the flat skull bones are fibrous
the compact bone. It also contains both joints.
osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Between the
(ii) Cartilaginous joints or
epiphysis and diaphysis epiphyseal plate or
Amphiarthroses: They are slightly
growth plate is present.
movable joints in which the joint surfaces
are separated by a cartilage and slight
Proximal
epiphysis movement is only possible. E.g., Joints
of adjacent vertebrae of the vertebral
Metaphysis
column.
Compact bone
(iii) Synovial joints or Diarthroses
joints: They are freely movable joints,
the articulating bones are seperated by a
cavity which is filled with synovial fluid.
between atlas and

Medullary Pivot joint
Diaphysis
cavity axis
Plane/gliding joint between the carpals
between the carpal
Saddle joint
and metacarpal
Ball and socket between humerus
joint and pectoral girdle
Hinge joint knee joint
Metaphysis Condyloid or
between radius and
Angular or
Distal carpal
epiphysis Ellipsoid
Figure 9.10 Structure of a long bone
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antibodies leading to weakness of muscles.

An exhausted student was attending a When the disease progresses, it can make
lecture. After 30 minutes or so, he lost chewing, swallowing, talking and even
interest and he let go with a tremendous breathing difficult.
yawn. To his great distress he couldn’t close
his mouth –his lower jaw was locked open. Tetany:
What do you think would have caused it? Rapid muscle spasms occur in the muscles
due to deficiency of parathyroid hormone
resulting in reduced calcium levels in the
Fibrous body.
joint
Muscle fatigue:
Muscle fatigue is the inability of a muscle to
Swivel joint contract after repeated muscle contractions.
/ Pivot joint
This is due to lack of ATP and accumulation
Ball and Cartilaginous joint of lactic acid by anaerobic breakdown of
Socket joint
Synchondrosis glucose
Ellipsoidal
joint Atrophy:
A decline or cessation of muscular activity
Saddle joint results in the condition called atrophy
which results in the reduction in the size of
the muscle and makes the muscle to become
Ball-and-socket weak, which occurs with lack of usage as in
joint
chronic bedridden patients.
Muscle pull:
Hinge joint Muscle pull is actually a muscle tear. A
Plane joint traumatic pulling of the fibres produces a
tear known as sprain. This can occur due
Figure 9. 11 Types of joints
to sudden stretching of muscle beyond the
point of elasticity. Back pain is a common
9.12
Disorders of muscular problem caused by muscle pull due to
and skeletal system improper posture with static sitting for long
hours.
(a) D
isorders of muscular system Muscular dystrophy:
Myasthenia gravis: The group of diseases collectively called
An autoimmune disorder the muscular dystrophy are associated
affecting the action of with the progressive degeneration and
acetylcholine at neuro- weakening of skeletal muscle fibres,
muscular junction leading leading to death from lung or heart failure.
to fatigue, weakening and The most common form of muscular
paralysis of skeletal muscles. Acetylcholine dystrophy is called Duchene Muscular
receptors on the sarcolemma are blocked by Dystrophy (DMD).
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b) Disorders of skeletal system They keep the circulatory system healthy

Arthritis and osteoporosis are the major and improve overall fitness.
disorders of skeletal system. Strength exercises make the muscles
1. Arthritis: stronger. They help to stay independent
Arthritis is an inflammatory (or) and carry out everyday activities such as
degenerative disease that damages the joints. climbing stairs and carrying bags.
There are several types of arthritis. Balance exercises help to prevent
falls which is a common problem in older
(i) Osteoarthritis: The bone ends of the
adults. Many strengthening exercises also
knees and other freely movable joints
improves balance.
wear away as a person ages. The joints
of knees, hip, fingers and vertebral Flexibility exercises help to stretch
body muscles for more freedom of joint
column are affected.
movements. Regular exercises can produce
(ii) Rheumatoid arthritis: The synovial the following beneficial physiological
membranes become inflamed and changes:
there is an accumulation of fluid in •• The muscles used in exercise grow
the joints. The joints swell and become larger and stronger.
extremely painful. It can begin at any
•• The resting heart rate goes down.
age but symptoms usually emerge
•• More enzymes are synthesized in the
before the age of fifty.
muscle fibre.
(iii) Gouty arthritis or Gout: Inflammation •• Ligaments and tendons become stronger.
of joints due to accumulation of uric •• Joints become more flexible.
acid crystals or inability to excrete it. •• Protection from heart attack.
It gets deposited in synovial joints.
•• Influences hormonal activity.
2. Osteoporosis: •• Improves cognitive functions.
It occurs due to deficiency of vitamin D and •• Prevents Obesity.
hormonal imbalance. The bone becomes •• Promotes confidence, esteem.
soft and fragile. It causes rickets in children •• Aesthetically better with good physique.
and osteomalacia in adult females. It can be
•• Over all well-being with good quality
minimized with adequate calcium intake,
of life.
vitamin D intake and regular physical
•• Prevents depression, stress and anxiety.
activities.
During muscular exercise, there is an
9.13 Benefits of regular increase in metabolism. The O2 need of the
Exercise muscles is increased. This requirement is
met with more oxygen rich RBCs available
Exercise and physical activity fall into four to the active sites. There is an increase
basic categories. Endurance, Strength, in heart rate and cardiac output. Along
Balance and Flexibility. with balanced diet, physical activity plays
Endurance or aerobic activities a significant role in strengthening the
increase the breathing and heart rate. muscles and bones.
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4. Spiral - Ragged break occurs when

excessive twisting forces are applied
to a bone (common sports fracture).
5. Greenstick - Bone breaks
incompletely, just like a green twig
breaks. It is common in children,
because of the flexibility of the bones.
6. Comminuted – Bone fragmented
Figure 9.12 Types of bone fracture into three or more pieces. Particularly
common in the aged, whose bones are
9.14 Bone Fracture brittle (hard but easily broken).
Even though the bones are strong, they 9.14.1 M

echanism and healing of a
are also susceptible to fractures or breaks.
bone fracture
Fractures may be classified based on the
Bone is a cellular, living tissue capable
(i) Positioning of the bone ends
of growth, self-repair and remodeling
(ii) completeness of the break
in response to physical stresses. In the
(iii) orientation of the break relative to the adult skeleton, bone deposit and bone
long axis of the bone and resorption occur. These two processes
(iv) penetration through the skin. In addition together constitute in remodeling of bone.
to the above classifications, all fractures There are four major stages in repairing a
can be described in terms of the location simple fracture (Figure 9.13).
of the fracture, the external appearance 1. Formation of haematoma
of the fracture or the nature of the break When a bone breaks the blood vessels
(Figure 9.12). in the bone and surrounding tissues
are torn and results in haemorrhage.
The following are the common types of Due to this a haematoma, a mass of
fractures, clotted blood forms at the fracture site.
1. Tranverse - A fracture that is at right The tissues at the site becomes swollen,
angle to the bone's long axis. painful and inflammed. The death of
bone cells, occur due to lack of nutrition.
2. Oblique non-displaced-A fracture
that is diagonal to the bone's long axis 2. Formation of fibrocartilaginous callus
and the fractured bone is not displaced Within a few days several events lead
from its position. to the formation of soft granulation
tissue called callus. Capillaries grow
3. Oblique displaced - A fracture that into the haematoma and phagocytic
is diagonal to the bone's long axis and cells invade the area and begin to
the fractured bone is displaced from clean up the debris. Meanwhile the
its position. fibroblasts and osteoblasts invade from
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the nearby periosteum and endosteum 9.15 Dislocation of joints

and begin reconstructing of the bone.
and treatment
The fibroblasts produce fibres. The
chondroblasts secrete the cartilage Dislocation of joint is the total displacement
matrix. Within this repair tissue, of the articular end of the bone from the
osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone. joint cavity. The normal alignment of the
The cartilage matrix later calcifies and bones becomes altered. Joints of the jaw,
forms the fibrocartilaginous callus. shoulders, fingers and thumbs are most
commonly dislocated.
3. F
ormation of Bony callus
Dislocations of joints are classified as (i)
New bone trabeculae begin to appear
Congenital deformities (ii) Traumatic (iii)
in the fibro cartilaginous callus.
Pathological and (iv)Paralytic.
Gradually that is converted into a bony
(hard) callus of spongy bone. Bony (i) Congenital deformities are due to
callus formation continues until a firm genetic factors or factors operating on
union is formed about two months the developing foetus.
later to an year for complete woven (ii) Traumatic dislocation is due to serious
bone formation. violence. It occurs in the shoulder,
4. R
emodeling of Bone elbow and hip.
Bony callus formation will be continued (iii) Pathological dislocation is caused by
for several months. After that the some diseases like tuberculosis. It may
bony callus is remodelled. The excess cause dislocation of the hip.
material on the diaphysis exterior (iv) Paralytic dislocation caused by
and within the medullary cavity is paralysis of one group of muscles of an
removed and the compact bone is laid extremity.
down to reconstruct the shaft walls. Treatment
The final structure of the remodelled If the joint doesn't return to normal
area resembles like the unbroken bony condition naturally the following
region. treatments should be given.
•• M
anipulation or
repositioning
•• Immobilization
•• Medication
•• Rehabilitation
9.16 Physiotherapy
Physiotherapy is the
therapeutic exercise to make
the limbs work near normally.
It is a rehabilitation profession
Figure 9.13 Mechanism and healing of bone fracture with a presence in all health
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care centres. Therapeutic exercises are A typical long bone has a diaphysis
carried out by physiotherapists. The (shaft), epiphyses (singular-epiphysis)
common problem at the end of fracture and membranes. Even though the bones
treatment is the wasting of muscles and are strong, they are also susceptible to
stiffness of joints. These problems can fractures or breaks.There are four major
be restored by the physiotherapy with stages in repairing a simple fracture.
gradual exercises. It has proven to be Physiotherapy is the therapeutic exercise
effective in the post surgery treatment to make the limbs work near normally.
and management of arthritis, spondylosis,
musculo skeletal disorders, stroke and Evaluation
spinal cord injury. 1. Muscles are derived
from
Summary
a. ectoderm
Movement is one of the significant features b. mesoderm
of living organisms. The different types
c. endoderm d. neuro ectoderm
of movements are amoeboid movement,
ciliary movement, flagellar movement 2. Muscles are formed by
and muscular movement. Three types of a. myocytes b. leucocytes
muscles are present in human beings. They c. osteocytes d. lymphocytes
are the skeletal muscle, visceral muscle
and cardiac muscle. The skeletal muscles 3. The muscles attached to the bones are
are attached to the bones by tendons. called
The most striking microscopic feature of a. skeletal muscle
skeletal muscle is a series of light and dark b. cardiac muscle
bands. The muscles exhibit the properties c. involuntary muscle
such as excitability, contractibility,
d. smooth muscles
conductibility and elasticity. There are
two types of muscle contraction. They are 4. Skeletal muscles are attached to the
isotonic and isometric contractions. bones by
The skeletal system consists of a frame a. tendon b. ligament
work of bones and cartilages. The skeletal c. pectin d. fibrin
system is grouped into two principal
divisions: the axial skeleton and the 5. The bundle of muscle fibres is called
appendicular skeleton. There are three a. Myofibrils b. fascicle
types of joints present in the body: fibrous, c. sarcomere d. sarcoplasm
cartilaginous and synovial joints.
6. The pigment present in the muscle fibre
The disorders related to muscular system to store oxygen is
are myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophy,
a. myoglobin b. troponin
tetany, muscle fatigue, muscle pull,
atrophy and rigor mortis. The disorders c. myosin d. actin
of the skeletal system are arthritis and 7. The functional unit of a muscle fibre is
osteoporosis. Regular body exercise keeps a. sarcomere b. sarcoplasm
the body fit and healthy.
c. myosin d. actin
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8. The protein present in the thick filament 17. Acetabulum is located in

is a. collar bone
a. myosin b. actin b. hip bone
c. pectin d. leucin c. shoulder bone
9. The protein present in the thin filament d. thigh bone
is 18. Appendicular skeleton is
a. myosin b. actin a. girdles and their limbs
c. pectin d. leucin b. vertebrae
10. The region between two successive c. skull and vertebral column
Z-discs is called a d. ribs and sternum
a. sarcomere b. microtubule 19. The type of movement exhibits by the
c. myoglobin d. actin macrophages are
11. Each skeletal muscle is covered by a. flagellar b. ciliary
a. epimysium b. perimysium c. muscular d. amoeboid
c. endomysium d. hypomysium 20. The pointed portion of the elbow
is
12. Knee joint is an example of
a. acromion process
a. saddle joint b. hinge joint
b. glenoid cavity
c. pivot joint d. gliding joint
c. olecranon process
13. Name of the joint present between the
d. symphysis
atlas and axis is
21. Name the different types of movement.
a. synovial joint b. pivot joint
22. Name the filaments present in the
c. saddle joint d. hinge joint
sarcomere.
14. ATPase enzyme needed for muscle 23. Name the contractile proteins present
contraction is located in in the skeletal muscle.
a. actinin b. troponin 24. When describing a skeletal muscle,
c. myosin d. actin what does “striated” mean?
15. Synovial fluid is found in 25. How does an isotonic contraction take
a. Ventricles of the brain place?
b. Spinal cord 26. How does an isometric contraction
take place?
c. immovable joint
27. Name the bones of the skull.
d. freely movable joints.
28. Which is the only jointless bone in
16.
Inflammation of joints due to human body?
accumulation of uric acid crystals is
29. List the three main parts of the axial
called as
skeleton
a. Gout
30. How is tetany caused?
b. myasthenia gravis
31. What are the functions of the skeletal
c. osteoporosis system?
d. osteomalacia
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32. What are the different types of rib bones 36. What are the benefits of regular
that form the rib cage? exercise?
33. What are the bones that make the pelvic 37. What are the different types of bone
girdle? fracture?
34. List the disorders of the muscular 38. Write about the mechanism and healing
system. of bone fracture.
35. Explain the sliding- filament theory of 39. What is meant by physiotherapy?
muscle contraction. 40. Comment on the dislocation of joints.
ICT Corner
We like to move
Fibrous
joint
Swivel joint
/ Pivot joint
Ball and
Socket joint Let’s
Cartilaginous joint
Synchondrosis explore the
Ellipsoidal
skeletal system page to

joint
Saddle joint
Ball-and-socket
joint
understand the skeletal
Plane joint
Hinge joint organization.
Step – 1 Use the URL to reach the ‘Skeletal System’ page. From grid select ‘Skeleton Organization’
and explore the skeleton's general anatomical arrangement and functions.
Step – 2Then reach the ‘Skeleton Organization page by clicking back button on the top of the
window or use the ‘Backspace’ key. Select ‘Upper Limb Bones’ from the grid and explore
the anatomy and functions of the clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal, and hand
bones.
Step – 3 Follow the above steps and explore the interactives of each part and its functions.
Step – 4 Use the reference given below the page to acquire additional details about ‘Skeletal System’.

Skeletal System’s URL:
https://www.getbodysmart.com/skeletal-system
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UNIT IV Chapter 10
Neural Control And

C oordination
Chapter Outline
10.1 Neural system

10.2 Human Neural System
10.3 Neuron as a structural and functional
unit of neural system
10.4 Central neural system Gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA, is the brain’s
major inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces
10.5 Reflex action and reflex arc neuronal excitability.
10.6 Sensory reception and processing
Did you ever wonder how our body

functions? The body maintains a
• Understands the structure stable condition even when the outside
of neuron and neural environment changes; Our eyes help to
system of human beings see things around us; Ears help us to hear
various sounds; Heart beats continuously
• Learns to differentiate
and rhythmically; Air goes in and out of
the functions of sensory
lungs; Eyes shed tears when our limbs get
and motor neuron
hurt. Each cell of the body works in a
• Understands the conduction coordinated manner. Do you know how it
of nerve impulses and learns is c oordinated and controlled?
the importance of myelin sheath-
The neural system of our body
saltatory conduction.
coordinates all the other systems to work
• Outlines the role of synapse and together effectively and smoothly. Every
neuromuscular junction. second, diverse functions in our body are
• Learns the structure and functions performed by the neural system. Day and
of central neural system night, millions of messages pass as stimuli
• Understands the structure, sensory through the cells of the neural system
reception and processing in Photo, to stimulate the heart to beat; kidney to
Phono, Olfactory, Gustatory and excrete waste; and mouth to relish the
Skin Receptors delicious food. An even more remarkable
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feature of the neural system is its ability to There are three functional classes of
respond simultaneously to several stimuli, neurons. They are the afferent neurons
for instance, we can play piano and sing; that take sensory impulses to the Central
listen to music and do household chores. In Neural system (CNS) from the sensory
all such coordinated movements, whether organs; the efferent neurons that carry
skilled performances or routine tasks like motor impulses from the CNS to the
cycling or driving, the integrating power effector organs; and interneurons that
of the neural system is involved. In this lie entirely within the CNS between the
chapter, you will understand how neural afferent and efferent neurons.
system is organized; how it integrates all The central neural system lacks
organs and what kind of cellular events connective tissue, so the interneuron
underlie its functioning. space is filled by neuroglia. They perform
several functions such as providing
10.1 Neural System nourishment to the surrounding neurons;
The neural system comprises of highly involving the memory process; repairing
specialized cells called neurons, which the injured tissues due to their dividing
can detect, receive, process and transmit and regenerating capacity; and acting
different kinds of stimuli. Simple form of as phagocyte cells to engulf the foreign
neural system as nerve net is seen in lower particles at the time of any injury to the
invertebrates. The neural system of higher brain.
animals are well developed and performs
the following basic functions: Glial cells do not lose the ability to
undergo cell division; so most brain
• Sensory functions- It receives sensory
tumours of neural origin consists of
input from internal and external
glial cells. Neurons themselves do not
environment.
form tumours because they are unable
• Motor functions- It transmits motor to divide and multiply.
commands from the brain to the
skeletal and muscular system.
• Autonomic functions- Reflex actions.
10.3 Neuron as a Structural
and Functional Unit of
10.2 Human Neural System Neural System
The human neural system is divided into A neuron is a microscopic structure
two, the central neural system (CNS) composed of three major parts namely cell
and the peripheral neural system (PNS). body (soma), dendrites and axon. The
The structural and functional units of the cell body is the spherical part of the neuron
neural system are neurons that transmit that contains all the cellular organelles
nerve impulses. The non-nervous special as a typical cell (except centriole). The
cells called neuroglia form the supporting plasma membrane covering the neuron
cells of the nervous tissue. is called neurilemma and the axon is
axolemma. The repeatedly branched
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short fibres coming out of the cell body the axon; so there are gaps in the myelin
are called dendrites, which transmit sheath between adjacent Schwann
impulses towards the cell body. The cell cells. These gaps are called Nodes of
body and the dendrites contain cytoplasm Ranvier. Large myelinated nerve fibres
and granulated endoplasmic reticulum conduct impulses rapidly, whereas non-
called Nissl’s granules. myelinated fibres conduct impulses quite
slowly (Figure 10.1).
An axon is a long fibre that arises from
a cone shaped area of the cell body called
the Axon hillock and ends at the branched
The longest cells in the human body
distal end. Axon hillock is the place where
are the neurons. The longest axons
the nerve impulse is generated in the
motor neurons. The axon of one-neuron in the human body, for example, are
branches and forms connections with those of the sciatic nerve, which run
many other neurons. An axon contains from the base of the spine to the big
the same organelles found in the dendrites toe of each foot. These single-cell
and cell body but lacks Nissl’s granules fibers may extend a meter or even
and Golgi apparatus. longer. The axons of the inter neurons
Nucleus with Dendrites
in the CNS are the shortest.
nucleolus
Each branch at the distal end of the axon

Nissl bodies
terminates into a bulb like structure called
Soma
synaptic knob which possesses synaptic
vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
Trigger zone Schwann cell The axon transmits nerve impulses away
Myelin sheath
Axon hillock Nucleus from the cell body to an inter neural
Initial
segment space or to a neuro-muscular junction.
Node of Ranvier
The neurons are divided into three
Direction of
signal transmission types based on number of axon and
dendrites they possess (Figure.10.2).
1. Multipolar neurons have many
Synaptic knobs processes with one axon and two or more
dendrites. They are mostly interneurons.
Figure 10.1 Neuron 2. Bipolar neurons have two processes
with one axon and one dendrite. These are
The axon, particularly of peripheral
found in the retina of the eye, inner ear
nerves is surrounded by Schwann cells
and the olfactory area of the brain.
(a type of glial cell) to form myelin
sheath, which act as an insulator. Myelin 3. Unipolar neurons have a single short
sheath is associated only with the axon; process and one axon. Unipolar neurons
dendrites are always non-myelinated. are located in the ganglia of cranial and
Schwann cells are not continuous along spinal nerves.
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Dendrites
Cell body
Dendrites Trigger zone
Dendrites
Axon
Trigger zone Cell body
Cell body
Axon Trigger zone
Axon Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath
Axon terminal Axon terminal
Axon terminal
Figure 10.2 Types of Neurons

(a) Multipolar neuron (b) Bipolar neuron (c) Unipolar neuron
10.3.1 G
eneration and Conduction across their axolemma for transmission
of Nerve Impulses of impulses. This unequal distribution of
ions establishes the membrane potential
This section deals with how the nerve
across the axolemma. The axolemma
impulses are produced and conducted in
contains a variety of membrane proteins
our body. Sensation felt in the sensory
that act as ionic channels and regulates the
organs are carried by the nerve fibres in
movement of ions across the axolemma.
the form of electrical impulses. A nerve
(Shown in Table 10.1).
impulse is a series of electrical impulses,
which travel along the nerve fibre. Inner
10.3.2 Transmission of Impulses
to the axolemma, the cytoplasm contains
The transmission of impulse involves two
the intracellular fluid (ICF) with large
main phases; Resting membrane potential
amounts of potassium and magnesium
and Action membrane potential.
phosphate along with negatively charged
proteins and other organic molecules.The Resting membrane Potential: The
extra cellular fluid (ECF) found outside electrical potential difference across the
the axolemma contains large amounts of plasma membrane of a resting neuron is
sodium chloride, bicarbonates, nutrients called the resting potential during which
and oxygen for the cell; and carbon dioxide the interior of the cell is negative due to
and metabolic wastes released by the greater efflux of K+ outside the cell than
neuronal cells. The ECF and ICF (cytosol)
contains negatively charged particles
Note: The charged particles have
(anions) and positively charged particles
potential energy. The potential dif-
(cations). These charged particles are
ference is the measure of potential
involved in the conduction of impulses.
energy between two points which is
The neurons maintain an uneven
measured in volts or millivolts.
distribution of various inorganic ions
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Table 10.1 Ionic Channels in the Axolemma

Leakage Channels are ionic channels K+ leakage channels are more in number than the
that remain open all the time Na+ leakage channels. Sarcolemma has greater
permeability to K+ ions than Na+ ions. These ions
keep moving continuosly maintain the potential
difference across the axolemma.
Ligand-gated Channels are chemically They are located between the presynaptic membrane
gated channels which open or close in of the first axon and post synaptic membrane of
response to a chemical stimuli. the cell body of second neuron [i.e. dendrites and
cell bodies]. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine
opens ligand channels that allow Na+ and Ca++ ions
diffuse inward and K+ ions diffuse outward.
Voltage-gated Channels are These channels open in response to a change in

mechanically gated channels which membrane potential.
open in response to a physical stimulus There are two types of voltage-gated channels.
in the form of vibration such as touch i. Sodium voltage-gated channel
and pressure. ii. Potassium voltage-gated channel
Na + influx into the cell. When the axon is The axoplasm contains high
not conducting any impulses i.e. in resting concentration of K + and negatively
condition, the axon membrane is more charged proteins and low concentration
permeable to K + and less permeable to Na+ of Na + ions. In contrast, fluid outside the
ions, whereas it remains impermeable to
axon (ECF) contains low concentration
negatively charged protein ions.
of K+ and high concentration of
Cl -
+ – + Na+, and this forms a concentration
Extracellular – +
Fluid
+ + 3 Na+ + gradient. This ionic gradient
+ +
+ across the resting membrane is
+ + +
+
maintained by ATP driven Sodium-
+ + + + Potassium pump, which exchanges
Sodium-
+
K leak Potassium +
Na leak
channel exchange channel 3Na +outwards for 2K + into the cells.
pump
– – – – – – In this state, the cell membrane is
+ +
ATP ADP
+ said to be polarized. In neuron, the
– 2 K +
+ resting membrane potential ranges
CYTOSOL
+ + +
–Protein – – from -40mV to -90mV, and its
+ –
Protein
– – normal value is -70mV. The minus
+
– +
KEY – sign indicates that the inside of the
+ Sodium Ion (Na -)
+ Potassium Ion (K-) – Chloride Ion (Cl-)
cell is negative with respect to the
Figure 10.3 Ionic channels outside (Figure 10.4).
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Axon Myelin sheath

Nodes of Ranvier
– – – + + +
+ + + – – –
+ + + – – –
– – – + + +
Depolarized Membrane at
membrane resting potential
Figure 10.4 Conduction of nerve impulse
Action Membrane Potential shoots rapidly up to +45mV which is called

An action potential occurs when a neuron the Spike potential.
sends information down an axon, away
from the cell body. It includes following Repolarisation [Falling Phase]
phases, depolarization, repolarisation and When the membrane reaches the spike
hypo polarization. potential, the sodium voltage-gate closes
and potassium voltage-gate opens. It
Depolarization – Reversal of Polarity checks influx of Na+ions and initiates the
When a nerve fibre is stimulated, efflux of K+ions which lowers the number
sodium voltage-gate opens and makes of positive ions within the cell. Thus, the
the axolemma permeable to Na+ ions; potential falls back towards the resting
meanwhile the potassium voltage gate potential. The reversal of membrane
closes. As a result, the rate of flow of Na+ potential inside the axolemma to negative
ions into the axoplasm exceeds the rate of occurs due to the efflux of K+ ions. This is
flow of K+ ions to the outside fluid [ECF]. called Repolarisation.
Therefore, the axolemma becomes positively
Hyperpolarization
charged inside and negatively charged
If repolarization becomes more negative
outside. This reversal of electrical charge is
than the resting potential -70 mV to about
called Depolarization.
-90 mV, it is called Hyperpolarization.
During depolarization, when enough
Na+ ions enter the cell, the action
potential reaches a certain level, Action Refractory
50 potential period
called threshold potential [-55mV].
Membrane Potential (mV)
The particular stimulus which is able

Depolarization Reapolarization
to bring the membrane potential 0
to threshold is called threshold
stimulus. Threshold potential
-50
The action potential occurs in Resting potential
-70
response to a threshold stimulus Resting potential
Hyperpolarization
but does not occur at subthreshold -100
stimuli. This is called all or none 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
principle. Due to the rapid influx Time (milliseconds)
of Na+ ions, the membrane potential Figure 10.5 Graph showing Action
potential in Neuron
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During this, K+ ion gates are more permeable fuses with it. In the neurilemma, the
to K+ even after reaching the threshold level vesicles release their neurotransmitters
as it closes slowly; hence called Lazy gates. into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis. The
The membrane potential returns to its released neurotransmitters bind to their
original resting state when K+ ion channels specific receptors on the post-synaptic
close completely. During hyperpolarization membrane, responding to chemical
the Na+ voltage gate remains closed (Figure signals. The entry of the ions can generate
10.5). a new potential in the post-synaptic
neuron, which may be either excitatory
Conduction Speed of a nerve impulse or inhibitory. Excitatory post-synaptic
The conduction speed of a nerve impulse potential causes depolarization whereas
depends on the diameter of axon. The inhibitory post-synaptic potential causes
greater the axon’s diameter, the faster is the hyperpolarization of post-synaptic
conduction. The myelinated axon conducts membrane (Figure 10.6).
the impulse faster than the non-myelinated
axon. The voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels Presynaptic 1
Nerve
are concentrated at the nodes of Ranvier. neuron
impulse
As a result, the impulse jumps node to node,
2 Voltage-gated
rather than travelling the entire length of the Ca2+ Ca2+ channel
nerve fibre. This mechanism of conduction Synaptic end bulb
Synaptic
Cytoplasm
Synaptic cleft vesicles
is called Saltatory Conduction. Nerve
3
impulses travel at the speed of 1-300 m/s. Neurotransmitter
4
receptor Ligand-gated
channel open
10.3.3 Synaptic Transmission Ligand-gated
channel closed
Postsynaptic
neuron
Neurotransmitter
The junction between two neurons is
called a Synapse through which a nerve Figure 10.6 Synaptic Transmission
impulse is transmitted. The first neuron
involved in the synapse forms the pre- 10.4 Central Neural
synaptic neuron and the second neuron System (CNS)
is the post-synaptic neuron. A small The CNS includes the brain and the
gap between the pre and postsynaptic spinal cord, which are protected by the
membranes is called Synaptic Cleft that bones of the skull and vertebral column.
forms a structural gap and a functional During its embryonic development, CNS
bridge between neurons. The axon develops from the ectoderm.
terminals contain synaptic vesicles
Can you state why some areas of the
filled with neurotransmitters. When an
brain and spinal cord are grey and some
impulse [action potential] arrives at the
are white?
axon terminals, it depolarizes the pre-
synaptic membrane, opening the voltage
gated calcium channels. Influx of calcium 10.4.1 Brain
ions stimulates the synaptic vesicles The brain acts as the command and
towards the pre-synaptic membrane and control system. It is the site of information
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processing. It is located in the cranial cavity of nerve fibres called corpus callosum.
and is covered by three cranial meninges. Cerebral cortex has three functional areas
The outer thick layer is Duramater which namely sensory areas occur in the parietal,
lines the inner surface of the cranial cavity; temporal and occipital lobes of the cortex.
the median thin layer is Arachnoid mater They receive and interpret the sensory
which is separated from the duramater by impulses. Motor area of the cortex which
a narrow subdural space. The innermost controls voluntary muscular movements
layer is Piamater which is closely adhered to lies in the posterior part of the frontal lobes.
the brain but separated from the arachnoid The areas other than sensory and motor
mater by the subarachnoid space. The areas are called Association areas that deal
brain is divided into three major regions: with integrative functions such as memory,
Forebrain, Midbrain and Hindbrain. communications, learning and reasoning.
Fore Brain Inner to the cortex is medulla which is
It comprises the following regions: white in colour and acts as a nerve tract
Cerebrum and Diencephalon. Cerebrum between the cortex and the diencephalon.
is the ‘seat of intelligence’ and forms the Table 10.2 Functions of brain lobes
major part of the brain. The cerebrum Structure Functions
consists of an outer cortex, inner medulla Frontal Behaviour, Intelligence,
and basal nuclei. The superficial region Memory, Movement
of the cerebrum is called cerebral cortex, Parietal Language, Reading, Sensation
which looks grey due to the presence of
Temporal Speech, Hearing, Memory
unmyelinated nerve cells. Cerebral cortex
consists of neuronal cell body, dendrites, Occipital Visual processing
associated glial and blood vessels. The
surface of the cerebrum shows many
convolutions (folds) and grooves. The
folds are called gyri (singular gyrus); the
shallow grooves between the gyri are called
sulci (singular sulcus) and deep grooves are
called fissures. These sulci and gyri increase
the surface area of the cerebral cortex.
Several sulci divide the cerebrum into
eight lobes: a pair of frontals, parietals,
temporals and occipital lobes (Figure10.7 Figure 10.7 Lobes of Cerebral hemisphere
& Table 10.2).
A median longitudinal fissure divides Diencephalon consists largely of
the cerebrum longitudinally into two following three paired structures.
cerebral hemispheres (Figure 10.7). A Epithalamus forms the roof of the
transverse fissure separates the cerebral diencephalon and it is a non-nervous tissue.
hemispheres from the cerebellum. The The anterior part of epithalamus is vascular
hemispheres are connected by a tract and folded to form the anterior choroid
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plexus. Just behind the choroid plexus, the bodies that are involved in olfactory
epithalamus forms a short stalk which ends reflexes and emotional responses to odour.
in a rounded body called pineal body which Hypothalamus maintains homeostasis and
secretes the hormone, melatonin which
has many centres which control the body
regulates sleep and wake cycle.
temperature, urge for eating and drinking.
Thalamus is composed of grey
It also contains a group of neurosecretory
mater which serves as a relay centre for
impulses between the spinal cord, brain cells which secrete the hypothalamic
stem and cerebrum. Within the thalamus, hormones. Hypothalamus also acts as the
information is sorted and edited and plays satiety centre.
a key role inlearning and memory. It is a
major coordinating centre for sensory and Depression is a functional deficiency
motor signalling. of seratonin or norepinephrine or
both. This disorder is characterized
Human brain is formed of a large
by a pervasive negative mood, loss
number of parts like cerebrum, thalamus,
of interest, an inability to experience
hypothalamus, pons, cerebellum and
pleasure and suicidal tendencies.
medulla oblongata. Each part performs
Antidepressant drugs increase the
some specialized function and all the parts
available concentration of these
are essential for the survival of a person.
neurotransmitters in the CNS. Hence
Discuss the following statements :
depression is treatable.
a) Thalami are called relay centres of
the brain.
Limbic System
b) Damage to medulla may cause the
The inner part of the cerebral
death of organism.
hemisphere constitutes the limbic
system. The main components of limbic
Cerebral subarachnoid system are olfactory bulbs, cingulate
space
Septum pellucidum
Corpus callosum gyrus, mammillary body, amygdala,
Choroid plexus
Third ventricle Pineal gland hippocampus and hypothalamus.
Cerebral aqueduct The limbic system is called ‘emotional
Pons Midbrain
Cerebellum brain’ because it plays a primary role in
Spinal subarachnoid space Fourth ventricle
Medulla oblongata Choroid plexus
the regulation of pleasure, pain, anger,
fear, sexual feeling and affection. The
Figure 10.8 Mid sagittal section of brain
hippocampus and amygdala also play a
Hypothalamus forms the floor of the
role in memory (Figure 10.9).
diencephalon. The downward extension
of the hypothalamus, the infundibulum Brain stem is the part of the brain between
connects the hypothalamus with the pituitary the spinal cord and the diencephalon. It
gland. The hypothalamus contains a pair of consists of mid brain, pons varolii and
small rounded body called mammillary medulla oblongata (Figure 10.10).
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the second largest part of the brain. It

consists of two cerebellar hemispheres
Thalamus and central worm shaped part, the vermis.
Pineal gland
The cerebellum controls and coordinates
muscular movements and body
Corpora quadrigemina equilibrium. Any damage to cerebellum
often results in uncoordinated voluntary
Pons
muscle movements.
Cereberal peduncles Pons varoli lies infront of the
Medulla oblongata cerebellum between the midbrain and the
medulla oblongata. The nerve fibres in the
pons varolii form a bridge between the two
cerebellar hemispheres and connect the
medulla oblongata with the other region
of the brain. The respiratory nuclei found
in the pons cooperate with the medulla to
Figure 10.10 Brain stem
control respiration.
Medulla oblongata forms the posterior
Mid brain
most part of the brain. It connects the spinal
The mid brain is located between the
cord with various parts of the brain. It
diencephalon and the pons. The lower
receives and integrates signals from spinal
portion of the midbrain consists of a
cord and sends it to the cerebellum and
pair of longitudinal bands of nervous
thalamus. Medulla contains vital centres
tissue called cerebral peduncles which
that control cardio vascular reflexes,
relay impulses back and forth between
respiration and gastric secretions.
cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists Ventricles of the Brain
of four rounded bodies called corpora The brain has four hollow, fluid filled
quadrigemina which acts as a reflex centre spaces. The C- shaped space found
for vision and hearing. inside each cerebral hemisphere forms
the lateral ventricles I and II which
Hind brain
are separated from each other by a thin
Rhombencephalon forms the hind brain.
membrane called the septum pellucidum.
It comprises of cerebellum, pons varolii
Each lateral ventricle communicates
and medulla oblongata. Cerebellum is
with the narrow III ventricle in the
diencephalon through an opening called
Cingulate gyrus
interventricular foramen (foramen of
Thalamus
Monro). The ventricle III is continuous
Hypothalamus with the ventricle IV in the hind brain
Olfactory bulb Mamillary body through a canal called aqueduct of
Amygdala Hippocampus Sylvius (cerebral aqueduct). Choroid
Figure 10.9 Limbic system plexus is a network of blood capillaries
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found in the roof of the ventricles and In the cross section of spinal cord
forms cerebro spinal fluid (CSF) from (Figure 10.11), there are two indentations:
the blood. CSF provides buoyancy to the posterior median sulcus and the
the CNS structures; CSF acts as a shock anterior median fissure. Although there
absorber for the brain and spinal cord; it might be slight variations, the cross
nourishes the brain cells by transporting section of spinal cord is generally the same
constant supply of food and oxygen; it throughout its length. In contrast to the
carries harmful metabolic wastes from brain, the grey matter in the spinal cord
the brain to the blood; and maintains forms an inner butterfly shaped region
a constant pressure inside the cranial surrounded by the outer white matter.
vessels. The grey matter consists of neuronal cell
bodies and their dendrites, interneurons
10.4.2 Spinal Cord and glial cells. White matter consists of
The spinal cord is a long, slender, cylindrical bundles of nerve fibres. In the center of
nervous tissue. It is protected by the the grey matter there is a central canal
vertebral column and surrounded by the which is filled with CSF. Each half of the
three membranes as in the brain. The spinal grey matter is divided into a dorsal horn,
cord that extends from the brain stem into a ventral horn and a lateral horn.
the vertebral canal of the vertebral column The dorsal horn contains cell bodies of
up to the level of 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra. interneurons on which afferent neurons
So the nerve roots of the remaining nerves terminate. The ventral horn contains cell
are greatly elongated to exit the vertebral bodies of the efferent motor neurons supplying
column at their appropriate space. The the skeletal muscle. Autonomic nerve fibres,
thick bundle of elongated nerve roots supplying cardiac and smooth muscles and
within the lower vertebral canal is called exocrine glands, originate from the cell bodies
the cauda equina (horse’s tail) because of found in the lateral horn. In the white matter,
its appearance. the bundles of nerve fibres form two types of
Posterior Gray matter:

Central canal median sulcus Gray commissure
Anterior column
Posterior column
Lateral column
Dorsal (posterior)
nerve root
Dorsal root
ganglion
Spinal nerve
Ventral (anterior)
nerve root
Anterior
median fissure
Figure 10.11 C.S. of Spinal cord
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tracts namely ascending tracts which carry Interneurons - One or two interneurons
sensory impulses to the brain and descending may serve to transmit the impulses from
tracts which carry motor impulses from the the sensory neuron to the motor neuron.
brain to the spinal nerves at various levels of
Motor Neuron - it transmits impulse from
the spinal cord. The spinal cord shows two
CNS to the effector organ.
enlargements, one in the cervical region and
another one in the lumbosacral region. The Effector Organs - It may be a muscle
cervical enlargement serves the upper limb or gland which responds to the impulse
and lumbar enlargement serves the received.
lower limbs. There are two types of reflexes. They are
1) Unconditional reflex is an inborn
10.5 Reflex Action and reflex for an unconditioned stimulus.
Reflex Arc It does not need any past experience,
When dust falls in our eyes, the eyelids knowledge or training to occur;
close immediately not waiting for our Ex: blinking of an eye when a dust
willingness; on touching a hot pan, the particle about to fall into it, sneezing
hand is withdrawn rapidly. Do you know and coughing due to foreign particle
how this happens? entering the nose or larynx.
The spinal cord remains as a 2) Conditioned reflex is a respone to a
connecting functional nervous structure stimulus that has been acquired by
in between the brain and effector organs. learning. This does not naturally exists
But sometimes when a very quick response in animals. Only an experience makes
is needed, the spinal cord can effect motor it a part of the behaviour. Example:
initiation as the brain and brings about an excitement of salivary gland on seeing
effect. This rapid action by spinal cord is and smelling a food. The conditioned
called reflex action. It is a fast, involuntary, reflex was first demonstrated by the
unplanned sequence of actions that occurs Russian physiologist Pavlov in his
in response to a particular stimulus. The classical conditioning experiment in a
nervous elements involved in carrying out dog. The cerebral cortex controls the
the reflex action constitute a reflex arc or conditioned reflex.
in other words the pathway followed by a
nerve impulse to produce a reflex action is Spinal cord
(CNS) Message to
called a reflex arc (Figure 10.12). brain
Functional Components of a Reflex Arc Sensory neuron

Motor
Sensory Receptor - It is a sensory structure neuron
Heat/Pain Inter neuron
that responds to a specific stimulus. Receptors in skin Effector Muscle in arm
Sensory Neuron - This neuron takes the

sensory impulse to the grey (afferent)
matter of the spinal cord through the
dorsal root of the spinal cord. Figure 10.12 Reflex arc
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Peripheral Neural System (PNS) two roots:1) a posterior dorsal root with
PNS consists of all nervous tissue outside the a ganglion outside the spinal cord and
CNS. Components of PNS include nerves, 2) an anterior ventral root with no external
ganglia, enteric plexuses and sensory receptors. ganglion.
A nerve is a chord like structure that encloses
several neurons inside. Ganglia (singular- Somatic Neural System (SNS)
ganglion) are small masses of nervous tissue, The somatic neural system (SNS or
consisting primarily of neuron cell bodies and voluntary neural system) is the part of the
are located outside the brain and spinal cord. peripheral neural system associated with
Enteric plexuses are extensive n etworks of the voluntary control of body movements
neurons located in the walls of organs of the via skeletal muscles. The sensory and motor
gastrointestinal tract. The neurons of these nerves that innervate striated muscles form
plexuses help in regulating the digestive system. the somatic neural system. Major functions
The specialized structure that helps to respond of the somatic neural system include
to changes in the environment i.e. stimuli are voluntary movement of the muscles and
called sensory receptor which triggers nerve organs, and reflex movements.
impulses along the afferent fibres to CNS. PNS
In adult, the total CSF volume is about
comprises of cranial nerves a rising from the
150 ml and is replaced every 8 hours.
brain and spinal nerves arising from the spinal
About 500 ml of CSF is formed daily.
cord.
The choroid plexus helps cleanse the
(A) Cranial Nerves: There are 12 pairs
CSF by removing waste products.
of cranial nerves, of which the first two
pairs arise from the fore brain and the Autonomic Neural System
remaining 10 pairs from the mid brain. The autonomic neural system is auto
Other than the Vagus nerve, which extends functioning and self governed. It is a
into the abdomen, all cranial nerves serve part of peripheral neural system that
the head and face. innervates smooth muscles, glands and
(B) Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs of spinal cardiac muscle. This system controls and
nerves emerge out from the spinal cord coordinates the involuntary activities of
through spaces called the intervertebral various organs. ANS controlling centre is
foramina found between the adjacent in the hypothalamus.
vertebrae. The spinal nerves are named
Autonomic neural system comprises
according to the region of vertebral
the following components:
column from which they originate
Preganglionic neuron whose cell
i. Cervical nerves (8 pairs) body is in the brain or spinal cord; its
ii. Thoracic nerves (12 pairs) myelinated axon exits the CNS as part
iii. Lumbar nerves (5 pairs) of cranial or spinal nerve and ends in an
iv. Sacral nerves (5 pairs) autonomic ganglion.
v. Coccygeal nerves (1 pair)
Autonomic ganglion consists of axon
Each spinal nerve is a mixed nerve
of preganglionic neuron and cell bodies of
containing both afferent (sensory) and
postganglionic neuron.
efferent (motor) fibres. It originates as
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Postganglionic neuron conveys nerve of the body. These are located in the skeletal
impulses from autonomic ganglia to muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments and in
visceral effector organs. connective tissue coverings of bones and
The autonomic neural system muscles. Receptors based on the type of
consists of Sympathetic neural system stimulus are shown in Table 10.3.
and Parasympathetic neural system. 10.6.1 Photoreceptor - Eye
Your friend is returning home after his Eye is the organ of vision; located in the
visit to USA. All at home are waiting for orbit of the skull and held in its position
his arrival. How would you feel? State the with the help of six extrinsic muscles. They
division of ANS that predominates and are superior, inferior, lateral, median
mention few changes that take place in rectus muscles, superior oblique and
your body.
inferior oblique muscles. These muscles
aid in the movement of the eyes and they
10. 6 S
ensory Reception and receive their nerve innervation from III, IV
Processing and VI cranial nerves. Eyelids, eye lashes
and eye brows are the accessory structures
Our senses make us aware of changes that
useful in protecting the eyes. The eye lids
occur in our surroundings and also within
protect the eyes from excessive light and
our body. Sensation [awareness of the
foreign objects and spread lubricating
stimulus] and perception [interpretation of
secretions over the eyeballs.
the meaning of the stimulus] occur in the
brain. Eyelashes and the eyebrows help to
protect the eyeballs from foreign objects,
Receptors are classified based on their
perspiration and also from the direct rays
location: 1. Exteroceptors are located at
of sunlight. Sebaceous glands at the base
or near the surface of the body. These are
of the eyelashes are called ciliary glands
sensitive to external stimuli and receive
which secrete a lubricating fluid into the
sensory inputs for hearing, vision, touch, taste
hair follicles. Lacrymal glands, located
and smell. 2. Interoceptors are located in the
in the upper lateral region of each orbit,
visceral organs and blood vessels. They are
secrete tears. Tears are secreted at the rate
sensitive to internal stimuli. Proprioceptors
of 1mL/day and it contains salts, mucus and
are also a kind of interoceptors. They provide
lysozyme enzyme to destroy bacteria.
information about position and movements
Table 10.3 Types of receptors

Receptors Stimulus Effector organs
Mechano Pressure and Mechano receptors are present in the cochlea of the
receptors vibration inner ear and the semi circular canal and utriculus
Chemoreceptors Chemicals Taste buds in the tongue and nasal epithelium
Thermoreceptors Temperature Skin
Photoreceptors Light Rod and cone cells of the retina in the eye
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The conjunctiva is a thin, protective squamous epithelium which helps the

mucous membrane found lining the cornea to renew continuously as it is very
outer surface of the eyeball (Figure 10.13). vulnerable to damage from dust. Sclera
forms the white of the eye and protects the
eyeball. Posteriorly the sclera is innervated
by the optic nerve. At the junction of the
Eyelid sclera and the cornea, is a channel called
Lacrimal Superior
gland lacrimal canal ‘canal of schlemm’ which continuously
Lacrimal sac
drains out the excess of aqueous humor.
Lacrimal puncta
Pupil Inferior lacrimal
Sclera canal Dilation and congestion
Iris Lacrimal duct
of the blood vessels of the
conjunctiva due to local
irritation or infection are
Figure.10.13 The human eye
the cause of bloodshot
The eye has two compartments, the eye (conjunctivitis - commonly called
anterior and posterior compartments. The Madras eye). Infection of ciliary glands
anterior compartment has two chambers, by bacteria causes a painful, pus filled
first one lies between the cornea and iris swelling called a Sty.
and the second one lies between the iris
and lens. These two chambers are filled with The cornea is the only tissue in the
watery fluid called aqueous humor. The
body that can be transplanted from
posterior compartment lies between the one person to another with little or no
lens and retina and it is filled with a jelly possibility of rejection. This is because
like fluid called vitreous humor that helps cornea does not have blood vessels.
to retain the spherical nature of the eye. Eye
lens is transparent and biconvex, made up Choroid is highly vascularized
of long columnar epithelial cells called lens pigmented layer that nourishes all the
fibres. These cells are accumulated with the eye layers and its pigments absorb
proteins called crystalline. light to prevent internal reflection.
Anteriorly the choroid thickens to form
The Eye Ball the ciliary body and iris. Iris is the
The eye ball is spherical in nature. The coloured portion of the eye lying between
anterior one- sixth of the eyeball is exposed; the cornea and lens. The aperture at the
the remaining region is fitted well into the centre of the iris is the pupil through
orbit. The wall of the eye ball consists of three which the light enters the inner chamber.
layers: fibrous Sclera, vascular Choroid and Iris is made of two types of muscles the
sensory Retina (Figure 10.14). dilator papillae (the radial muscle) and
The outer coat is composed of dense the sphincter papillae (the circular
non-vascular connective tissue. It has muscle).In the bright light, the circular
two regions: the anterior cornea and the muscle in the iris contract; so that the size
posterior sclera. Cornea is a non-vascular of pupil decreases and less light enters
transparent coat formed of stratified the eye. In dim light, the radial muscle
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in the iris contract; so that the pupil size suspensory ligament, ciliary muscle and
increases and more light enters the eye. ciliary body. The suspensory ligament
Smooth muscle present in the ciliary extends from the ciliary body and helps
body is called the ciliary muscle which to hold the lens in its upright position.
alters the convexity of the lens for near The ciliary body is provided with blood
and far vision. The ability of the eyes to capillaries that secrete a watery fluid
focus objects at varying distances is called called aqueous humor that fills the
accommodation which is achieved by anterior chamber.
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Figure 10.14 L.S. of the eye Cone cells
Retina forms the inner most layer The yellow flat spot at the centre of the
of the eye and it contains two regions: posterior region of the retina is called
A sheet of pigmented epithelium (non macula lutea which is responsible for
visual part) and neural visual regions. sharp detailed vision. A small depression
The neural retina layer contains three present in the centre of the yellow spot
types of cells: photoreceptor cells – is called fovea centralis which contains
cones and rods (Figure 10.15 and Table only cones. The optic nerves and the
10.4), bipolar cells and ganglion cells. retinal blood vessels enter the eye slightly
Table 10.4 Differences between rod and cone cells

Rod cells Cone cells
The cones are responsible for colour vision
Rods are responsible for vision in dim light
and works best in the bright light.
The pigment present in the rods is rhodopsin, The pigment present in the cones is
formed of a protein scotopsin and retinal photopsin, formed of opsin protein and
(an aldehyde of vitamin A ) retinal.
There are about 120 millions rod cells There may be 6-7 millions cone cells
Rods are predominant in the extra fovea region Cones are concentrated in the fovea region
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below the posterior pole, which is devoid thin lens; so the image of closest object is
of photo receptors; hence this region is converged behind the retina. This defect
called blind spot. can be overcome by using convex lens that
converge the entering light rays on the
Mechanism of Vision retina.
When light enters the
Presbyopia: Due to aging, the
eyes, it gets refracted lens loses elasticity and the power of
by the cornea, aqueous accommodation. Convex lenses are used
humor and lens and it to correct this defect.
is focused on the retina Astigmatism is due to the rough
and excites the rod and (irregular) curvature of cornea or lens.
cone cells. The photo pigment consists Cylindrical glasses are used to correct this
of Opsin, the protein part and Retinal, error (Figure 10.16).
a derivative of vitamin A. Light induces Cataract: Due to the changes in nature
dissociation of retinal from opsin and of protein, the lens becomes opaque. It
causes the structural changes in opsin. can be corrected by surgical procedures.
This generates an action potential in the
photoreceptor cells and is transmitted by Visual pigments for colour vision
the optic nerves to the visual cortex of the are i) the red cones having the visual
brain, via bipolar cells, ganglia and optic pigment, Erythropsin is sensitive to
long wavelength close to 560 nm.
nerves, for the perception of vision.
ii) The green cones having the pigment,
Refractive errors of eye chloropsin is sensitive to medium
Myopia (near sightedness): The affected wavelength of 530 nm iii) the blue
person can see the nearby objects but cones having the pigment, cyanopsin
not the distant objects. This condition is sensitive to short wavelength of
may result due to an elongated eyeball or 420 nm.
thickened lens; so that
the image of distant
object is formed in front
of the yellow spot. This Correction
Not required
error can be corrected
using concave lens that ((a)) Emmetropic p
eye (normal eye))
Concave lens
diverge the entering
light rays and focuses it
on the retina.
H y p e r m e t r o p i a ((b)) eye
Myopic
y p
(nearsighted)
(long sightedness): the
affected person can
see only the distant
objects clearly but not
the objects nearby. This (c) Hyper metropic
eye (farsighted)
condition results due to Convex lens
Figure 10.16 Refractive errors of the eye
a shortened eyeball and
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connective tissues covered with skin outside

Aqueous humour supplies nutrients
and with mucus membrane inside.
and oxygen to the lens, cornea and
some retinal cells. The aqueous humor There are very fine hairs and wax producing
is produced and drained at the same sebaceous glands called ceruminous glands in
rate, maintaining a constant intra ocular the external auditory meatus. The combination
pressure of about 16 mmHg. Any block of hair and the ear wax [cerumen] helps in
in the canal of schlemm increases the preventing dust and foreign particles from
intra-ocular pressure of aqueous humor entering the ear.
and leads to ‘Glaucoma’ where the optic The middle ear is a small air-filled cavity
nerve and the retina are compressed in the temporal bone. It is separated from
due to pressure. the external ear by the eardrum and from
the internal ear by a thin bony partition; the
10.6.2 Phonoreceptor bony partition contains two small membrane
The ear is the site of reception of two covered openings called the oval window and
the round window.
senses namely hearing and equilibrium.
Anatomically, the ear is divided into three The middle ear contains three ossicles:
regions: the external ear, the middle ear and malleus [hammer bone], incus [anvil bone]
and stapes [stirrup bone] which are attached
internal ear.
to one another. The malleus is attached to the
The external ear consists of pinna, tympanic membrane and its head articulates
external auditory meatus and ear drum. The with the incus which is the intermediate
pinna is flap of elastic cartilage covered by bone lying between the malleus and stapes.
skin. It collects the sound waves. The external The stapes is attached to the oval window in
auditory meatus is a curved tube that extends the inner ear. The ear ossicles transmit sound
up to the tympanic membrane [the ear drum]. waves to the inner ear. A tube called Eustachian
The tympanic membrane is composed of tube connects the middle ear cavity with the
pharynx. This tube helps in
Auditory equalizing the pressure of
nevers
air on either sides of the ear
Stapes
Incus
Oval
drum.
window
Malleus Inner ear is the fluid filled
cavity consisting of two parts,
Tympanum the bony labyrinth and the
membranous labyrinths. The
Perilymph Organ of Corti
Endolymph
bony labyrinth consists of
Air
Sound three areas: cochlea, vestibule
Perilymph Tectorial
and semicircular canals. The
membrane
Ear canal cochlea is a coiled portion
Round window consisting of 3 chambers
Eustachian tube
namely: scala vestibuli and
Middle ear Inner ear scala tympani- these two
are filled with perilymph;
and the scala media is filled
Figure 10.17 Path of Sound wave
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with endolymph. At the base of the cochlea, base of hair cells and the action potential is
the scala vestibule ends at the ‘oval window’ propagated to the brain as sound sensation
whereas the scala tympani ends at the ‘round through cochlear nerve.
window’ of the middle ear. The chambers
scala vestibuli and scala media are separated
by a membrane called Reisner’s membrane
whereas the scala media and scala tympani
are separated by a membrane called Basilar
membrane (Figure 10.17)
Organ of Corti
The organ of Corti (Figure.10.18) is a
sensory ridge located on the top of the Basilar
membrane and it contains numerous hair
cells that are arranged in four rows along the
length of the basilar membrane. Protruding
from the apical part of each hair cell is hair
like structures known as stereocilia. During
the conduction of sound wave, stereocilia
makes a contact with the stiff gel membrane
called tectorial membrane, a roof like
structure overhanging the organ of corti
throughout its length. Figure 10.18 Organ of Corti
Mechanism of hearing Defects of Ear
Sound waves entering the external auditory Deafness may be temporary or permanent.
meatus fall on the tympanic membrane. It can be further classified into conductive
This causes the ear drum to vibrate, and deafness and sensory-neural deafness.
these vibrations are transmitted to the Possible causes for conductive deafness
oval window through the three auditory may be due to
ossicles. Since the tympanic membrane is
17-20 times larger than the oval window, i. the blockage of ear canal with earwax,
the pressure exerted on the oval window ii. Rupture of eardrum
is about 20 times more than that on the iii.
Middle ear infection with fluid
tympanic membrane. This increased accumulation
pressure generates pressure waves in the iv. Restriction of ossicular movement.In
fluid of perilymph. This pressure causes sensory-neural deafness, the defect
the round window to alternately bulge may be in the organ of Corti or the
outward and inward meanwhile the basilar auditory nerve or in the ascending
membrane along with the organ of Corti auditory pathways or auditory cortex.
move up and down. These movements of
the hair alternately open and close the Organ of Equilibrium
mechanically gated ion channels in the Balance is part of a sense called
proprioception, which is the ability to sense
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the position, orientation and movement of The canals that lie posterior and lateral
the body. The organ of balance is known to the vestibule are semicircular canals;
as the vestibular system which is located they are anterior, posterior and lateral
in the inner ear next to the cochlea. The canals oriented at right angles to each
vestibular system is composed of a series other. At one end of each semicircular
of fluid filled sacs and tubules.These sacs canal, at its lower end has a swollen area
and tubules contain endolymph and are called ampulla. Each ampulla has a sensory
kept in the surrounding perilymph (Figure area known as crista ampullaris which is
10.19). These two fluids, perilymph and formed of sensory hair cells and supporting
endolymph, respond to the mechanical cells. The function of these canals is to
forces, during changes occurring in body detect rotational movement of the head.
position and acceleration.
The intensity of sound is measured in
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Figure 10.19 Organ of Equilibrium 10.6.3 Olfactory Receptors

The receptors for taste and smell are the
Name the parts of the organ of
chemoreceptors. The smell receptors are
equilibrium involved in the following
excited by air borne chemicals that dissolve
functions. in fluids. The yellow coloured patches of
a) Linear movement of the body olfactory epithelium form the olfactory
b) Changes in the body position organs that are located on the roof of the
c) Rotational movement of the head. nasal cavity. The olfactory epithelium is
covered by a thin coat of mucus layer below
The utricle and saccule are two and olfactory glands bounded connective
membranous sacs, found nearest the tissues, above. It contains three types of
cochlea and contain equilibrium receptor cells: supporting cells, Basal cells and
regions called maculae that are involved millions of pin shaped olfactory receptor
in detecting the linear movement of the cells (which are unusual bipolar cells). The
head. The maculae contain the hair cells olfactory glands and the supporting cells
that act as mechanorecptors. These hair secrete the mucus. The unmyelinated axons
cells are embeded in a gelatinous otolithic of the olfactory receptor cells are gathered
membrane that contains small calcareous to form the filaments of olfactory nerve
[cranial nerve I] which synapse with cells
particles called otoliths. This membrane
of olfactory bulb. The impulse, through the
adds weight to the top of the hair cells and
olfactory nerves, is transmitted to the frontal
increase the inertia.
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lobe of the brain for identification of smell over the entire tongue surface. Most taste buds
and the limbic system for the emotional are seen on the tongue (Figure 10.20) few are
responses to odour. scattered on the soft palate, inner surface of the
Gustatory receptor: The sense of taste is cheeks, pharynx and epiglottis of the larynx.
considered to be the most pleasurable of all Taste buds are flask-shaped and consist of 50 –
senses. The tongue is provided with many 100 epithelial cells of two major types.
small projections called papillae which give the Gustatory epithelial cells (taste cells) and
tongue an abrasive feel. Taste buds are located Basal epithelial cells (Repairing cells) Long
mainly on the papillae which are scattered microvilli called gustatory hairs project from
the tip of the gustatory cells and
extends through a taste pore to the
surface of the epithelium where
they are bathed by saliva. G ustatory
hairs are the sensitive portion of the
gustatory cells and they have sensory
dendrites which send the signal to
the brain. The basal cells that act as
stem cells, d ivide and differentiate
into new gustatory cells (Figure
10.20).
Skin-Sense of touch
Skin is the sensory organ of touch and
Figure 10.21 Skin receptors is also the largest sense organ. This
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sensation comes from millions of microscopic Summary

sensory receptors located all over the skin
Neural system coordinates and integrates
and associated with the general sensations of
the functions of all organs and responds
contact, pressure, heat, cold and pain. Some
to changes in the internal and external
parts of the body, such as the finger tips have a
environments.
large number of these receptors, making them
Neural system includes two types of
more sensitive. Some of the sensory receptors
cells neurons and neuroglia. Neuron
present in the skin (Figure 10.21) are:
forms the structural and functional unit
• Tactile merkel disc is light touch receptor of the neural system.
lying in the deeper layer of epidermis. CNS includes brain and spinal cord. The
• Hair follicle receptors are light touch major parts of the brain are the cerebrum,
receptors lying around the hair follicles. diencephalon, cerebellum and the brain
stem. The brain is protected by the cranium
• Meissner’s corpuscles are small light
and meninges. CSF provides mechanical
pressure receptors found just beneath the
protection and nutrients to the CNS.
epidermis in the dermal papillae. They are
The spinal cord is the continuation
numerous in hairless skin areas such as
of the medulla oblongata and ends at
finger tips and soles of the feet.
the second lumbar vertebra as conus
• Pacinian corpuscles are the large egg medullaris. The components involved in
shaped receptors found scattered deep in reflex action are called reflex arc.
the dermis and monitoring vibration due There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves
to pressure. It allows to detect different which arise from the brain and 31 pairs of
textures, temperature, hardness and pain spinal nerves from the spinal cord make
• Ruffini endings which lie in the dermis the PNS. The PNS is further divided into
responds to continuous pressure. Somatic Neural system and Autonomic
Neural system. The SNS operates under
• Krause end bulbs are thermoreceptors
conscious control. The ANS usually
that sense temperature. operates unconsciously.
Melanocytes are the cells responsible for The motor portion of ANS has
two major divisions: sympathetic and
producing the skin pigment, melanin,
parasympathetic.
which gives skin its colour and protects
Sensation is the conscious or
it from the sun's UV rays. Vitiligo
subconscious awareness of changes in the
(Leucoderma) is a condition in which external or internal environment. Four
the melanin pigment is lost from areas events namely stimulation, transduction,
of the skin, causing white patches, generation of impulses and integration
often with no clear cause. Vitiligo is occurs typically for a sensation to take
not contagious. It can affect people of place.
any age, gender, or ethnic group. The Simple receptors are associated with
patches appear when melanocytes fails the general senses such as somatic senses
(skin); complex receptors are associated
to synthesis melanin pigment.
with the special senses such as smell, taste,
vision, hearing and equilibrium.
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Nervous System
The Nervous system is a complex collection of specialized nerve cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different parts of the body.
The precentral The postcentral

gyrus is called as gyrus is called as
Motor Strip that Sensory Strip that
controls the voluntary controls the five senses
movements — sight, smell, taste,
of the skeletal tounch and
system. hearing.
Motor strip Sensory

Broca area, region strip Wernicke area,
of the brain that region of the brain
contains neurons Broca area Wernicke that contains motor
involved in speech area neurons involved in the
function. comprehension
of speech.
Gyrus
Sulcus
Cervical
enlargement
Hippocampus
The cardio- plays an
vascular center - important
controls role in emotion,
the heart beat learning and
memory.
The Medulla Amygdala

Oblongata The respiratory plays role in Limbic
The Vital functional center controls the aggression, eating,
centres
rate and rhythm drinking and sexual Systems
of breathing. behaviors.
of medulla are:
The Hypothalamus
vomiting, - monitors blood
coughing, and levels of glucose,
sneezing salt, blood pressure
centres and hormones.
A blood brain Although
barrier protects the sensations and
brain by preventing Lumbar feelings are processed
enlargement Conus medularis
many foregin substances in our brain, the brain
in our vascular system itself cannot feel pain,
from reaching as it lacks pain
the brain. Cauda equina receptors.
The barriers
does not work for 75% of the
some substances like Filum terminale total brain mass is
Nicotine which rushes water. It is the fattest
into the brain in mere 7 organ in the body,
seconds and Alcohol on contains 100 billion
the other hand takes nerve cells.
6 minutes.
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Evaluation Reason: To maintain the unequal

distribution of Na+ and K+, the neurons
1 Which structure in the ear
use electrical energy.
converts pressure waves to
action potentials? a. Both Assertion and Reason are true
and Reason is the correct explanation
a. Tympanic membrane
of the Assertion.
b. Organ of Corti
b. Both Assertion and Reason are true
c. Oval window but the Reason is not the correct
d. Semicircular canal explanations of Assertion.
2. Which of the following pairings is c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
c orrect? d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.
a. Sensory nerve – afferent 6.
Which part of the human brain is
b. Motor nerve - afferent concerned with the regulation of body
temperature?
c. Sensory nerve – ventral
a. Cerebellum
d. Motor nerve – dorsal
b. Cerebrum
3. During synaptic transmission of nerve
c. Medulla oblongata
impulse, neurotransmitter (P) is released
from synaptic vesicles by the action of d. Hypothalamus
ions (Q). Choose the correct P and Q. 7. The respiratory centre is present in the
a. P = Acetylcholine, Q = Ca++ a. Medulla oblongata
b. P = Acetylcholine, Q = Na+ b. Hypothalamus
c. P = GABA, Q=Na+ c. Cerebellum
d. Thalamus
d. P = Cholinesterase, Q = Ca++
8.
Match the following human spinal
4.
Examine the diagram of the two cell
nerves in column I with their respective
types A and B given below and select the
number in column II and choose the
correct option.
correct option
a. Cell-A is the rod cell found
evenly all over retina column I column II
P. Cervical nerves i. 5 pairs
b. Cell-A is the cone cell more Q. Thoracic nerve ii. 1 pair
concentrated in the fovea R. Lumbar nerve iii. 12 pair
centralis S. Coccygeal nerve iv. 8 pair
c. Cell-B is concerned with
colour vision in bright light a. ( P-iv ),( Q-iii ),( R-i ),( S-ii )
d. Cell-A is sensitive to bright light b. ( P-iii ), ( Q-i ), ( R-ii ), ( S-iv )
intensities c. ( P-iv ),( Q-i ),( R-ii ),( S-iii )
5.
Assertion: The imbalance in d. ( P-ii ), ( Q-iv ), ( R-i ), ( S-iii )
concentration of Na ,+
K and
+
9. The abundant intracellular cation is
proteins generates action potential.
a. H+ b. K+ c. Na+ d. Ca++
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10. Which of the following statements is (iv) They are present in fovea of
wrong regarding conduction of nerve retina
impulse?
a. (iii), (ii) and (i)
a. In a resting neuron, the axonal b. (ii) , (iii) and (iv)
membrane is more permeable to K+ c. (i), (iii) and (iv)
ions and nearly impermeable to Na+ d. (i), (ii) and (iv)
ions.
13.
Which of the following statement
b. Fluid outside the axon has a high concerning the somatic division of the
concentration of Na+ ions and low peripheral neural system is incorrect?
concentration of K+, in a resting
a. Its pathways innervate skeletal
neuron.
muscles
c. Ionic gradient s are maintained by
b. Its pathways are usually voluntary
Na+ K+ pumps across the resting
membrane, which transport 3Na c. Some of its pathways are referred to
ions outwards for 2K+ into the cell. as reflex arcs
d. A neuron is polarized only when the d. Its pathways always involve four
outer surface of the axonal membrane neurons
possess a negative a charge and its 14.
When the potential across the axon
inner surface is positively charged. membrane is more negative than the
normal resting potential, the neuron is
11. All of the following are associated with said to be in a state of
the myeline sheath except
a. Depolarization
a. Faster conduction of nerve impulses
b. Hyperpolarization
b. Nodes of Ranvier forming gaps along
c. Repolarization
the axon
d. Hypopolarization
c. Increased energy output for nerve
impulse conduction 15. Why is the blind spot called so?
d. Saltatory conduction of action 16. Sam’s optometrist tells him that his
potential intraocular pressure is high. What is this
condition called and which fluid does it
12. Several statements are given here in
involve?
reference to cone cells which of the
following option indicates all correct 17. The action potential occurs in response
statements for cone cells ? to a threshold stimulus; but not at sub
threshold stimuli. What is the name of
Statements
the principle involved?
(i) Cone cells are less sensitive in
18. Pleasant smell of food urged Ravi to rush
bright light than Rod cells
into the kitchen. Name the parts of the
(ii) They are responsible for colour brain involved in the identification of
v ision food and emotional responses to odour.
(iii) Erythropsin is a photo pigment
which is sensitive to red colour 19. Cornea transplant in humans is almost
light never rejected. State the reason.
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20. At the end of repolarization, the nerve 24. Classify receptors based on type of
membrane gets hyperpolarized. Why? stimuli.
21. The choroid plexus secretes cerebrospinal 25. Differentiate between rod and cone cells.
fluid. List the function of it. 26. The sense of taste is considered to be the
22. What is ANS? Explain the components of most pleasurable of all senses.
ANS. Describe the structure of the receptor
23. Why the limbic system is called involved with a diagram.
the emotional brain? Name the parts of it. 27. Describe the sensory receptors present in
the skin.
Concept Map
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ICT Corner
The Transmitters
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Step – 1
Use the URL to reach the ‘Nervous system’ page. Select ‘Nervous System organization’
from grid and explore the autonomic and somatic organizations of nervous system.
Step – 2
Then reach the ‘Nervous system’ page by clicking back button on the top of the
window or use the ‘Backspace’ key. Select ‘Nerve cells’ from the grid and explore.
Step – 3
Follow the above steps and explore each and every parts and their functions of nervous
system.
Step – 4
Use the reference given below to acquire additional details about nervous system.
Nervous System’s URL:
https://www.getbodysmart.com/nervous-system
3D-Brain:
http://www.brainfacts.org/3d-brain#intro=false&focus=Brain&zoom=false
3D-Ear:
https://www.amplifon.com/web/uk/interactive-ear/index.html
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UNIT IV Chapter 11
Chemical Coordination
and Integration
Chapter Outline
11.1 Endocrine glands and hormones

11.2 Human endocrine system
11.3 Hypo and hyper activity of endocrine
glands and related disorders
Klotho an anti-aging hormone makes people smart,
11.4 Mechanism of hormone action. enhances cognitive abilities and longevity.
11.1 Endocrine glands and
• Understands the hormones
positions of the various
Physiological functions of our human body
endocrine glands and
is regulated and coordinated by both neural
their secretions.
and endocrine systems. The endocrine
• Learns the mechanism
system influences the metabolic activities
of hormone action.
by means of hormones (hormone means
• Understands the disorders related
to excite) which are chemical messengers
to hypo and hyper activity of the
released into the blood and circulated
endocrine glands.
as chemical signals and acts specifically
• Learns the role of gastro intestinal
on certain organs or tissues called target
hormones.
organs or target tissues. Hormones may
While hearing your test marks, some may speed up or slow down or alter the activity
have anxiety and some may hesitate to of the target organs. The hormones
hear and some may be worried. Do you secreted do not remain permanently in
know the reasons for such immediate the blood but are converted by the liver
changes? While seeing any unexpected into inactive compounds and excreted by
happenings, we get goose bumps. Do you the kidneys.
know the reason, why? Hormones are chemical messengers
These are all due to the biochemical because they act as organic catalysts and
changes happening in our body, Which coenzymes to perform specific functions in
are created by the endocrine system. The the target organs. The target organs contain
above mentioned biochemical changes receptor molecules either on the surface
are due to the hormone adrenalin (flight, or within the cell. Although different
fright and fight hormone). hormones come in contact with cells, only
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the cells that contain receptor molecules maintain homeostasis. Hormones are
specific for the hormone are physiologically composed of water soluble proteins or
activated. A single hormone may have peptides or amines or fat soluble steroids.
multiple effects on a single target tissue or
on different target tissues. Homeostasis: Maintenance of constant
internal environment of the body by
the different coordinating system.
11.2 Human endocrine system

There are two glandular systems such as
the exocrine glands and the endocrine
glands. The exocrine glands secrete
enzymes, saliva and sweat and have
ducts that carry their substances to the
membrane surfaces. Example: salivary
gland and gastric gland. The endocrine
glands, called ductless glands produce
hormones and lack ducts; they release
their hormone to the surrounding tissue
fluid. The hormones circulate around
the body and eventually reach the target
organs. Endocrine glands (Figure: 11. 1)
include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
pineal, adrenal, thymus and are also
Figure 11.1 Location of various
known as exclusive endocrine glands.
endocrine glands
The hypothalamus along with its neural
Many hormones exhibit long term function also produces hormones and is
changes like growth, puberty and considered as a neuro endocrine gland. In
pregnancy. Hormones often influence addition several organs such as pancreas,
many organs and organ systems at the gastro intestinal tract epithelium, kidney,
same time. Serious deficiency or excess heart, gonads and placenta are also have
secretion of hormones leads to disorders. endocrine tissues and are known as partial
Hormones coordinate different physical, endocrine glands.
physiological, mental activities and
Table 11.1. Chemical nature of hormones

Class Chemical properties Example
Amines Small, water soluble derived Adrenalin, nor adrenalin, melatonin and
from tyrosine or tryptophan thyroid hormone
Protein/Peptides Water soluble Insulin, glucagon and pituitary hormones
Steroids Derived from cholesterol Cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone,
mostly lipid soluble oestrogen, progesterone.
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11.2.1 Hypothalamus As the part of limbic system it influences

Hypothalamus is a small cone shaped various emotional responses.
structure that projects downward from
In mammals, the role of pars intermedia
the brain ending into the pituitary stalk. is insignificant, but in other vertebrates
It interlinks both the nervous system it secretes melanocyte stimulating
and endocrine system. Though pituitary hormone (MSH). MSH induces
gland is known as master endocrine pigmentation in skin.
glands that controls the other endocrine
glands, but it is, in turn controlled 11.2.2 Pituitary gland or Hypophysis
by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus
The pituitary gland (means to grow under)
contains groups of neurosecretory cells.
is ovoid in shape and is located in the sella
It produces neurotransmitters which
turcica, a bony cavity of the sphenoid
regulate the secretions of the pituitary
bone at the base of brain and connected
(Figure11. 2). The hormones produced by
to the hypothalamic region of the brain by
the hypothalamus act either as a releasing
a stalk called infundibulum. It is about
hormone or as an inhibitory hormone.
one centimetre in diameter and 0.5 gm
In the basal region of the brain, the in weight. The pituitary consists of two
hypothalamic hypophyseal portal lobes, anterior glandular adenohypophysis
blood vessel connects hypothalamus and and posterior neural neurohypophysis.
anterior pituitary. It allows hypothalamic The anterior lobe originates from the
hormones to control anterior pituitary embryonic invagination of pharyngeal
secretion. The posterior pituitary is epithelium called Rathke’s pouch and
connected with hypothalamus by a nerve the posterior lobe is originates from
bundle called hypothalamic hypophyseal the base of the brain as an outgrowth
axis. It produces nerve signal that of hypothalamus. Anatomically the
control the posterior pituitary secretion. adenohypophysis has three lobes or zones
Hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, namely pars intermedia, pars distalis and
blood pressure, body temperature, cardio pars tuberalis. The neurohypophysis is
and fluid electrolyte balance of the body. otherwise known as pars nervosa.
Table 11.2 The major hypothalamic hormones and their functions
S.No. Hormones Functions
1. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) Stimulates the secretion of TSH
2. Gonadotropin releasing hormone(GnRH) Stimulates the secretion of FSH
3. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) Stimulates the secretion of ACTH
4. Growth hormone releasing hormone(GHRH) Stimulates the secretion of GH
5. Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) Stimulates the secretion of Prolactin
6. Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) Stimulates the secretion of LH
7. MSH releasing hormone Stimulates the secretion of MSH
8. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) Inhibits the secretion of GH
9. Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) Inhibits the secretion of Prolactin
10. MSH inhibiting hormone Inhibits the secretion of MSH
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The anterior lobe of pituitary secretes GH increases the release of fatty acid
six tropic hormones such as growth from adipose tissue and decreases the rate
hormone (GH), thyroid stimulating of glucose utilization for energy by the
hormone (TSH), adreno corticotropic cells. Thus it conserves glucose for glucose
hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating dependent tissues, such as the brain.
hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone ii) Thyroid stimulating hormone
(LH), luteotropic hormone (LTH) and (TSH) or thyrotropin: TSH is a
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) glycoprotein hormone, which stimulates the
(in lower animals only). The posterior thyroid gland to secrete Tri-iodothyronine
lobe of pituitary secretes the hormones (T3) and thyroxine (T4). TSH secretion is
namely vasopressin and oxytocin. regulated by negative feedback mechanism.
It’s release from the anterior pituitary
is induced by the thyrotropin releasing
hormone (TRH). When thyroxine level in
the blood increases, TRH acts on both the
pituitary and hypothalamus to inhibit TSH
secretion.
iii) Adreno cortico tropic hormone
(ACTH): ACTH is a peptide hormone that
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
It stimulates melanin synthesis in
melanocytes, induces the release of fatty
acids from adipose tissues and stimulates
insulin secretion. ACTH secretion
Figure 11. 2 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland is regulated by negative feedback
mechanism.
Hormones of Adenohypophysis iv) Follicle stimulating hormone
i) Growth hormone (GH): It is also (FSH): FSH is a glycoprotein hormone
known as somatotropic hormone (STH) which regulates the functions of the
or Somatotropin. It is a peptide hormone. gonads (ovary and testis). In males, FSH
Growth hormone promotes growth of along with androgens acts on the germinal
all the tissues and metabolic process of epithelium of seminiferous tubules and
the body. It influences the metabolism stimulates the production and release of
of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids and sperms (spermatogenesis). In females,
increases the rate of protein biosynthesis FSH acts on the ovaries and brings about
in the cells. It stimulates chondrogenesis the development and maturation of
(cartilage formation), osteogenesis (bone graffian follicles.
formation) and helps in the retention v) Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH
of minerals like nitrogen, potassium, is a glycoprotein hormone which is also
phosphorus, sodium etc., in the body. known as interstitial cell stimulating
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hormone (ICSH). In males, ICSH acts on

the interstitial cells of testis to produce Vasopressin and oxytocin are
composed of nine amino acids and are
the male sex hormone, testosterone. In
almost identical and they differ in only
females, LH along with FSH matures
two amino acids and yet they have
the ovarian follicles. LH independently dramatically different physiological
induces ovulation, maintains the corpus effects.
luteum and promotes synthesis and Amino acid sequence of vasopressin:
release of ovarian hormones. FSH and LH cysteine-tyrosine-phenyl alanine-
are collectively referred as gonadotropins. glutamine-aspargine-cysteine-proline-
FSH and LH are not produced during arginine-glycine.
childhood. The secretion of FSH and LH Amino acid sequence of
starts only during pre pubertal period. oxytocin:cysteine-tyrosine-isoleu
vi) Luteotropic hormone (LTH): LTH sine-glutamine-aspargine-cysteine-
is also called luteotropin or lactogenic proline-leucine-glycine..
hormone or prolactin or mammotropin. It
is a protein hormone which stimulates milk Pituitary gland is located in a depression
secretion after the child birth in females. in the sphenoid bone of skull below the
High prolactin secretion during lactation brain, so is also called hypothalamus
suppresses LH secretion and ovulation cerebri. Discuss the following :
since it induces the corpus luteum hence a. Pituitary gland is commonly called
named as luteo tropic hormone. “master gland” of the body.
b. Discuss the role of hypothalamus
Hormones of neurohypophysis and pituitary as a coordinated unit in
maintaining physiological processes.
i) Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone c.
How does the posterior lobe of
(ADH) : ADH is a peptide hormone pituitary help in osmoregulation?
which promotes reabsorption of water and
electrolytes by distal tubules of nephron
11.2.3 Pineal gland
and thereby reduces loss of water through
In human, the pineal gland or epiphysis
urine. Hence it is called as anti diuretic
cerebri or conarium is located behind the
hormone. It also causes constriction
third ventricle of brain and is formed of
of blood vessels when released in large parenchymal cells and interstitial cells. It
amount and increases blood pressure. secretes the hormone, melatonin, which
ADH deficiency causes Diabetes insipidus plays a central role in the regulation
which induces the production of large of circadian rhythm of our body and
amount of urine. maintains the normal sleep wake cycle.
ii) Oxytocin (means quick birth): It is It also regulates the timing of sexual
a peptide hormone which stimulates maturation of gonads. In addition
vigorous contraction of the smooth muscles melatonin also influences metabolism,
of uterus during child birth and ejection of pigmentation, menstrual cycle and
milk from the mammary glands. defence mechanism of our body.
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Melatonin is secreted
at night, Light falling
on the retina of eye
decreases melatonin
production.
Circadian rhythm is the 24 hour cycle
of biological activities associated with
natural periods of light and darkness.
Example sleep wake cycle, body
temperature, appetite etc.
11.2.4 Thyroid gland

The butterfly shaped thyroid gland is a
bilobed gland located below the larynx on
each side of upper trachea. It is the largest Follicle cell (secretes thyroid
endocrine gland in the body. Its two lateral Colloid-filled follicles hormone)
lobes are connected by a median tissue
mass called isthmus. Each lobe is made
up of many lobules .The lobules consist of
follicles called acini (acinus in singular).
Each acinus is lined with glandular,
cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells. The
lumen of acinus is filled with colloid, a
thick glycoprotein mixture consisting of
thyroglobulin molecules.
Hormones of the thyroid gland are often Parafollicular cell
Figure 11. 3 Structures of thyroid gland
called the major metabolic hormones. The
follicular cells of thyroid gland secrete two Functions of thyroxine or tetra-
hormones namely tri-iodothyronine (T3 iodothyronine (T4): Thyroxine regulates
) and thyroxine or tetra- iodothyronine the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and body
(T4). The parafollicular cells or ‘C’ cells heat production. It stimulates protein
of thyroid gland secrete a hormone synthesis and promotes growth. It is
called thyrocalcitonin. Iodine is essential essential for the development of skeletal
for the normal synthesis of thyroid and nervous system. Thyroxine plays
hormones. Thyroid releasing hormone an important role in maintaining blood
from the hypothalamus stimulates the pressure. It reduces serum cholesterol
adenohypophysis to secrete TSH, which levels, Optimum levels of thyroxine in
inturn stimulates the thyroid gland to blood is necessary for gonadial functions.
secrete the thyroid hormones. Thyroid
Sporodic goitre is a genetic disease
hormones show a negative feedback and is not caused by iodine or
effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary thyroxine deficiency.
(Figure11. 4).
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Parathyroid hormone or
Parathormone (PTH)
PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone. It is a
peptide hormone involved in controlling the
calcium and phosphate homeostasis. The
secretion of PTH is controlled by calcium level
in the blood. It increases the blood calcium
level by stimulating osteoclasts to dissolve the
bone matrix. As a result calcium and phosphate
are released into the blood. PTH enhances
the reabsorption of calcium and excretion of
phosphates by the renal tubules and promotes
activation of vitamin D to increase calcium
absorption by intestinal mucosal cells.
11.2.6 Thymus gland
Thymus gland is partially an endocrine and

Figure 11.4 Negative feedback mechanism partially a lymphoid organ. It is a bilobed
Functions of thyrocalcitonin (TCT): structure located just above the heart and
TCT is a polypeptide hormone, which aorta, behind the sternum. It is covered
regulates the blood calcium and phosphate by fibrous capsule and anatomically it is
levels. It reduces the blood calcium level and divisible into an outer cortex and an inner
opposes the effects of parathyroid hormone. medulla. It secretes four hormones such as
thymulin, thymosin, thymopoietin and
Iodine is required thymic humoral factor (THF). The primary
for formation of function of thymus is the production of
thyroxine: To produce
immuno competent ‘T’ lymphocytes which
normal quantities of
thyroxine, about 1mg/week of iodine is provides cell mediated immunity.
required. To prevent iodine deficiency
common table salt is iodised with 1 part
sodium iodide to every 1,00,000 parts
of sodium chloride
11.2.5 Parathyroid gland

In human, four tiny parathyroid glands are
found in the posterior wall of the thyroid
glands. This gland is composed of two
types of cells, the chief cells and oxyphil
cells. The chief cells secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and the functions of Figure 11.5 Structure of thymus gland
oxyphil cells are not known.
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Function of adrenal hormones:

Old age people are sick often, why?
Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogensis,
Due to degeneration of thymus gland,
lipolysis and proteolysis (the life saving
thymosine level decreases, as a result
activity). Cortisol is a glucocorticoid
the immunity of old age people
involved in maintaining cardio vascular
becomes weak and causes sickness.
and kidney functions. It produces anti-
inflammatory reactions and suppresses
11.2.7 Adrenal gland the immune response. It stimulates the
A pair of adrenal glands are located at the RBC production. It is also known as stress
anterior end of the kidneys, hence also combat hormone. Mineralocorticoids
called suprarenal glands. Anatomically regulates water and electrolyte balance
the outer region is the cortex and the inner of our body. Aldosterone stimulates the
region is the medulla. Histologically the reabsorption of sodium and water and
adrenal cortex has three distinct zones, zona eliminates potassium and phosphate
glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona ions through excretion, thus it helps in
reticularis. Zona glomerulosa an outer maintaining electrolytes, osmotic pressure
thin layer constitutes about 15% of adrenal and blood pressure. Adrenal androgen
cortex, and secretes mineralocorticoids. plays a role in hair growth in the axial
Zona fasciculata, the middle widest layer region, pubis and face during puberty.
constitutes about 75% of adrenal cortex The adrenal medulla secretes the
and secretes glucocorticoids such as hormones adrenalin and noradrenalin and
cortisol, corticosterone and trace amounts are referred as "3F hormone" (fight, flight
of adrenal androgen and oestrogen. Zona and fright hormone). Adrenalin increases
reticularis, an inner zone of adrenal cortex liver glycogen breakdown into glucose and
constitute about 10% of adrenal cortex increases the release of fatty acids from fat
and secretes the adrenal androgen, trace cells. During emergency it increases heart
amount of oestrogen and glucocorticoids. beat rate and blood pressure. It stimulates
the smooth muscles of cutaneous and
Laughing is good for health, because it
visceral arteries to decrease blood flow.
reduces the stress hormone (adrenalin)
It increases blood flow to the skeletal
secretion and makes us to relax.
muscles thereby increases the metabolic
rate of skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles
Adrenal medulla: It is the central and nervous tissue.
part of adrenal gland and is composed
of ovoid and columnar cells, which are The general function of noradrenalin
found around the network of blood is to mobilize the brain and body for
capillaries. Adrenalin (epinephrine) and action. It’s secretion is less during
nor adrenalin (nor epinephrine) are the sleep, more during wakefulness and
two hormones secreted by the adrenal reaches much higher levels during
medulla. Both adrenalin and nor adrenalin stress situations. This response is
are catecholamines. known as ‘fight or flight’ response.
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11.2.8 Pancreas
Pancreas is a composite gland
which performs both exocrine
and endocrine functions. It is
located just below the stomach
as a leaf like structure. The
pancreas is composed of two
major tissues such the acini and
islets of langerhans. Acini secretes
digestive enzymes and the islets
of langerhans secretes hormones
like insulin and glucagon. Human
pancreas has one to two million
islets of langerhans. In each islet
about 60% cells are beta cells, 30%
cells are alpha cells and 10% cells
are delta cells. The alpha cells
secrete glucagon, the beta cells
secrete insulin and delta cells
secrete somatostatin.
Insulin: Insulin is a peptide
Figure 11.6 Structure of adrenal gland
hormone and plays an important
role in glucose homeostasis. It’s
main effect is to lower blood
glucose levels by increasing the
uptake of glucose into the body
cells, especially muscle and fat
cells. Insulin also inhibits the
breakdown of glycogen to glucose,
the conversion of amino acids or
fats to glucose, so insulin is rightly
called a hypoglycemic hormone.
Glucagon: Glucagon is a
polypeptide hormone. It is a
potent hyperglycemic hormone
that acts on the liver and promotes
the breakdown of glycogen
to glucose (Glygogenolysis),
synthesis of glucose from lactic
acid and from non-carbohydrate
molecules (Gluconeogenesis).
Glucagon releases glucose from
Figure 11.7 Structure of Islets of langerhans (pancreas)
the liver cells, increasing the
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blood glucose levels. Since glucagon Functions of testosterone: Under the

reduces the cellular uptake and utilisation influence of FSH and LH, testosterone
of glucose it is called a hyperglycemic initiates maturation of male reproductive
hormone. Prolonged hyperglycemia leads organs, and the appearance of secondary
to the disorder called diabetes mellitus. sexual characters, muscular growth,
growth of facial and axillary hair,
Humulin N: Human insulin is produced masculine voice and male sexual
by recombinant DNA technology behaviour. It enhances the total bone
(genetic engineering) and administered matrix and plays a stimulating role in the
to diabetic patients as injection and not process of spermatogenesis.
by oral consumption. Reason: Digestive
Ovary: Females have a pair of
enzymes digest it.
ovaries located in the pelvic region of
the abdomen. The ovary is composed
Insulin: The half life of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues.
period of insulin (in
It produces the eggs or ova. The
plasma) is 6 minutes
ovaries secrete the steroid hormones
It is cleared from the
circulation within oestrogen and progesterone. Oestrogen
10-15 minutes is responsible for the maturation of
reproductive organs and the development
Endocrine glands control and of secondary sexual characters at puberty.
coordinate the body functions through Along with progesterone, oestrogens
secreting certain chemical messengers promotes breast development and initiate
called hormones. Due to certain the cyclic changes during menstrual
physiological reasons, the blood glucose cycle. Progesterone prepares the uterus
level of an otherwise normal person. for implantation of the fertilized ovum.
a.
Give the possible cause for the It decreases the uterine contraction
increases in blood glucose level. during pregnancy and stimulates the
b. What is the chemical nature of this development of mammary glands and
hormone? Discuss its role in the milk secretion. It is responsible for
body. premenstrual changes in the uterus
c. H
ow can this condition be reversed? and is essential for the formation
of placenta.
11.2.9 Gonads Identify the peaks of FSH, LH,

Testis: A pair of testis is present in the Oestrogen and Progesterone hormones
scrotal sac of males. The testis functions through out the menstrual cycle.
as a sex organ and also as an endocrine Urine pregnancy test is done to test
gland. The testis is composed of the presence of Human Chorionic
seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells Gonadotrophin (HCG) in the urine.
or Leydig cells. The Leydig cells secrete HCG can be detected in the urine one
several male sex hormones, collectively or two weeks after conception.
called androgens, mainly testosterone.
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11.2.10 H
ormones of heart, kidney neutralize the acidity. Gastric inhibitory
and gastro intestinal tract peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion
and motility.
Some tissues of the heart, kidney and
gastro intestinal tract acts as partial 11.3 Hypo and Hyper activity
endocrine glands. In the heart, cardiocytes of endocrine glands and
on the atrial wall's secretes an important
peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic
related disorders
factor (ANF). When blood pressure is The hyper secretion and hypo secretion of
increased, ANF is secreted and causes hormones leads to several disorders
dilation of the blood vessels to reduce the Dwarfism is due to hyposecretion
blood pressure. of growth hormone (GH) in children,
In kidneys, hormones such as renin, skeletal growth and sexual maturity is
erythropoietin and calcitriol are secreted. arrested. They attain a maximum height
Renin is secreted by juxta glomerular cells of 4 feet only (Figure 11.8).
(JGA), which increases blood pressure
when angiotensin is formed in blood.
Erythropoietin is also secreted by the
JGA cells of the kidney and stimulates
erythropoiesis (formation of RBC) in
bone marrow. Calcitriol is sercreted by
proximal tubules of nephron. It is an
active form of vitamin D3 which promotes
calcium and phosphorus absorption from
intestine and accelerates bone formation.
Gastro intestinal tract hormones
Group of specialized endocrine cells Figure 11.8 Dwarfism
present in gastro-intestinal tract
Gigantism is due to hypersecretion
secretes hormones such as gastrin,
of growth hormone (GH) in children.
cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin and
Overgrowth of skeletal structure occurs
gastric inhibitory peptides (GIP).
(up to 8 feet) and the visceral growth is not
Gastrin acts on the gastric glands and
appropriate with that of limbs. Figure 11.9.
stimulates the secretion of HCl and
pepsinogen. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is Acromegaly is due to excessive secretion
secreted by duodenum in response to the of growth hormone in adults. Over growth
presence of fat and acid in the diet. It acts of hand bones, feet bones, jaw bones,
on the gall bladder to release bile into malfunctioning of gonads, enlargement of
duodenum and stimulates the secretion viscera, tongue, lungs, heart, liver, spleen
of pancreatic enzymes and its discharge. and endocrine gland like thyroid, adrenal
Secretin acts on acini cells of pancreas etc., are the symptoms of acromegaly.
to secrete bicarbonate ions and water to (Figure 11.10)
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Figure 11.11 Cretinism
Hyposecretion of thyroid in adults
causes myxodema. It is otherwise
called Gull’s disease. This disease is
characterised by decreased mental
Figure 11.9 Gigantism activity, memory loss, slowness of
movement, speech, and general weakness
of body, dry coarse skin, scarce hair, puffy
appearance, disturbed sexual function,
low BMR, poor appetite, and subnormal
body temperature. (Figure 11.12)
+DLUGU\
FRDUVHVSDUVH
/DWHUDO
H\HEURZVWKLQ
3HULRUELWDO
Figure 11.10 Acromegaly HGHPD
In infants, hypothyroidism causes 3XII\GXOOIDFH

ZLWKGU\VNLQ
cretinism. A cretin shows retarded skeletal
growth, absence of sexual maturity, retarded
mental ability, thick wrinkled skin, protruded
enlarged tongue, bloated face, thick and
short limbs occurs. The other symptoms are Figure 11.12 Myxodema
low BMR, slow pulse rate, subnormal body Grave’s disease also called as
temperature and elevated blood cholesterol thyrotoxicosis or exophthalmic goitre.
levels. (Figure 11.11) This disease is caused due to hyper
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secretion of thyroid. It is characterised by Tetany is caused due to the

enlargement of thyroid gland, increased hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone
BMR (50% - 100%), elevated respiratory (PTH). Due to hyposecretion of
and excretory rates, increased heart beat, PTH serum calcium level decreases
high BP, increased body temperature, (Hypocalcemia), as a result serum
protrusion of eyeball and weakness of eye phosphate level increases. Calcium and
muscles and weight loss. (Figure 11.13) phosphate excretion level decreases.
Generalized convulsion, locking of jaws
increased heart beat rate, increased body
temperature, muscular spasm are the
major symptoms of tetany.
Hyperparathyroidism is caused due
to excess PTH in blood. Demineralisation
of bone, cyst formation, softening of bone,
loss of muscle tone, general weakness,
renal disorders are the symptoms of
hyperparathyroidism.
Addison’s disease is caused due to
Figure 11.13 Grave’s disease hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids from the adrenal
Simple goitre is also known as Endemic cortex. Muscular weakness, low BP., loss
goitre. It is caused due to hyposecretion of appetite, vomiting, hyper pigmentation
of thyroxine. The symptoms includes of skin, low metabolic rate, subnormal
enlargement of thyroid gland, fall in serum temperature, reduced blood volume,
thyroxine level, increased TSH secretion. weight loss are the symptoms that occur
(Figure 11.14) in Addison’s disease (Figure 11.15). Reduced
aldosterone secretion increases urinary
excretion of Na Cl. and water and decreases
potassium excretion leading to dehydration.
Figure 11.14 Simple goitre Figure 11.15 Addison’s disease
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Cushing’s syndrome is caused due to Hyperglycaemia is otherwise known

excess secretion of cortisol. Obesity of the as Diabetes mellitus. It is caused due to
face and trunk, redness of face, hand, feet, reduced secretion of insulin. As the result,
thin skin, excessive hair growth, loss of blood glucose level is elevated. Diabetes
minerals from bone (osteoporosis) systolic mellitus is of two types, Type I Diabetes
hypertension are features of Cushing’s and Type II Diabetes. Type I diabetes is
syndrome. Suppression of sexual function also known Insulin dependent diabetes,
like atrophy of gonads are the other caused by the lack of insulin secretion
symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome. (Figure due to illness or viral infections. Type II
11.16) diabetes is also known as Non- Insulin
dependent diabetes, caused due to reduced
sensitivity to insulin, often called as
insulin resistance. Symptoms of diabetes
includes, polyurea (excessive urination),
polyphagia (excessive intake of food),
polydipsia (excessive consumption liquids
due to thirst), ketosis (breakdown of fat
into glucose results in accumulation of
ketone bodies) in blood. Gluconeogenesis
(Conversion of non- carbohydrate form
like amino acids and fat into glucose) also
occur in diabetes.
Avoid use of
synthetic soft drinks
Figure.11.16 Cushing's syndrome The branded soft
drinks damage our
Hypoglycaemia is due to increased endocrine system. While consuming
secretion of insulin thereby blood glucose soft drinks, the sugar level increases
level decreases. In this disorder blood in blood which leads to elevated
glucose level lowers than normal fasting insulin secretion to reduce the blood
index. Increased heartbeat, weakness, glucose level. The elevated insulin
nervousness, headache, confusion, lack level diminishes immunity and cause
of co-ordination, slurred speech, serious obesity, cardio-vascular disorders etc.
brain defects like epilepsy and coma occurs.
Normal blood glucose level: Diabates insipidus is caused due to

Preprandial : 70 – 110 mg/dl (Before hyposecretion of vasopressin (ADH)
food) – (Fasting) from neurohypophysis. The symptom
includes frequent urination (polyurea)
Postprandial : 110 – 140 mg/dl (About
and excessive consumption of liquids due
two hours after food)
to thirst (polydipsia).
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11.4 Mechanism of hormone 2. Each receptor may activate several

adenylate cyclases each of which make
action
much c AMP.
Hormones circulate in the blood but their
3. Thus there is more signal after each step.
concentration can increase or decrease based on
The actions of cAMP are terminated by
the requirement of the body. This is controlled
phosphodiesterases. The effect of peptide
by feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms
hormones like insulin, glucagon, somatotropin
control the secretion of endocrine glands by
are usually short lived because they work
stimulating the hypothalamus, pituitary or
through second messenger system.
both, which inturn governs the secretion of
Steroid hormones can easily cross the cell
a particular hormone. In positive feedback,
membrane, and bind to their receptors, which
the secretion of the hormone increases where
are intracellular or intranuclear. Upon binding
as in negative feedback further secretion of
to the receptors, they pair up with another
hormone slows down. Feedback mechanisms
receptor – hormone complex (dimerize).This
are the key factors for maintaining homeostasis
dimer can then bind to DNA and alter its
in our body.
transcription. (Figure 11.18)
Hormones are classified into three
The effect of steroid hormones such as
major groups as peptide hormones, steroid
aldosterone, oestrogen, FSH are long lived, as
hormones and amino acid derived hormones
they alter the amount of mRNA and protein
based on their chemical structure.
in a cell.
Peptide hormones cannot cross the
Amino acid derived hormones are
phospolipid cell membrane and bind to the
derived from one or two aminoacid with a few
receptors on the exterior cell surface. They are
additional modifications. Thyroid hormone
are transported to the golgi, which is the site
is synthesised from tyrosine and includes the
of modification. It acts as a first messenger
addition of several iodine atoms. Epinephrine
in the cell. Hormones on binding to their
receptors do not enter the target
cell but generate the production of
second messengers such as cyclic
AMP (c AMP), which in turn
regulates cellular metabolism.
This is catalyzed by the enzyme
adenylate cyclase. The interaction
between the hormone at the
surface and the effect brought
out by cAMP within the cell is
known as signaling cascade. At
each step there is a possibility of
amplification. (Figure 11.17)
1. One hormone molecule may
bind to multiple receptor
molecules before it is degraded. Figure 11.17 Mechanism of peptide hormone action
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an amino acid derivative may function

through second messenger system like peptide
hormones or they may actually enter the cell
and function like steroid hormones.
Avoid use of steroid components

The abuse of anabolic steroids can
cause serious health problems like
high BP, heart diseases, liver damage,
cancer, stroke and blood clots. Other
side effects of steroid use includes
nausea, vomiting, ligament and
tendon injuries, head ache, joint
pain, muscle cramps, diarrhoea, sleep
problem etc. Figure 11.18 Mechanism of steroid
hormone action
Summary system, skeletal growth, and regulates
basal metabolic rate.
Endocrine glands: secrete hormones
which diffuse into blood and induce Parathyroid gland regulates calcium
the target organs. They are chemical level in our body. Thymus gland plays
messengers or organic catalysts which a vital role in cell mediated immunity by
interact with receptor in the target organs. promoting T lymphocytes maturation.
Pancreas regulates blood glucose
Hormones speed up or slow down or
homeostasis through its secretion of
alter the activities of target organs. The
insulin and glucagon.
hypo or hyper secretion of hormones
leads to serious effects on human beings. Adrenal cortex secretes
Hormones coordinate different physical mineralocorticoids which regulates
and mental activities to maintain mineral metabolism, glucocorticoids
homeostasis. regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones
Hypothalamus interlinks nervous
adrenalin and noradrenalin. In male,
system and endocrine system. It is located
reproductive functions are controlled
in the diencephalon of cerebrum and
by testosterone secreted by the testis. In
controls the pituitary secretion. Pituitary
female, ovary secretes three hormones
gland secretes six tropic hormones which
oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin that
regulates various physiological functions
regulates reproductive functions.
of our body. Posterior pituitary gland
secretes vasopressin that regulates water Hormonal deficiency causes serious
and electrolyte balance. Oxytocin helps harmful effects in human. It alters
during child birth. Melatonin secreted by physiological and biochemical functions
pineal gland regulates circadian rhythm of the body. This leads into various
of our body. The thyroid gland secretes disorders like acromegaly, dwarfism,
thyroxine which stimulates the nervous tetany, diabetes etc.
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Evaluation b. Progesterone is secreted by corpus

luteum and softens pelvic ligaments
1. The maintenance of constant during child birth
internal environment is
c. Oestrogen is secreted by both sertoli
referred as
cells and corpus luteum
a. Regulation
d. Progesterone produced by corpus
b. homeostasis luteum is biologically different from
c. co-ordination the one produced by placenta.
d. hormonal control 9. Hypersecretion of GH in children
2. Which of the following are exclusive leads to
endocrine glands? a. Cretinism b. Gigantism
a. Thymus and testis c. Graves disease d. Tetany
b. adrenal and ovary 10. A pregnant female delivers a baby who
c. parathyroid and adrenal suffers from stunted growth, mental
d. pancreas and parathyroid retardation, low intelligence quotient
3. Which of the following hormone is and abnormal skin. This is the result of
not secreted under the influence of a. Low secretion of growth hormone
pituitary gland? b. Cancer of the thyroid gland
a. thyroxine b. insulin c. Over secretion of pars distalis
c. oestrogen d. glucocorticoids d. Deficiency of iodine in diet.
4. Spermatogenesis in mammalian testes 11. The structure which connects the
is controlled by hypothalamus with anterior lobe of
a. Luteinising hormone pituitary gland is the
b. Follicle stimulating hormone a. Dendrites of neuro hypophysis
c. FSH and prolactin b. Axons of neurohypophysis
d. GH and prolactin c. Bands of white fibers from cerebellar
5. S erum calcium level is regulated by region
a. Thyroxine b. FSH d. Hypophysial portal system
c. Pancreas d. Thyroid and 12. Which one of the following statement
parathyroid is correct
6. Iodised salt is essential to prevent a. Calcitonin and thymosin are thyroid
hormones
a. rickets b. scurvy
b. Pepsin and prolactin are secreted in
c. goitre d. acromegaly stomach
7. Which of the following gland is related c. Secretin and rhodopsin are
with immunity? polypeptide hormones
a. Pineal gland b. adrenal gland d. Cortisol and aldosterone are steroid
c. thymus d. parathyroid gland hormones
8. Which of the following statement 13. which of the given option shows all
about sex hormones is correct? wrong statements for thyroid gland
a. Testosterone is produced by Statements
Leydig cells under the influence of (i) It inhibits process of RBC
luteinizing hormone formation
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(ii) It helps in maintenance of water 22. Name the layers of adrenal cortex and
and electrolytes mention their secretions.
(iii) Its more secretion can reduce 23. Differentiate hyperglycemia from
blood pressure hypoglycemia.
(iv) It Stimulates osteoblast 24 Write the functions of (CCK)
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (iii) and (iv) Cholecystokinin.
(c) (i) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iii) 25. Growth hormone is important for
normal growth. Justify the statement.
14. Comment on homeostasis.
26. Pineal gland is an endocrine gland,
15. Hormones are known as chemical write its role.
messenger. Justify.
27. Comment on the functions of
16. Write the role of oestrogen in adrenalin.
ovulation.
28. Predict the effects of removal of
17. Comment on Acini of thyroid gland. pancreas from the human body.
18. Write the causes for diabetes mellitus 29. Enumerate the role of kidney as an
and diabetes insipidus. endocrine gland.
19. Specify the symptoms of acromegaly. 30. Write a detailed account of gastro
20. Write the symptoms of cretinism. intestinal tract hormones.
21. Briefly explain the structure of
thyroid gland.
ICT Corner
Endocrine system
Let’s explore the position and

functions of Endocrine system.
Step – 1 Use the URL to land in the Endocrine system page.

Step – 2 Click on the gland to find out the position and functions of the gland.
Step – 3 Click on the Hormone name to get additional details about it.
Step – 4 Click the main menu on the top right corner to search back and go through the next gland.
Endocrine system’s URL:
http://www.e-learningforkids.org/health/lesson/endocrine-system/
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UNIT IV Chapter 12
Basic Medical
Instruments and
Techniques
Chapter Outline
12.1 Diagnostic and Monitoring

Instruments
12.2 Imaging Instruments
12.3 Therapeutic Instruments ‘Smart contact lens sensor for diabetic
12.4 Biomedical Techniques and glaucoma diagnosis
Learning Objectives: with sophisticated medical instruments

like autoanalysers, electrocardiograms,
•• Understands the electroencephalograms, ultrasound
principles and scanners, CT scanners, NMRI, Isotope
working mechanisms imaging and a variety of modern complex
of instruments equipments for diagnosis and treatment
•• Learn blood of patients. In medical therapeutics
cell counting by both diagnosis and treatment are two
haemocytometer important aspects. Diagnosis involves
•• Prepares blood smear and learns
the different types of WBC
•• Haematology, is the branch of
medicine concerned with the study
Traditionally doctors employ simple of the cause, prognosis, treatment,
instruments like thermometer, and prevention of diseases related
stethoscope, and sphygmomanometer to blood.
to monitor the health conditions of
•• Toxicology is a discipline that
individuals. Medical technology has
involves the study of the adverse
blossomed during the last few decades
effects of chemical substances on
and revolutionized medical practices
living organisms and the practice of
which are immensely influencing life
diagnosing and treating exposures to
saving means in emergency care of
toxins and toxicants.
patients. Modern hospitals are established
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identifying or determining the nature Clinical significance of stethoscope

of disease while treatment involves the
1. Stethoscope helps to find the normal
curative aspects in order to eliminate the
and abnormal heart beat sounds and
disease causing agent. Clinical laboratory
also to diagnose valve functions.
tests help a physician in correct diagnosis
2. It helps to diagnose lung diseases such
and treatment, coupled with advanced
as pneumonia, pulmonary edema,
communication technology, telemedicine,
bronchitis and pleuritis.
an emerging area are vital especially in
rural health care. 3. Stethoscopes along with
sphygmomanometer are used to read
12.1 Diagnostic and the blood pressure.
Monitoring Instruments 4. It outlines the status of cardiac,
respiratory and intestinal disorders.
Stethoscope
Stethoscope is a medical device used to Sphygmomanometer
hear the internal sounds of the human Sphygmomanometer is a device that
body such as heart beat, sounds due to measures the blood pressure hence known
inhalation and exhalation of air in the as blood pressure meter, blood pressure
lungs, stomach, intestinal movements monitor or blood pressure gauge. It
and also foetal movements. The modern consists of a rubber cuff which is wrapped
electronic stethoscope is a high precision around the upper arm and the other end
instrument used to hear with clarity the is connected to a mercury manometer
internal sounds of the human body even which directly measures the pressure in a
in a noisy environment or through the uniformly graduated scale ((Figure12.2).
heavy clothing of the patient. A typical
By gradually increasing and reducing
stethoscope consists of a disc shaped
the pressure in the cuff, the systolic
resonator that is placed against chest with
and diastolic blood pressure is clearly
two rubber tubes connected to earpieces.
monitored by the sounds of arterial
This is simply known as binaural
blood flow. The cuff is smoothly wrapped
stethoscope. It is a simple but an effective
around the upper arm 3 cm above the
diagnostic tool to localize problems and
elbow. The resonator of the stethoscope
to diagnose diseases (Figure12.1).
is placed on the brachial artery at the
elbow to hear the blood flow sounds. The
cuff is then rapidly inflated to 180 mm
Hg and is then slowly deflated. As the
pressure in the cuff falls a “whooshing”
sound is heard then the blood flow
starts again in the artery. This indicates
the patient’s systolic pressure. Then the
pressure is slowly released until no sound
Figure 12.1 Clinical stethoscope and is heard. This is measured as the diastolic
electronic stethoscope
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blood pressure. For better clinical The maximum pressure exerted during
understanding readings may be taken in the ventricular contraction is called
both arms. systolic pressure and the minimum
Types of sphygmomanometer pressure exerted during the ventricular
relaxation is called diastolic pressure.
1. Manual sphygmomanometer
a. Mercury sphygmomanometer: It Normal Blood Pressure = 120/80 mmHg
shows blood pressure by affecting the Systolic pressure = 120 mm Hg
height of a column of mercury which Diastolic pressure = 80 mm Hg
does not require calibration.
“WHITE COAT
b. Aneuroid sphygmomanometer: EFFECT”
It is a mechanical type with a dial
White coat
and it requires calibration checks
hypertension, more
unlike mercury manometer.
commonly known as white coat
2. Digital sphygmomanometer: It syndrome, is a phenomenon in which
detects systolic and diastolic pressures the patients exhibit a blood pressure
by an oscillometric detector. It is easy level above the normal range, in a
to use even without training. clinical setting, though they do not
exhibit in other settings.
Clinical Significance
1. To diagnose pathological conditions
such as hypertension and hypotension
2. Helps to assess the state of blood
circulation.
3. Provides the functional details of heart.
Glucometer
Glucometer is a simple and portable
medical device used to record the
approximate levels of blood glucose. It is
a battery operated digital meter.
Figure 12.3 Glucometer
Figure 12.2 Sphygmomanometer – A drop of blood is taken from the tip of the
Mercury and Digital finger and placed on the disposable test
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strip. The meter reads the blood sample

and displays the glucose level in the units
of mg/dL. Most glucometers are based on
the electrochemical technology or colour
reflectance principle (Figure12.3).
Significance
1. Handy and portable
2. Immediate results, the results are
displayed in approximately 40 seconds.
3. Requires no calculation
4. No training is required for operating
the instrument
Normal Glucose Values in blood
Normal glucose value: 70 – 100 mg/dL
Random blood sugar: 80 – 120 mg/dL
Fasting blood sugar: 70 – 110 mg/dL
Figure 12.4 Autoanalyser
Post – prandial blood sugar: 110 – 140mg/dL
tracks and records the brain wave patterns.
Autoanalyser It is a graphical recording of the electrical
Autoanalyser is a computer controlled activities of the cortical and sub cortical
device. It is used for quick estimation regions of the brain. It is recorded by
of several bio-chemical parameters like placing the surface electrodes on the scalp
glucose, urea, cholesterol, enzymes and region. The electrodes analyse the electrical
other proteins present in body fluids. The impulses in the brain and send signals to
analyser is fully integrated with all the a computer which records the results. In
necessary controls such as temperature 1929 Germen scientist Hans Berger was
of reaction, volumes of sample, reagents the first to analyse the EEG. Hence, EEG is
and transfer of fluids. More sophisticated also known as “Berger Wave”. The electrical
multichannel autoanalysers with activity recorded by EEG may have
capabilities of selecting any type of synchronised or desynchronised waves. It
analysis for any one set of samples are has four frequency waves/ rhythms namely
available now (Figure12.4). alpha, beta, delta and theta waves.
Clinical significance of EEG

12.2 Imaging Instruments
1. EEG provides a means to study the
EEG – Electroencephalogram functioning of the brain and its
EEG is a test to evaluate the electrical coordination with other parts of the
activities of the brain (Figure12.5). Brain body.
cells communicate with each other 2. It is useful in diagnosis of neurological
through electrical impulses. An EEG and sleep disorders
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3. EEG has proved to be

a useful diagnostic tool
in cases of serious head
injuries, brain tumours
and cerebral infections.
4. It also helps to find
the diseases like
epilepsy and various
degenerative disease of
the nervous system. Figure 12.5 EEG with waves
5. EEG is useful in assessing electromagnetic radiation, produced by an
patients with suspected brain death. X-ray tube. The X-rays are passed through
the body and captured behind the patient
Wearable Healthcare devices include by a detector; film sensitive to x-rays or
smart watches, fitbit wristbands, fitness a digital detector. There is variation in
trackers, helmet-worn impact checkers, absorption of the X-rays by different tissues
back pain posture checkers, necklaces, clip- within the body. Dense bones absorb more
ons, smart clothing and filament implant. radiation, while soft tissue allows more rays
These medical devices with select sensors to pass through. This variation produces
can record real-time data on various contrast image within the image to give a
physiological conditions and electronically 2D representation of all the structures. It is
send them to doctor, or via apps on smart invasive. It is also available as a portable X
phone. It has two main fitness apps such as ray unit. It is less costly when compared to
Activity app and Work out app. Activity the other imaging units like MRI or CT.
app is all about health, movement, wellness
and daily routine; and Workout app tracks Clinical significance
running, cycling and walking. The wearable 1. X- ray imaging is used for diagnosing
healthcare devices are activity trackers, the disease of the heart, lungs and
which offer health benefits by measuring fractures of bones and joints
number of steps, distance travelled, 2. It is also used to visualise hollow organs
calories burned, heart rate, detects blood and blood vessels by filling them
volume and capillary-size changes under with certain chemical formulations
pressure, body temperature and quality of containing barium and iodine
sleep. It also tracks progress over time so
3. Dental radiography is used in diagnosis
that one can set daily goals for bodyweight,
of oral problems
blood glucose level, blood pressure, sleep
time, water intake, etc. 4. Mammography is a special type of
X-ray imaging to create detail images
X-rays of the breast tissues
Radiography is the use of X-rays to 5. Fluoroscopy for real time images
visualize the internal structures of a 6. X-rays are used in radiation therapy to
patient (Figure12.6). X-Rays are a form of shrink cancerous tumours
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meet another tissue or organ. A part or

whole of the ultrasound wave is reflected
and received back by the same crystal
and is converted into an electrical signal.
This signal denoting reflecting interface
is shown on the oscilloscope screen as a
deflection from the base line (Figure12.7).
Clinical significance
1. Ultrasound waves are used to image the
foetus at different stages of pregnancy
to study the progress of the developing
Figure 12.6 X Ray machine foetus.
2. They are used to hear foetal heart
‘X rays were discovered sound, blood flow, etc.
by German physicist 3. Used in echocardiography to diagnose
Sir Wilhelm Conard the damages in heart.
Roentgen in 1895, 4. Used for diagnosis of tumours, gall
while he was studying on high voltage stones, kidney stones, obstructions in
discharge phenomenon in a Crooker’s the genital tracts.
tube. He noticed fluorescence of a barium
platino cyanide screen lying several feet Computed Tomographic (CT)
away in the same room. Scanning
Computed tomography is originally
Ultrasound imaging
known as computed axial tomography
Ultrasound literally means sound (CAT or CT Scan). The word tomography
beyond the range of human hearing.
Ultrasound waves are
produced by a physical
phenomenon known as
Piezo-electric effect. When
an electric potential is
applied to certain crystals
for example: Lead zirconate,
they become excited, vibrate
and produce ultrasound.
When the ultrasound waves
are introduced through
homogenous tissue, they
pass unimpeded until they
Figure 12.7 Ultrasonography
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is derived from the Greek word tomos tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine
means slice and graphe means to write. procedure based on the measurement
It is a medical imaging technology of positron emission from radiolabelled
employing tomography, were digital tracer molecules. These radiotracers
geometry processing is used to generate a allow biological processes to be measured
three dimensional image of the internals and whole body images to be obtained
of an object from a large series of two which demonstrates sites of radiotracer
dimensional X ray images taken around a accumulation. A PET image gives
single axis of rotation (Figure12.8). quantitative regional information on the
CT produces volumes of data which can metabolic and physiological processes.
be manipulated through a process known PET uses positron emitting radio isotopes
as windowing in order to demonstrate (11C 13N 15O 18F) which are generated by the
various structures based on their ability to cyclotron. The most common radiotracer
block the X ray beam. in use today is 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose
(18F-FDG) which is a radio labelled sugar
(glucose) molecule. These atoms are then
incorporated by chemical methods into
biological molecules like glucose, amino
acids and ammonia. These positron
emitting compounds are then injected
in very small amounts into or inhaled by
experimental animals or human subjects.
The three dimensional distribution
of the labeled trace is then probed by
Figure 12.8 CT Scan
powerful PET cameras and the images
Clinical significance are reconstructed by a computer. The
•• Gives a clear image of bone, soft tissues quantitative interpretation of the image
and blood vessels is done by varying mathematical models.
•• Helps in the diagnosis of injuries of They deal with the process of uptake and
the inner ears and sinuses metabolism of the radioisotope.
•• To detect cancer, heart and lung
disorders Clinical significance
•• For diagnosis of spinal problems and
skeletal injuries PET imaging is effectively used in the
•• Helps to measure bone mineral density measurement of regional cerebral blood
•• To detect stroke causing clots and volume, blood flow, metabolic rates for
hemorrhage in the brain. glucose and oxygen in humans.
Positron Emission Tomographic MRI-Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Scanning (PET) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a
PET is also computerized imaging non-invasive medical test that physicians
technique unlike CT. Positron emission use to diagnose medical conditions.
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Unlike conventional X-ray examinations transmitted electronically, printed or copied

and computed tomography (CT) scans, to a CD or uploaded to a digital cloud server.
MRI does not utilize ionizing radiation.
MRI uses a powerful magnetic field,
radio frequency pulses and a computer to
produce detailed pictures of organs, soft
tissues, bone and virtually all other internal
body structures. The radio frequency
pulses re-align hydrogen atoms that
naturally exist within the body while the
patient is in the scanner without causing
any chemical changes in the tissues. As
the hydrogen atoms return to their usual
Figure 12.9 Artificially coloured
alignment, they emit different amounts
MRI scan of human brain
of energy that vary according to the type
of body tissue from which they come. Clinical significance
The MR scanner captures this energy and MR imaging of the body is performed to
creates a picture of the tissues scanned evaluate organs of the chest and abdomen,
based on this information (Figure12.9). pelvic organs including the bladder and
The magnetic field is produced by the reproductive organs, blood vessels and
passing an electric current through wire lymph nodes.
coils in most MRI units. Other coils, Physicians use an MR examination to
located in the machine and in some cases, help diagnose or monitor treatment for
are placed around the part of the body conditions such as:
being imaged, send and receive radio •• Tumours of the chest, abdomen or
waves, producing signals that are detected pelvis.
by the coils. The electric current does not
•• Diseases of the liver, inflammatory
come in contact with the patient.
bowel disease, heart problems, such as
A computer then processes the signals congenital heart disease.
and generates a series of images, each of
•• Malformation of the blood vessels and
which shows a thin slice of the body. The
inflammation of the vessels (vasculitis).
images can then be studied from different
angles and interpreted by a radiologist. •• A foetus in the womb of a pregnant woman.
Frequently, the differentiation of abnormal •• Visualising injuries, torn ligaments
(diseased) tissue from normal tissues is better especially in areas like wrist ankle or
with MRI than with other imaging modalities knee.
such as X-ray, CT and ultrasound. Detailed
MR images allow physicians to evaluate Why the magnetic resonance imaging
various parts of the body and determine the technique gives excellent job of showing
presence of certain diseases. The images can soft tissues and blood vessels?
then be examined on a computer monitor,
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12.3. Therapeutic Instruments Generally heart rate is low when

Pacemakers resting. It’s a sign of good health. When
Pacemaker is a medical it is too low the condition is called
device which uses electrical bradycardia. Normally, the heart
impulses, delivered beats 60 to 100 times a minute when
by electrodes contracting you are at rest. But with bradycardia,
the heart muscles, to it goes down to less than 60 beats a
regulate the beating of minute. When the heart beat is too
the heart high it is called tachycardia
The primary purpose of a pacemaker is
to maintain an adequate heart rate, either Medical LASER
because the heart’s natural pacemaker is not Lasers are devices that emit a single,
fast enough, or because there is a block in coherent wavelength of electromagnetic
the hearts electrical conducting system. radiation that is used to cut, coagulate,
The pacemaker system consists of or ablate tissue for a variety of clinical
pulse generator and a electrode. The applications. The term “LASER” stands
pulse generator is a sealed box which for light amplification by stimulated
contains lithium-halide cells to provide emission of radiation. Laser surgery
power and an electronic circuit to uses non-ionizing radiation, so it does
regulate the rate and pulse width of the not have the same long-term risks
electrical impulse. as X-rays or other types of ionizing
This device uses low-energy electrical radiation. Laser systems produce a
pulses to prompt the heart to beat at a variety of wavelengths of varying
normal rate. The pulse generator is placed pulse duration and energy levels.
under the skin below the collar bone. When Ordinary light, such as that from a
required, the exhausted pulse generator can light bulb, has many wavelengths and
be replaced. Newer pacemakers also can spreads in all directions. Laser light, on
monitor blood temperature, breathing, and the other hand, has a specific wavelength.
other factors and adjust the heart rate. It is focused in a narrow beam and creates
Pacemaker batteries last between 5 and a very high-intensity light. Computer-
15 years (average 6 to 7 years), depending based imaging and guidance systems
on how active the pacemaker is. The wires of allow procedures to be performed
the pacemaker also may need to be replaced precisely, quickly, and with greater
eventually. control. Although lasers are commonly
Sick sinus syndrome (SSS) is used superficially for cutaneous and
characterized by dysfunction of the ocular applications, smaller efficient
sinoatrial (SA) node. Treatment of laser delivery systems are available for
SSS is directed at symptoms and minimally invasive applications, including
typically involves the implantation of endoscopy, bronchoscopy, laparoscopy,
an artificial pacemaker. and endovenous ablation.
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12.4 Biomedical Techniques fluid (Hayem’s) is isotonic with blood, hence

haemolysis does not occur. The blood is
Blood Cell Counting using
diluted 1:200 times with RBC diluting fluid
Haemocytometer
and the cells are counted under 45X objective
The haemocytometer is a thick glass slide of the microscope.
with a counting chamber in the middle. The diluting fluid used for WBC count
The counting chamber contains two grids is Turk’s solution which contains glacial
with improved Neubaur rulings of 3 by 3 acetic acid and Gentian violet. The glacial
mm primary square. The primary square is acetic acid lyses the red blood cells and
further subdivide into 9 secondary squares, the Gentian violet stains the nuclei of the
each 1 by 1 mm. The four corner squares are leucocytes. The blood is diluted 1:20 times
used for the white blood cell count which are and the cell are counted under 10X objective
further subdivided into 16 tertiary squares. of the microscope. The total number of cells
The central secondary square is divided into counted is expressed in mm3.
25 tertiary squares, each of which measure
0.2 by 0.2 mm, each single tertiary square Blood cell counting using
is further divided into 16 smaller squares. hemocytometer
The five black squares along with the
1. The blood is collected till the 0.5
shaded squares in the centre are used for
graduation in the pipette.
platelet count, while the five black squares
alone are used for red blood cells counting 2. The diluting fluid is taken till the
(Figure12.10). graduations 11 and 101 of the WBC
and RBC pipette respectively.
Diluting fluid 3. The blood is diluted and mixed well
with the respective diluting fluid
The blood cells are diluted in specific diluting
by rotating the pipette horizontally
fluid to keep the cells intact. RBC diluting
several times.
IMPROVED
Cover glass Courting
NEUBAUER
chambers Filling nobh
DEPTH 0.1 mm
1/400 mm2
RBC pipette Mounting

Calibrated stem Bulb Bead (Red)
support
Short stem Overflow

1 unit
100 units
stem
101 units
WBC pipette
Calibrated stem Bulb Bead
Stem
1 mm
1 unit
10 units
11 units
Figure 12.10 Hemocytometer, RBC pipette and WBC pipette

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4. The cover slip is placed on top of the 1. Place a small drop of whole on a very clean slide. Hold
counting chamber. a second slide at the angle shown.
5. The tip of the pipette is placed on the

counting chamber and fluid discharged
till it fills the chambers. 2. While maintaining contact with the bottom slide, pull
the top slide back to contact the drop, which will spread
6. The cells are allowed to settle for by the capillary action.
several minutes and the ruled area is
viewed under the microscope.
A person suffering from severe fever, head 3. Maintain firm contact with the bottom slide and push
the top slide in one motion to produce the smear.
ach and fatigue so he visits his doctor.
What type of diagnosing procedure does
the doctor recommended for him. Name
the medical equipment is used for it?
Figure 12.11 Peripheral blood smear
Preparation of Blood Smear preparation
The examination of peripheral dry

blood smear is a very important
/\PSKRF\WH
laboratory test as it is possible to (U\WKURF\WH
•• Estimate approximately the 1HXWURSKLO (RVLQRSKLO

number of cellular components
•• Study the morphology of these 0RQRF\WH
%DVRSKLO
components 3ODWHOHWV
•• Observe the presence of blood

parasites Figure 12.12 Smear of peripheral blood
•• Study the response of the body to
various diseases Cell Differential Count
The methodology for the preparation of Neutrophil 50-70%
blood smear is as follows (Figure12.11)
1. Place a drop of blood on a clean glass Eosinophil 1-4%
slide about 1cm from one end
2. Using another glass slide placed at an
Basophil 0-1%
angle of about 45o to the previous slide.
3. Spread the drop of blood quickly in
one stroke as a thin film Monocyte 2-8%
4. Stain the film using Leishman’s stain
5. Allow the slide to dry and wash the Lymphocyte 20-40%
excess stain
6. Observe the slide under a light Figure 12.13 Differential Count of
microscope (Figure12.12). White blood cells
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Differential Count manifestations or the disease is undetected by

the conventional methods of investigations.
The differential WBC count is the method in
Then proper therapeutic or surgical measures
which the numbers of different types of white
can be adopted. An EEG is a test to evaluate
blood cells present in the blood are counted
the electrical activities of the brain. X-Rays
by examining a well stained peripheral blood
are a form of electromagnetic radiation to
smear (prepared by the above method). The
visualize the internal structures of a patient.
number of each type of white blood cell is
Ultrasound waves are used to image the foetus
then expressed as a percentage of the total
at different stages of pregnancy used to hear
number of cells counted (Figure12.13).
foetal heart sound, blood flow, diagnose the
damages in heart and diagnosis of tumours,
Summary
gall stones, kidney stones, and obstructions
Medical instruments help in correct in the genital tracts.
diagnosis and treatment to observing
patients, examining organs, making Evaluation
measurements and administering
1. The instrument used to
medication. Today’s medical instruments
measure blood pressure
are considerably more complicated
is
and diverse, primarily because they
a. Stethoscope
incorporate electronic systems for sensing,
transducing, manipulating, storing, and b. Haemocytometer
displaying data or information. The c. Sphygmomanometer
modern electronic stethoscope is a high d. Haemoglobinometer
precision instrument used to hear with 2. Blood smear is used to study
clarity the internal sounds of the human a. Total RBC
body even in a noisy environment or b. Total WBC
through the heavy clothing of the patient. c. Haemoglobin
The sphygmomanometer is a device to d. Differential count of WBC
diagnose pathological conditions such
3. Diluting fluid used for total RBC count
as hypertension and hypotension. A is
glucometer is a simple and portable medical
a. Turk’s solution
device used to find out the approximate
b. Toisson solution
levels of blood glucose. Autoanalyser is a
c. Hayem’s solution
computer controlled device and used to
quick estimation of various bio-chemical d. Folin phenol reagent
substances like glucose, urea, cholesterol, 4. Normal diastolic blood pressure is
enzymes and other proteins present in a. 80 mmHg b. 100 mmHg
body fluids. c.120 mmHg d.140 mmHg
Imaging instruments produce diagnostic 5. Foetus development can be observed
images and help in the detection of using
the diseases or defects in an organ at a a. Ultra sonogram b. X-Ray
very early stage, when there are no clinical c. ECG d. EEG
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6. When electrical impulses in the heart 9. What does a pace maker do?
are not generated properly _____ is used 10. What are the advantages of CT over
a. EEG b. Pace maker other imaging techniques?
c. Auto analyser d. Glucometer 11. Enumerate the uses of stethoscope.
7. PET scan uses 12. Explain the working of MRI.
a. Radio isotopes b. UV rays 13. How does a normal EEG appear?
c. Ultra sound d. IR waves 14. Write the clinical significance of ultra
8. Write the normal values of total RBC sonogram.
and WBC. 15. Explain the principle involved in PET
scan.
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Activity
What’s with all the Pressure?

Students learn how to take blood pressure by observing a teacher demonstration and
then practicing on fellow classmates in small groups. Once the hands-on component
of this activity is completed, the class brainstorms and discusses how blood pressure
might affect a person’s health.
Learning Objectives
◆ Describe the tools used to measure blood pressure.
◆ Measure a persons blood pressure using appropriate equipment.
◆ Describe how blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer, which gives a
reading of systolic over diastolic pressure in units of mmHG (millimeters of mercury).
Measuring Blood Pressure Worksheet

1. Place the blood pressure cuff on the upper arm of the student volunteer “patient” (if
clothing is very thick, you may need to ask them to roll up their sleeve). You want
the bottom of the cuff to be just above their elbow
2. Place the stethoscope so that it is between the patient’s skin and the blood pressure
cuff. You want to place it just above the elbow, on the inside of the arm-on the
inside crook of the arm. This way, it is placed over the brachial artery
3. T
ighten the cuff around the patient’s arm and stethoscope so that is it snug, but not tight.
4. Make sure the relief valve (the screw knob attached to the bulb of the blood pressure
cuff) is completely closed, and press the bulb several times until the dial on the cuff
reads 200
5. While listening through the stethoscope, slowly turn the relief valve so that some air
escapes at a slow but steady rate. You should not hear any pulse in the stethoscope
yet, and you should note that the needle on the dial is slowly going down.
6. C ontinue to release air and listen until you first hear a pulse through the stethoscope.
Mentally record the number the needle is on when you first hear the sound. This
number is the patient’s systolic pressure.
7. Continue to release air and listen, this time until the pulse sound goes completely away.
The number that the needle is on when the sound stops is the patient’s diastolic pressure.
8. Record both numbers below. Release any residual air from the cuff, and remove it
and the stethoscope from the patient.
Record Results
Student #1 Name...........
Systolic Pressure......... Diastolic Pressure..........
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Concept Map
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UNIT V Chapter 13
Trends in Economic Zoology
Chapter Outline
13.1 Scope of Zoology

13.2 Vermiculture
13.3 Sericulture
13.4 Apiculture
13.5 Lac culture
13.6 Aquaponics
Give a man a fish and you feed him for a
13.7 Aquaculture day; teach a man to fish and you feed him
for a lifetime.
13.8 Animal Husbandry
and Management
Learning Objectives: on the early developmental stages of animal
life. Zoology as a career has a number of
• Creating awareness on self specializations and students are presented
employment opportunities in with a plethora of career options once they
various fields chose to be associated with this field. This
• Understands the economic field is concerned with the preservation
importance of earthworm, and management of animal kingdom and a
honeybee, lac insect, silk worm, career in it would mean that you are a part
fish, cattle and birds of that responsibility. A zoologist might
• Knows the techniques and tools even get to travel because the nature of his/
required for various culture methods her job. Channels like National Geographic,
• Learns to manage the culture practices Animal Planet, and Discovery Channel are
in constant need of Zoologists for research
and documentaries. Zoologists are also
Zoology is a branch of science which deals hired for zoos, wildlife services, botanical
with the study of animals. For someone gardens, conservation organizations,
who is interested in pursuing a career in national parks, nature reserves, universities,
Zoology, there are several specializations laboratories, aquariums, animal clinics,
that the students can venture into. fisheries and aquaculture, museums,
There are physiologists, who study the research, pharmaceutical companies,
metabolic processes of animals; there are veterinary hospitals, etc.
taxonomists who deal with the naming If you want to be an entrepreneur you
and the classification of animal species; have to learn the methods of culturing
embryologist whose job is to study and focus farm animals and their importance, since
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farm animals possess great economic the worm castings are pure worm waste
value. Since prehistoric time human and are fine and nutrient rich organic
beings taken maximum advantage from soil amendment. Vermicompost on the
animals by keeping them under their other hand, is comprised of the castings,
control through domestication. The bits of bedding and other organic matter.
economic success of the industries, based Essentially, though the terms are used
on animals and their products, depends interchangeably, they are both worm
on the proper production, management manure and are valuable for improving
and development of the next generation soil health. Applications of earthworm
of farm animals. in technology of composting and
bioremediation of soils and other activities
13.1 Scope of Zoology is called Vermitech (Sultan Ismail, 1992).
Studying Zoology can provide self The disposal of solid wastes (bio-
employment opportunities and you can degradable and non- biodegradable)
become an entrepreneur. Economic remains a serious challenge in most of the
Zoology is a branch of science that deals countries. Earthworms play a vital role
with economically useful animals. It in maintaining soil fertility; hence these
involves the study of application of animals worms are called as “farmer’s friends”.
for human welfare. The need of Zoology is These are also called as “biological
not just to improve our economic condition indicators of soil fertility”. The reason
but also to provide food security and is that they support bacteria, fungi,
provide employment opportunities. Based protozoans and a host of other organisms
on the economic importance, animals can which are essential for sustaining a
be categorized as: healthy soil. The breakdown of organic
matter by the activity of the earthworms
1. Animals for food and food products
and its elimination from its body is called
2. Economically beneficial animals
vermicast. It is a finely divided granular
3. Animals of aesthetic importance material and is noted for its porosity,
4. Animals for scientific research aeration, drainage and moisture holding
capacity and serves as rich organic manure.
13.2 Vermiculture
Earthworms are divided into two
Vermiculture is the process of using
major groups. The first group, the humus
earthworms to decompose organic food
formers, dwell on the surface and feed on
waste, into a nutrient-rich material
organic matter. They are generally darker
capable of supplying necessary nutrients
in colour. These worms are used for
which helps to sustain plant growth. The
vermicomposting. The second group, the
aim is to continually increase the number
humus feeders, are burrowing worms that
of worms to have a sustainable harvest.
are useful in making the soil porous, and
The excess worms can either be used to
mixing and distributing humus through
expand a vermicomposting operation or
out the soil. There are different endemic
sold to customers. Vermicompost is the
(native) species of earthworms cultured
primary goal of vermiculture. Technically,
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in India for vermicomposting such as on top of the gravel sand layer and introduce
Periyonyx excavatus, Lampito mauritii, earthworms into it. For exotic species such as
Octochaetona serrata. Some earthworm Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, the layer
species have been introduced from other of soil is not needed. The unit can now be
countries and called as exotic species Eg. loaded with digested biomass or animal dung
Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae. such as cow dung that has lost its heat. The
number of earthworms to be introduced in
Vermicomposting an unit depends on the size of the vermibed
Vermicompost is the prepared. Earthworms such as Periyonyx
compost produced by the excavatus, Eisenia fetida or Eudrilus eugeniae
action of earthworms in are introduced on the top. Jute bags or
association with all other cardboards or broad leaves are used to cover
organisms in the compost the unit. As worms require moisture, water
unit. Vermicompost bed may be selected management is most important for the
on upland or an elevated level as it prevents survival of the earthworms. Too little or too
the stagnation of water. You may construct much of water is not good for the worms.
a cement pit of 3x2x1m size (LxWxD) over Earthworms release their castings on the
ground surface using bricks. The size of pit surface. One can start harvesting this from
may vary as per availability of raw materials. the surface on noticing the castings on the
Cement pot or well rings are practically surface. It may take several days for the entire
good. Provision should be made for excess biomass to be composted depending on the
water to drain. The vermibed should not be amount of biomass. When all the compost
exposed to direct sunlight and hence shade is harvested, earthworms can be handpicked
may be provided (Figure. 13.1). The first by creating small conical heaps of harvested
layer of vermibed contains gravel at about compost and leaving in sunlight for a few
5 cm in height, followed by coarse sand to hours. The earthworms then move down and
a thickness of 3.5 cm, which will facilitate settle at the bottom of the heap as a cluster.
the drainage of excess water. Earthworms from the lower layers of the
Earthworms collected from native soil compost can be recovered and the worms
prefer a layer of local soil in their compost can be transferred to new composting units.
beds. If local soil earthworms are used, add Vermiwash is a liquid collected after
a layer of native loamy soil for about 15 cm the passage of water through a column
3 meter
1 meter
2 meter
Figure 13.1 Vermiculture unit and Earthworms

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of vermibed. It is useful as a foliar spray are involved in the production and selling of
to enhance plant growth and yield. It is vermicompost. Marketing of vermicompost
obtained from the burrows or drilospheres can provide a supplementary income.
formed by earthworms. Nutrients, plant i. Vermicompost is rich in essential plant
growth promoter substances and some useful nutrients.
microorganisms are present in vermiwash. ii. It improves soil structure texture,
Earthworms can be used for recycling aeration, and water holding capacity
of waste food, leaf, litter and biomass and prevents soil erosion
to prepare a good fertilizer in container iii. Vermicompost is a rich in nutrients
known as wormery or wormbin. and an eco-friendly amendment to soil
for farming and terrace gardening.
Earthworm Pests and Diseases iv. It enhances seed germination and
Earthworms are subjected to attack by a ensures good plant growth
variety of pests. Most outbreaks are the
result of poor bed management. Earthworm 13.3 Sericulture
enemies include ants, springtails, centipedes, Silk is Nature’s gift to mankind and a
slugs, mites, certain beetle larvae, birds, commercial fiber of animal origin other than
rats, snakes, mice, toads, and other insects wool. Being eco-friendly, biodegradable
or animals which feed on worms. The and self-sustaining material; silk has
earthworm has a number of internal assumed special relevance in present age.
parasites including numerous protozoa, Sericulture is an agro –based industry, the
some nematodes, and the larvae of certain term which denotes commercial production
flies. Larger predators can be excluded from of silk through silkworm rearing. Historical
worm beds by proper construction of the evidence reveals that sericulture was
bins, and by use of screens or gratings at the practiced in China long back and they
bottom and top of the beds. preserved the secret for more than 3000 years
My vermicompost manufacturing unit and maintained monopoly in silk trade with
is plagued by a number of red ants. the rest of the world. According to Western
Are there any bio-friendly measures to historians, mulberry cultivation spread to
tackle the menace as I do not want to India about 140BC from China through
use any chemicals? Tibet. The fabulous silk from China and
India were carried to European countries.
Advantages of Using Vermicompost The 7000 mile lengthy road, historically
People are aware about benefits of organic called the “Silk road” passing through
inputs in farming. Vermicompost is excellent Baghdad, Tashkent, Damascus and Istanbul
organic manure for sustainable agro- was used for silk transport. Today more
practices. So, marketing vermicompost is than 29 countries in the world are practicing
now a potential and flourishing industry. sericulture and producing different kinds of
Retail marketing of vermicompost in urban silk. India stands second in silk production
areas is most promising. Vermicompost next to China.
is neatly packed in designed and printed Production of silk from the silk worm,
packets for sale. People of different age groups by rearing practices on a commercial
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Table 13.1 Different types of Silkworm
Species of Silk Producing States Preferred Food Type Of Silk

silkmoth (Leaves)
Bombyx mori Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Mulberry Mulberry Silk
Tamil Nadu
Antheraea Assam, Meghalaya. Nagaland, Champa Muga Silk
assamensis Arunachala Pradesh and Manipur
Antheraea West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkand Arjun Tassar Silk
mylitta
Attacus ricini Assam, Meghalaya. Nagaland, Castor Eri Silk
Arunachala Pradesh and Manipur
scale is called sericulture. It is an agro- first two are agricultural and the last one is
based industry comprising three main an industrial component. Only few species
components: i) cultivation of food plants of silkworms are used in the sericulture
for the silkworms, ii) rearing of silkworms, industry (Table 13. 1 and Figure 13. 2).
and iii) reeling and spinning of silk. The
Life cycle of Bombyx mori
The adult of Bombyx mori is about 2.5 cm in
length and pale creamy white in colour. Due
to heavy body and feeble wings, flight is not
possible by the female moth. This moth is
unisexual in nature and does not feed during
Mulberry
its very short life period of 2-3 days. Just after
emergence, male moth copulates with female
for about 2-3 hours and if not separated, they
may die after few hours of copulating with
Eri female. Just after copulation, female starts
egg laying which is completed in1-24 hours.
A single female moth lays 400 to 500 eggs
depending upon the climatic conditions.
Two types of eggs are generally found namely
Muga diapause type and non-diapause type. The
diapause type is laid by silkworms inhabiting
the temperate regions, whereas silkworms
belonging to subtropical regions like India
lay non-diapause type of eggs. The eggs after
Tassar ten days of incubation hatch into larva called
as caterpillar. The newly hatched caterpillar is
Figure 13.2 Different types of silkworms
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of a covering called as cocoon.

It is the white coloured bed of
the pupa whose outer threads
are irregular while the inner
threads are regular. The length
of continuous thread secreted
by a caterpillar for the
formation of cocoon is about
1000-1200 metres which
requires 3 days to complete.
The pupal period lasts for
10 to 12 days and the pupae
cut through the cocoon and
emerge into adult moth.
On the basis of the
moults which they undergo
during their larval life, B.
mori is divided into three
races – tri-moulters, tetra-
moulters and penta-
Figure 13.3 Life cycle of Bombyx mori moulters. Based on
voltinism (the number of broods raised
about 3 mm in length and is pale, yellowish-
per year), three kinds of races are
white in colour. The caterpillars are provided
recognized in mulberry silkworm –
with well developed mandibulate type of
univoltines (one brood only), bivoltines
mouth-parts adapted to feed easily on the
(two broods only) and multivoltines
mulberry leaves.
(more than two broods).
After 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th moultings
caterpillars get transformed into 2nd, 3rd, 4th India has the distinction of producing
and 5th instars respectively (Figure13.3). It all the four types of silk i.e. (a) Mulberry
takes about 21 to 25 days after hatching. The silk (91.7%); (b) Tasar silk (1.4%);
fully grown caterpillar is 7.5 cm in length. (c) Eri silk (6.4%); and (d) Muga silk
It develops salivary glands, stops feeding (0.5%) which are produced by different
and undergoes pupation. The caterpillars species of silkworms. Name the species
stop feeding and move towards the corner that produces large amount and least
among the leaves and secretes a sticky fluid amount of silk in India.
through their silk gland. The secreted fluid
comes out through spinneret (a narrow pore
situated on the hypopharynx) and takes Cultivation of food plants for the
the form of long fine thread of silk which silkworms
hardens on exposure to air and is wrapped The first component, is to grow the food
around the body of caterpillar in the form plants for the silkworms. Mulberry leaves
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are widely used as food for silkworm silkworm are disinfection of rearing house,
Bombyx mori and the cultivation of incubation of eggs, brushing, young larval
mulberry is called as Moriculture. rearing and late age larval rearing.
Presently improved mulberry varieties The selected healthy silk moths are
like Victory1, S36, G2 and G4 which can allowed to mate for 4 hours. Female moth is
withstand various agro - climatic and then kept in a dark plastic bed, it lays about
soil conditions are used for planting. 400 eggs in 24 hours; the female is taken out,
The favourable season for cultivating crushed and examined for any disease, only
of the mulberry plants is June, July, certified disease-free eggs are reared for
November and December. The mulberry industrial purpose. The eggs are incubated in
crop production technology includes an incubator. The small larvae (caterpillars)
land preparation, preparation of cutting, hatch between 7-10 days. These larvae are
planting techniques, maintenance of kept in trays inside a rearing house at a
mulberry nursery, disease and pest temperature of about 20°C - 25°C. These are
management and uprooting for raising first fed on chopped mulberry leaves. After
new mulberry gardens. Mulberry is also 4-5 days fresh leaves are provided. As the
being grown as tree plant at an height of larvae grow, they are transferred to fresh
123-152 cm with 20 x 20 cm or 25 x 25 leaves on clean trays, when fully grown they
cm spacing to harvest better silkworm spin cocoons. Their maturity is achieved
cocoon crops. in about 45 days. At this stage the salivary
Rearing of silkworms glands (silk glands) starts secreting silk to
spin cocoons.
The second component is the rearing of
silkworm. A typical rearing house (6m x Post cocoon processing
4m x 3.5m) is constructed on an elevated The method of obtaining silk thread
place under shade to accommodate 100 from the cocoon is known as post cocoon
dfls (disease free layings). Space of 1m processing. This includes stifling and
should be provided surrounding the reeling.
rearing house. Sufficient windows and The process of killing the cocoons is
ventilators should be provided for free called stifling. The process of removing
circulation of air inside the rearing house. the threads from the killed cocoon is called
The windows and ventilators should be reeling. For reeling silk the cocoons are
covered with nylon net to restrict the entry gathered about 8 -10 days after spinning
of uzi flies and other insects. Apart from had begun. The cocoons are first treated
the specified area of the rearing house; the by steam or dry heat to kill the insect
following appliances such as hygrometer, inside. This is necessary to prevent the
power sprayers, rearing stands, foam pads, destruction of the continuous fibre by the
wax coated paraffin papers, nylon nets, emergence of the moth. The cocoons are
baskets for keeping leaves, gunny bags, then soaked in hot water (95° -97°C) for
rotary or bamboo mountages and drier are 10-15 minutes to soften the gum that binds
needed for effective rearing of silkworms. the silk threads together. This process is
The steps involved in rearing process of called cooking. The “cooked” cocoons
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are kept in hot water and the loose ends with other natural or synthetic fibers
of the thread are caught by hand. Threads to manufacture clothes like Teri-Silk,
from several cocoons are wound together Cot-Silk etc. Silk is dyed and printed
on spinning wheels (Charakhas) to form to prepare ornamented fabrics. They
the reels of raw silk. Only about one- are generally made from Eri-silk or
half of the silk of each cocoon is reelable, spun silk.
the remainder is used as a silk waste
2. Silk is used in industries and for
and formed into spun silk. Raw silk thus
military purposes.
obtained is processed through several
treatments to bring about the luster on the 3. It is used in the manufacture of fishing
thread. fibers, parachutes, cartridge bags,
insulation coils for telephone, wireless
New silkworm receivers, tyres of racing cars, filter
diet produces fibres, in medical dressings and as
coloured silk. The suture materials.
Institute of Materials
Research and Diseases and Pests of Silkworm:
Engineering (IMRE) in Singapore The profitable silk industry is threatened by
has developed a way to replace the various diseases caused by the virus, fungal,
traditional dying process necessary to bacterial and protozoan infections but also
make coloured silk. A simple dietary by insect predators, birds and other higher
change (feeding a diet of mulberries animals. Ants, crows, kites, rats, feed upon
treated with fluorescent dye) for the silk worms thereby causing a great loss to
silkworm larva and they are able to silk industry. Pebrine, is a dangerous disease
produce silk in a variety of colors. to in silkworms and the causative organism
The colour directly integrated into is Nosema bombycis , a protozoan. This
the fibers. silkworm disease is transmitted through
the egg of the mother silkworm and also
through ingestion of contaminated food.
Flacherie generally occurs in the mature
larvae and is caused mainly by bacteria like
Streptococcus and Staphylococcus. Grasserie
is a most dominant and serious viral
disease. It is caused by Bombyx mori nuclear
polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) a Baculovirus,
which belongs to sub group ‘A’ of the
Baculoviridae. Among the fungal diseases,
Uses of Silk
white muscardine is common. This disease
1. Silk fibers are utilized in preparing silk
is caused by fungus Beauveria bassiana.
clothes. Silk fibers are now combined
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13.4 Apiculture attracted to the pheromone and mating takes

place. During mating, the drone releases large
Ever since the beginning
number of sperms for sufficient fertilization.
of civilization, man has
In a life span of two to four years, a queen bee
been trying to make use
lays about 15 lakh eggs. When the queen bee
of organisms around him
loses its capacity to lay eggs, another worker
for various purposes and to rear them for
bee starts feeding on the Royal Jelly and
increasing their number. One of the finest
develops into a new queen.
discoveries is our knowledge regarding the
Among the honey bees, workers are
procurement of honey collected by honey
sterile females and smallest but yet function
bees. Care and management of honey bees
as the main spring of the complicated
on a commercial scale for the production of
machinery in the colony. Worker bee lives
honey is called Apiculture or Bee Keeping.
in a chamber called ‘Worker Cell’ and it
The word ‘apiculture’ comes from the Latin
takes about 21 days to develop from the egg
word ’apis’ meaning bee. Bees are reared
to adult and its lifespan is about six weeks.
in apiaries that are areas where a lot of bee
Each worker has to perform different types
hives can be placed. There are five well
of work in her life time. During the first half
recognized types of bees in the world. They
of her life, she becomes a nurse bee attending
are Apis dorsata (Rock bee), Apis florea
to indoor duties such as secretion of royal
(Little bee), Apis indica (Indian bee), Apis
jelly, prepares bee-bread to feed the larvae,
mellifera (European bee) and Apis adamsoni
feeds the queen, takes care of the queen and
(African bee).
drones, secretes bees wax, builds combs,
Social organization of honey bees cleans and fans the bee hive.
In honey bees, a highly organized division
of labour is found. A well developed
honey bee colony consists of the Queen,
Drones and Workers (Figure 13.4). All the
three types depend on each other for their
existence. There is normally one queen,
10,000 to 30,000 workers and few hundred
drones (male bees) in a colony.
Queen bee is a functional female bee
present in each hive and feeds on Royal Jelly.
Its sole function is to lay eggs throughout its
life span. The virgin queen bee mates only Honey bee uses its long-tube like
once in her life. During the breeding season tongue to extract sugary liquid called
in winter, a unique flight takes place by the nectar from the flowers. The nectar is
queen bee followed by several drones. This stored in the stomach and the enzyme
flight is called “nuptial flight”. The queen invertase transforms it into honey. This
bee produces a hormonal chemical substance increases the storage life of honey and
called pheromone. The drones in the area are also contributes to its medicinal value.
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queens, worker cell for workers and drone

cells for drones (Figure.13.5). The cells
are intended for storage of honey and
pollen in the upper portion of the comb
whereas the lower portions are for brood
rearing.
Pollen cells
Honey cells
Queen Worker Drone Drone cells

Brood cells
Figure 13.4 Social organization of honey bees
Then she becomes a soldier and guards Queen cells
the bee hive. In the second half her life lasting

for three weeks, she searches and gathers the Figure 13.5 Structure of a
pollen, nectar, propolis and water. hive showing various cells
The drone is the functional male Methods of Bee keeping
member of the colony which develops from The main objective is to get more and
an unfertilized egg. It lives in a chamber more quality honey. There are two
called drone cell. Drones totally depend on methods used by apiculturists. They are
workers for honey. The sole duty of the drone indigenous method and the modern
is to fertilize the virgin queen hence called method. In indigenous method, the honey
“King of the colony”. During swarming (the extracted from the comb contains wax. To
process of leaving the colony by the queen overcome the drawbacks of the indigenous
with a large group of worker bees to form a method, the modern method has been
new colony) the drones follows the queen, developed to improve the texture of hives.
copulates and dies after copulation. In India, there are two types of beehives in
practice namely, Langstroth and Newton.
Structure of a Bee Hive
The house of honey bee is termed as bee Top cover
hive or comb. The hive consists of

hexagonal cells made up of wax secreted Inner cover
Frames
by the abdomen of worker bees arranged
in opposite rows on a common base. These Super
hives are found hanging vertically from
the rocks, building or branches of trees.
Brood chamber
The young stages of honey bees
accommodate the lower and central cells Bottom board
of the hive called the brood cells. In Apis Stand
dorsata, the brood cells are of similar in
size and shape but in other species, brood Alighting board
cells are of three types viz., queen cell for

Figure 13.6 Langstroth bee hive
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The Langstroth bee hive is made up floors, furniture, appliances, leather and
of wood and consists of six parts (Figure taps. It is also used for the production of
13.6) namely Stand, Bottom board, comb foundation sheets in bee keeping
Brood chamber, Super, Inner cover and and used in pharmaceutical industries.
Top cover. Besides the above primary
Bees teach us a
equipments, other accessory equipments
lesson to work with
are used in beekeeping. They are Queen
cooperation. Imagine
Excluder, Comb foundation, Bee gloves,
the hardwork of
Bee veil, Smoker, Hive Tool, Uncapping
the bees! A single honey bee travels
knife, Bee brush, Queen introducing
about double the distance of the
cage, Feeder, Honey Extractor and Hive
circumference of the earth’s globe for
Entrance Guard .
preparing 453.5ml of honey.
Products of bee keeping and their
13.5 Lac Culture
economic importance
The chief products of bee keeping industry The culture of lac insect using techniques
are honey and bee wax. for the procurement of lac on large
scale is known as Lac culture. Lac is
Honey is the healthier substitute for
produced by the lac insect Tachardia
sugar. The major constituents of honey are:
lacca previously known as Laccifer lacca.
levulose, dextrose, maltose, other sugars,
It is a minute, resinous crawling scale
enzymes, pigments, ash and water. It is an
insect which inserts its probosics into
aromatic sweet material derived from nectar
the plant tissues and sucks juice, grows
of plants. It is a natural food, the smell and
and secretes lac from the hind end of the
taste depends upon the pollen taken by the
body as a protective covering for its body.
honey bee. It is used as an antiseptic, laxative
Moreover the insect is a parasite on host
and as a sedative. It is generally used in
plants i.e., Karanagalli (Acacia catechu),
Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine.
Karuvelai (Acacia nilotica) and Kumbadiri
It is also used in the preparation of cakes,
(Schleichera oleosa). The quality of lac
breads and biscuits
depends upon the quality of the host
Bee wax is secreted by the abdomen of plant. The female lac insect is responsible
the worker bees at the age of two weeks. for large scale production of lac, which is
The wax is masticated and mixed with larger than the male lac insect.
the secretions of the cephalic glands to
convert it into a plastic resinous substance. Economic importance of Lac
The resinous chemical substance present a. Lac is largely used as a sealing wax
in the wax is called propolis which is and adhesive for optical instruments.
derived from pollen grains. The pure wax It is used in electric industry, as it is a
is white in colour and the yellow colour good insulator.
is due to the presence of carotenoid
b. It is used in preparations of shoe and
pigments. It is used for making candles,
leather polishes and as a protective
water proofing materials, polishes for
coating of wood.
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c. It is used in laminating paper board, in free contact with in the water stream. (iv)
photographs, engraved materials and Aqua vertica is otherwise known as vertical
plastic moulded articles. aquaponics. Plants are stacked on the top of
d. Used as a filling material for gold each other in tower systems. Water flows in
ornaments through the top of the tower. This method is
suitable for growing leafy greens, strawberries
Hyper-parasitism - A and other crops that do not need supporting
condition in which solid substratum to grow.
a secondary parasite
Advantages of Aquaponic gardening
develops within
Water conservation: No need of water
a previously existing parasite or a
discharge and recharge as the water is
hyperparasite is the parasite whose
maintained by recycling process.
host is also a parasite.
Soil: Bottom soil may be loaded with
freshwater. Microbes in water can convert
13.6 Aquaponics the waste materials into usable forms like
Aquaponics is a technique which is a ammonia into nitrates which are used
combination of aquaculture (growing fish) by the plants. Thus the soil fertility is
and hydroponics (growing plants in non-soil maintained
media and nutrient-laden water). Aquaponics Pesticides: In this system use of
may also prevent toxic water runoff. It also pesticides is avoided and hence it is eco-
maintains ecosystem balance by recycling the
friendly.
waste and excretory products produced by
the fish. In India, aquaponics was started in Weeds: Since the plants are cultured
2013. Some primary methods of aquaponic in confined conditions, growth of weeds
gardening that are in use nowadays are as is completely absent. The utilization of
follows: (i) Deep water culture is otherwise nutrient by plants is high in this method
known as raft based method. In this method Artificial food for fishes: In this
a raft floats in water. Plants are kept in the system plant waste and decays are utilized
holes of raft and the roots float in water. This by fishes as food. So, the need for the use
method is applicable for larger commercial of supplementary feed can be minimized.
scale system. By this method fast growing Waste uptake by plants and bacteria
plants are cultivated. (ii) Media based Clean
water
method involves growing plants in inert
planting media like clay pellets or shales. This
method is applicable for home and hobby
scale system. Larger number of fruiting Gravel
plants, leafy green plants, herbs and other

Waste water
varieties of plants can be cultivated (Figure
Pump
13. 7) (iii) Nutrient Film technique involves
the passage of nutrient rich water through a
narrow trough or PVC pipe. Plants are kept
in the holes of the pipe to allow the roots to be Figure 13. 7 Aquaponics – Media based method
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Cultivable fishes
like tilapia, trout,
koi, gold fish, bass
etc., are cultured in
aquaponics. Common
cultivable plants like
tomato, pepper,
lettuce, cucumber, and
rose are co-cultivated
in this method.
13.7 Aquaculture
Aquaculture has been
practiced in varying
forms for centuries
dating to the time of
the Phoenicians. India
offers a huge potential
for aquaculture
development. Fish
culture received
notable attention in Tamil Nadu in 1911.
a. Growing fish or other aquatic
Aquaculture is a branch of science that deals
animals and plants together in an
with the farming of aquatic organisms such
integrated system. The fish wastes
as fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic
provides nutrients for the plants
plants.
and the plants filter the water.
Additionally bacteria break down On the basis of source, aquaculture can
by-products such as ammonia. be classified into three categories. They are
(a) Freshwater aquaculture (b) Brackish
b. Growing plants in a nutrient solution
water aquaculture (c) Marine water
instead of soil. Fish kept in the water
aquaculture. Culturing of fishes is called
provide the required nutrients.
fish culture or pisciculture. Inland water
Write the appropriate scientific
bodies include freshwater bodies like rivers,
terms for above (a) and (b) and
canals, streams, lakes, flood plain wetlands,
differentiate between them..
reservoirs, ponds, tanks and other derelict
water bodies and ponds constructed for
Fertilizer usage: Artificial or chemical fresh water aquaculture. The pH of the
fertilizers is not required for this system freshwater should be around neutral and
since the plants in the aquaponics utilize salinity below 5 ppt (parts per thousand).
the nutrients from the fish wastes dissolved Brackish water fishes spend most of
in water its life in river mouths (estuaries) back
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waters, mangrove swamps and coastal v. They should have high conversion
lagoons. Estuarine fish are more common efficiency so that they can effectively
in Bengal and Kerala. Culturing of utilize the food.
animals in the water having salinity range
Types of cultivable fish
0.5 2 30 ppt are called as brackish water
culture. Fishes cultured in brackish water Cultivable fish are of 3 types(Figure 13. 8).
are Milk fish (Chanos Chanos), Sea bass a. Indigenous or native fresh water fishes
(‘Koduva’), Grey mullet (‘Madavai’), Pearl (Major carps, Catla, Labeo, Clarias)
spots (‘Kari’meen) etc, b. Salt water fishes acclimatized for fresh
Marine Fisheries deal with fishing water (Chanos, Mullet).
operations along seacoasts. The Indian c. Exotic fishes or imported from other
subcontinent approximately has a 5600 kms counties (Common carps)
long coastline. About 80% of India’s marine
Among these, major carps have proved to
fish are supplied by the west coast and
be best suited for culture in India, because
the remaining 20% by the east coast. The
the carps
premier varieties are mackerels, sardines,
1. Feed on zooplanktons and
sharks, and catfish. Marine edible fishes of
phytoplanktons, decaying weeds,
Tamilnadu coast include both cartilaginous
debris and other aquatic plants.
and bony fishes. Culturing of animals in the
2. They can survive in turbid water with
water salinity ranges from 30 - 35 ppt is called
slightly higher temperature
Mariculture. Some fishes like Chanos sp,
Mugil cephalus are cultured here. Culturing 3. Can tolerate O2 variations in water.
of animals in the salinity ranges from 36 4. Can be transported from one place to
- 40 ppt is called Metahaline culture. Eg, other easily.
Brine shrimp (Artemia salina). Artemia is 5. They are highly nutritive and palatable.
commonly known as the brine shrimp. It is
a crustacean and lives in high saline waters
because of its high osmoregulatory capacity.
13.7.1 Fish culture Catla
Characteristics of cultivable fishes
The special characteristic features of
cultivable fishes are:
i. Fishes should have high growth rate in Mullet
short period for culture.
ii. They should accept supplementary diet.
iii. They should be hardy enough to resist
some common diseases and infection
of parasites.
Common carps
iv. Fishes proposed for polyculture
should be able to live together without Figure 13.8 Different types of
freshwater cultivable fishes
interfering or attacking other fishes.
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External factors affecting fish culture that all fish seeds belong to the same
The factors that affect fish culture are species. Hence advanced techniques
temperature, light, rain, water, flood, have been developed to improve the
water current, turbidity of water, pH quality of fish seed by artificial method
hardness, salinity and dissolved O2. Light of fertilization and induced breeding.
and temperature also play an important Artificial fertilization involves removal of
role in fish breeding. ova and sperm from female and male by
artificial mechanical process and the eggs
Management of fish farm are fertilized. For artificial fertilization
To culture fish, one should have an idea the belly of mature female fish is held
about different stages of fish culture such upward. Stripping is done with the thumb
as topographic situation, quality, source, of the right hand from the anterior to
physical, chemical and biological factors posterior direction for the ejection of eggs
of water. Breeding, hatching, nursing, due to force. In this way eggs are collected
rearing and stocking fishes in ponds has separately. Further, the male fish is caught
to be managed properly. Keeping in view with its belly downwards. The milt of fish
the various stages of fishes, the following is striped and collected separately, and
different types of ponds have been then the eggs are fertilized.
recommended to manage them. Induced breeding is also done by
Breeding pond hypophysation (removal of pituitary gland).
The first step in fish culture is the breeding of The gonadotropin hormone (FSH and LH)
fishes, therefore, for proper breeding special secreted by the pituitary gland influences
types of ponds are prepared called breeding the maturation of gonads and spawning
ponds. These ponds are prepared near the in fishes. Pituitary gland is removed from
rivers or other natural water resources. a healthy mature fish. Pituitary extract
is prepared by homogenising in 0.3%
Types of breeding saline or glycerine and centrifuged for
Depending on the mode of breeding, they 15 minutes at 8000rpm. The supernatant
are divided into is injected intramuscularly at the base of
1. Natural breeding (Bundh breeding) the caudal fin or intra-peritonealy at the
base of pectoral fin. Male and female
These are special types of ponds where
fishes start to spawn (release of gametes)
natural riverine conditions or any natural
and eggs are fertilized. The fertilized eggs
water resources are managed for breeding
are removed from the spawning place and
of culturable fishes. There bundhs are
kept into hatching hapas.
constructed in large low-lying areas that
can accommodate large quantity of rain Fish seed
water. The shallow area of such bundhs is Fish seed is collected from breeding ponds.
used as spawning ground. The spawn collecting net is commonly
2. Induced breeding called Benchijal (Shooting net) and
The fish seed is commonly collected from transferred to the hatching pits.
breeding grounds but does not guarantee
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Hatching pit manuring should be done to increase the

The fertilized eggs are kept in hatching production with cow dung and chemical
pits. The hatching pits should be nearer to fertilizing should also be done.
the breeding grounds, should be smaller Harvesting
in size with good quality water. There are Harvesting is done to capture the fishes
two types of hatching pits, hatcheries are from the water. Well grown fishes are
small sized pond in which unfertilized taken out for marketing. Small sized fishes
eggs are transferred and hatching happens. are again released into the stocking ponds
Hatching hapas are rectangular trough for further growth. Different methods of
shaped tanks made up of mosquito net fishing are carried out to harvest fishes.
cloth supported by bamboo poles and These include Stranding, Angling, Traps,
fixed in the river (Figure 13.9). Dipnets, Cast nets, Gill nets, Drag nets
and purse nets. The harvested fishes are
preserved by refrigeration, Deep freezing,
freeze drying, sun drying, salting, smoking
and canning.
Composite fish farming

Few selected fishes belonging to different
species are stocked together in proper
proportion in a pond. This mixed farming
is termed composite fish farming or
Figure 13.9 A fish pond-showing polyculture. The advantages include,
fish breeding hapas
1. All available niches are fully utilized.
Nursery pond 2. Compatible species do not harm each other.
The newly hatched fries are transported 3. No competition among different
from the hatching happa to nursery ponds species is found.
where they grow into fingerlings. 4. Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus
mrigala are the commonly used fish
Rearing pond species for composite fish farming.
Fingerlings are transferred to rearing
Exotic fishes
ponds that is long and narrow and allows
long distance swimming. The rearing The fishes imported into a country for
pond should be free from toxicants and fish culture are called exotic fishes and
predators. Antibiotics are used for washing such fish culture is known as exotic fish
the fingerlings and then transferred to the culture. Examples of such exotic fishes
stocking ponds. introduced in India are Cyprinus carpio
and Oreochromis mossambicus.
Stocking pond
Disease Management
Stocking ponds should be devoid of weeds
and predatory fishes. Proper organic Diseases can be of viral or bacterial
origin. Regular monitoring of parameters
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like water quality, aeration, regular

feeding, observation for mortality should Why are fish so efficient at converting
be checked. Parasitic infestations and feed to flesh?
microbial infections should be observed
periodically.
13.7.2 Prawn Culture
Economic importance of fish
Most important aquatic crustacean is
Fishes form a rich source of protein food prawn, which is widely cultured prawn
and provide a good staple food to tide over flesh is palatable and rich in glycogen,
the nutritional needs of man. Fish species protein with low fat content.
such as sardines, mackerel, tuna, herrings
Types of prawn fishery
have high amino acids concentrations
1. Shallow water prawn fishery – located
particularly histidine which is responsible
on the west coast restricted to shallow
for the meaty flavor of the flesh. It is rich
waters.
in fat such as omega 3 fatty acids. Minerals
such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, 2. Estuaries and back waters or saline
potassium, iron, manganese, iodine and lake prawn fishery - The area of
copper. Some of the fish by - products are: production of prawns are the back
waters seen along the Western coast,
Fish oil is the most important fish
Ennur, Pulicat, Chilka lake and
by product. It is derived from fish liver
Estuaries of Ganga and Brahmaputra
and from the fish body. Fish liver oil is
rivers.
derived from the liver which is rich in
vitamin A and D, whereas fish body oil 3. Freshwater prawn fishery - Prawns
has high content of iodine, not suitable are caught from the rivers and lakes
for human consumption, but is used in throughout India.
the manufacture of laundry soaps, paints 4. Marine prawn fishery – Most of the
and cosmetics. marine prawns are caught along the
Fish meal is prepared from fish waste Indian coast belonging to the family
after extracting oil from the fish. The dried Penaeidae.
wastes are used to prepare food for pig, Species of prawn
poultry and cattle. The wastes obtained
A number of species of prawn are distributed
during the preparation of fish meal are
in water resources such as Penaeus indicus,
widely used as manure.
Penaeus monodon, Metapenaeus dobsoni
Isinglass is a high-grade collagen and Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
produced from dried air bladder or swim
bladder of certain fishes viz. catfish and Culture of freshwater prawn
carps. The processed bladder which is Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Figure 13.10) is
dissolved in hot water forms a gelatin commonly seen in rivers, fields and low-
having adhesive property. It is primarily saline estuaries. The prawn collected from
used for clarification of wine, beer and ponds, river, and paddy fields are transferred
vinegar. to the tanks which are aerated. For
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fertilization, one pair of prawn are kept in a 13.7.3 Pearl Culture

separate tank. After mating, the eggs are
Pearl is a white, highly shining globular
laid. Spawning tanks of different sizes should
concretion found within the shell of an
be prepared with proper aeration.
Oyster. Pearl oysters are sedentary animals.
Temperature (240 C – 300 C) and pH (7-8)
In India it was cultured for the first time
should be maintained in the hatching tank.
in 1973 at Thoothukudi. Pearl oysters are
The eggs hatch into first and second stage
found along the coast of Kanyakumari and
larva. Artificial feed is supplied. Young ones
in the Gulf of Kutch. High quality pearls
of 5cm length (60 days old) can be reared in
are obtained from pearl oysters of Genus
fresh or slightly brackish water ponds and
Pinctada that can be cultured in the salinity
paddy fields. Harvesting of prawns can be
range of 30 ppt in racks, raft and long line
done twice in a year.
methods. Freshwater bivalve Lamellidens is
also used in artificial pearl culture. Mostly
the pearl oysters inhabit the ridges of rocks
or dead corals, forming extensive pearl
banks. These pearl beds produce best quality
of pearls called as “Lingha Pearl”.
Figure 13.10 Macrobrachium rosenbergii Pearl Formation

When a foreign particle accidently enters into
Culture of marine prawn
the space between mantle and shell of the
Several factors that determine the success
oyster, it adheres to the mantle. The mantle
of marine prawn culture includes selection
epithelium encloses it like a sac and starts to
of site, water quality, soil quality and
secrete concentric layers of nacre around it
availability of seed.
as a defensive mechanism. Nacre is secreted
Preparation of farm continuously by the epithelial layer of the
For the preparation of ponds for algal mantle and is deposited around the foreign
growth and for the subsequent stocking of particle and over a period time the formation
prawns it is essential to drain off the water of repeated layers of calcium carbonate makes
and sundry the bottom followed by light the hard and glossy pearl. When the pearl
tilling. Agricultural lime should be applied enlarges the oyster dies. The shell is then
to absorb excess CO2 and to supply calcium carefully opened and the pearls are manually
which is required for moulting. Fertilizers separated and graded (Figure 13. 11).
like rice, bran, poultry, and cattle dung are
Composition of pearl
used to increase the fertility of the soil.
Pearl comprises of water, organic matter,
Prawns are commonly caught in crafts and
calcium carbonate and the residue.
gears using different types of nets such as
cast nets, bag nets, drag nets, trawl nets (1) Water: 2-4% (2) Organic matter:
and barrier nets. Preservation of prawns 3.5-5.9%
is done by peeling and deveining or by (3) Calcium (4)
Residue: 0.1-0.8%
cooking and peeling. carbonate: 90%
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Quality of pearl Shell Prismatic Shell

Mantle
Molluscous
(exterior) Layere (interior) part
The pearls obtained are of variable shapes
and sizes. They may be white, or cream red
or pink red in colour. The spherical pearls
of rainbow colour are rarely found. The best
quality of pearl is obtained from marine Nacreous layer Pearl
oysters. Pearl obtained from freshwater Mantle Foreign body Mantle epithelium
bivalves are not as valuable as those obtained

from the marine oysters (Mishra, 1961).
13.8 Animal Husbandry and

Management Mother of pearl (nacre) Shell Layer of nacre Pearl
Animal husbandry is the practice of Figure 13.11 Pearl and Pearl Formation
breeding and raising livestock cattles like the animal breeder during hybridization
cows, buffaloes, and goats and birds etc. experiments. Hence animals with maximum
that are useful to human beings. Parameters desirable characters should be selected.
such as adequate ventilation, temperature,
A group of animals related by descent
sufficient light, water and proper housing
and with similar characters like general
accommodation should be taken into
appearance, features, size etc., are said to
account to maintain dairy and poultry
belong to a breed. Why should we breed
farms. Animals should be cared and
animals? Through animal breeding,
protected from diseases. Records should
improved breeds of animals can be
be maintained after the regular visits by
produced by improving their genotype
Veterinarian. More over the selection of
through selective breeding.
good breeds with high yielding potential
combined and resistance to diseases is Objectives of Animal breeding:
very important. a. To improve growth rate
Animal Breeding b. Enhancing the production of milk,
Human beings have been depending on meat. Egg etc.,
animals and animal products for food from c. Increasing the quality of the animal
very early times. Generally high yielding products
animals produced by hybridization are d. Improved resistance to diseases
reared in poultry and dairy farms. In e. Increased reproductive rate
earlier days, animals were produced and
selected based on specific characters. With Methods of Animal breeding:
the gain in knowledge on the principles of There are two methods of animal breeding,
heredity and genetics, human beings have namely inbreeding and outbreeding
been successful in rearing animals with the 1. Inbreeding: Breeding between animals
superior qualities through hybridization of the same breed for 4-6 generations is
experiments. Complex issues are faced by called inbreeding. Inbreeding increases
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homozygosity and exposes the harmful Controlled breeding experiments

recessive genes. Continuous inbreeding Artificial insemination:
reduces fertility and even productivity, Artificial insemination is a technique in
resulting in “inbreeding depression”. which the semen collected from the male
This can be avoided by breeding selected is injected to the reproductive tract of the
animals of the breeding population and selected female. Artificial insemination is
they should be mated with superior economical measure where fewer bulls are
animals of the same breed but unrelated required and maximum use can be made
to the breeding population. It helps to of the best sire.
restore fertility and yield.
2. Outbreeding: The breeding between Thawing means to melt or become
unrelated animals is called outbreeding. liquid. When the semen collected for
Individuals produced do not have common artificial insemination is taken to far
ancestors for 4-6 generations. Outbreeding off places/stored for a long time in
helps to produce new and favourable traits, frozen condition it should be brought
to produce hybrids with superior qualities to room temperature slowly before
and helps to create new breeds. New and use. This process is called thawing.
favourable genes can be introduced into a
population through outbreeding. Advantages of artificial insemination
i. Out crossing: It is the breeding i. It increases the rate of conception
between unrelated animals of the same ii. It avoids genital diseases
breed but having no common ancestry. The iii. Semen can be collected from injured
offspring of such a cross is called outcross. bulls which have desirable traits.
This method is suitable for breeding
iv. Superior animals located apart can be
animals below average in productivity.
bred successfully.
ii. Cross breeding: Breeding between a
superior male of one breed with a superior Multiple ovulation embryo transfer
female of another breed. The cross bred technology (MOET)
progeny has superior traits (hybrid vigour It is another method of propagation
or heterosis). of animals with desirable traits.
iii. Interspecific hybridization: This method is applied when the
success rate of crossing is low even
In this method of breeding mating is
after artificial insemination. In this
between male and female of two different
method Follicle stimulating hormone
species. The progeny obtained from such
(FSH) is administered to cows for
crosses are different from their parents,
inducing follicular maturation and
and may possess the desirable traits of the
super ovulation. Instead of one egg
parents. Have you heard about Mule? It was
per cycle, 6-8 eggs can be produced by
produced by the process of interspecific
this technology. The eggs are carefully
hybridization between a male donkey and
recovered non-surgically from the
a female horse.
genetic mother and fertilized artificially.
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The embryos at 8-32 celled stages are Vechur breed is the

recovered and transferred to a surrogate smallest breed of Cow
mother. For another round of ovulation, as per World Guinness
the same genetic mother is utilized. Records.
This technology can be applied to cattle,
Average length: 124cms
sheep and buffaloes. Advantage of this
technology is to produce high milk Average height: 87 cms
yielding females and high-quality meat Origin: Vechur village, Kottayam
yielding bulls in a short time. District of Kerala
It produces large amount of milk in
Breeds of Dairy animals
relation to the food consumption
Dairying is the production and marketing
of milk and its products. Dairy operation India is the largest producer of Milk,
consists of proper maintenance of cattle, globally.
the collection and processing the milk India has many popular breeds of
and its by products. There are 26 well cows and buffaloes.
defined breeds of cattle and 6 breeds of
Prominent indigenous cow breeds in
buffaloes in India. Cattles are classified
India - Gir, Red sindhi, Sahiwal, Hallikar,
under three groups based on the purpose
Amritmahal, Khillari, Kangayam, Bargur,
they serve to man (Figure 13. 12). They
Umblachery, Pulikulam, Alambadi,
are
Tharparkar, Haryana, Kankrej, Ongole,
i. Dairy breeds or Milch breeds: They Krishna valley and Deoni.
are high milk yielders with extended
lactation. Eg., Sindhi, Gir, Sahiwal, To meet the milk demand of the
Jersy, Brown Swiss, Holstein cattle. growing population, milk breeds are
ii. Draught purpose breeds: Bullocks preferred by farmers in small scale
are good for draught purpose. Eg. farms. Goats are also used all over India
Kangayam, Malvi. for supplementing deficiencies in milk
iii. Dual Purpose breeds: Cows are meant production. Some of the breeds of cattle
for yielding more milk and bullocks that are good milkers are Jamunapari in
are used for better drought purpose. Ganga-Jamuna riverine tracts, Beetal in
Eg. Ongole, Hariana. Punjab, Bar–bari in Uttarpradesh.
Gir Kangeyam Ongole
Figure 13.12 Different breeds of cattle

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Common diseases of cattle: A healthy part we are discussing about an overview

animal eat, drinks and sleeps well regularly. of the chicken and duck breeds, farming
Healthy cattle appear bright, alert and active practices and its advantages.
in their movement with a shiny coat. Cattle Types of Chicken breeds: There are more
are affected by a large number of diseases. than 100 breeds. The commonly farmed
Cattle in ill health appear dull, restless and chicken breeds are categorized into five
change posture frequently with drop in milk based on the purpose for which it is farmed.
yield. The main diseases of dairy cattle are They are egg layers, broiler type, dual type,
rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, cow games and ornamental types (Figure 13.13).
pox, hemorrhagic fever, anthrax. 1. Egg layers: These are farmed mainly
Uses of dairy products: for the production of egg.
Leghorn: This is the most popular
Milk products: Milk is produced by dairy
commercial breed in India and originated
animals which is an emulsion of fat and
from Italy. They are small, compact with a
lactose. Milk also contains enzymes which
single comb and wattles with white, brown
are destroyed during pasteurization. Milk
or black colour. They mature early and begin
is a rich source of vitamin A, B1, B2, and
to lay eggs at the age of 5 or 6 months. Hence
deficient in Vitamin C. Due to its high
these are preferred in commercial farms.
nutrition value, it serves as a complete food
They can also thrive well in dry areas.
for infants. Dairy products such as yoghurt,
cheese, butter, ice cream, condensed milk, Chittagong: It is the breed chiefly
curd, and milk powder processed from milk found in West Bengal. They are golden
make dairy, a highly farming attraction. or light yellow coloured. The beak is long
and yellow in colour. Ear lobes and wattles
Meat: Meat is rich in protein and also
are small and red in colour. They are good
contains many minerals like iron, zinc,
egg layers and are delicious.
vitamins and selenium. It also contains
2. Broiler type: These are well known for
vitamins needed for human diet.
fast growth and soft quality meat.
Land management: Grazing of livestock White Plymouth rock: They have
is sometimes used as a way to control white plumage throughout the body. It
weeds and undergrowth. is commonly used in broiler production.
Manure: Manure can be spread on This is an American breed. It is a fast
agriculture fields to increase crop yields. growing breed and well suitable for
Poultry Farming growing intensively in confined farms.
The word poultry refers to the rearing and 3. Dual purpose breeds: These are for
propagation of avian species such as chicken, both meat and egg production purpose.
ducks, turkeys, geese, quail and guinea Brahma: It is a breed popularly known
fowls. The most common and commercially for its massive body having heavy bones,
farmed birds are chicken and ducks. Poultry well feathered and proportionate body.
farming is essential for the purpose of meat, Pea comb is one of the important breed
eggs and feather production. Commercial characters. It has two common varieties
poultry farming is also profitable. In this namely, Light Brahma and Dark Brahma.
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Leghorn-Hen and Cock White plymouth rock Hen and Cock
Light brahma Hen and cock Aseel - Hen and cock Silkie
Figure 13.13 Different types of chicken breeds
4. Game breeds: Since ancient times, Among these, Battery cage method is
special breed of roosters have been used widely used in large scale poultry farms. The
for the sport of cockfighting. Free range, Organic and Yarding methods
Aseel: This breed is white or black in are eco-friendly and the eggs produced by
colour. The hens are not good egg layers but such farming practices are preferred in the
are good in incubation of eggs. It is found market.
in all states of India. Aseel is noted for its Stages involved in rearing:
pugnacity, high stamina, and majestic gait There are some steps involved in rearing of
and dogged fighting qualities. Although chicken.
poor in productivity, this breed is well- 1. Selection of the best layer: An active
known for their meat qualities. intelligent looking bird, with a bright
5. Ornamental breeds: Ornamental comb, not obese should be selected.
chicken are reared as pets in addition to 2. Selection of eggs for hatching: Eggs
their use for egg production and meat. should be selected very carefully. Eggs
Silkie: It is a breed of chicken has a should be fertile, medium sized, dark
typical fluffy plumage, which is said to feel
brown shelled and freshly laid eggs are
like silk and satin. The breed has numerous
preferred for rearing. Eggs should be
additional special characters, such as black
washed, cleaned and dried.
skin and bones, blue earlobes, and five toes
on each foot, while the majority chickens 3. Incubation and hatching: The
only have four. They are exhibited in poultry maintenance of newly laid eggs in optimum
shows, and come out in various colours. condition till hatching is called incubation.
Silkies are well recognized for their calm, The fully developed chick emerges out of
friendly temperament. Silkie chicken is egg after an incubation period of 21 – 22
especially simple to maintain as pets. days. There are two types of incubation
Types of Poultry farming: There are namely natural incubation and artificial
different methods used to rear both broiler incubation.In the natural incubation
and layer chicken. The types of poultry method, only a limited number of eggs can
farming are Free range farming, Organic be incubated by a mother hen. In artificial
method, Yarding method, Battery cage incubation, more number of eggs can be
method and Furnished cage method. incubated in a chamber (Incubator).
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4. Brooding: Caring and management of • It does not require a big space.

young chicks for 4 – 6 weeks immediately • It ensures high return of investment
after hatching is called brooding. It can also be within a very short period of time.
categorized into two types namely natural and • It provides fresh and nutritious food
artificial brooding. and has a huge global demand.
5. Housing of Poultry: To protect the • It provides employment opportunities
poultry from sun, rain and predators it is for the people.
necessary to provide housing to poultry. Chickens communicate with more than
Poultry house should be moisture- proof, 24 vocalizations, each with a distinct
rat proof and it should be easily cleanable meaning, including warning their
and durable. friends about different types of predators
6. Poultry feeding: The diet of chicks or letting their mothers know whether
should contain adequate amount of water, they’re comfortable
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and
minerals. Duck Farming
Duck is an aquatic bird and forms only 6%
Poultry products:
of our country’s poultry population. There
The main products of poultry farming are
are about 20 breeds of ducks. The native one
eggs and meat. In India, the primary aim of
includes Indian Runner and Syhlet meta. The
poultry farming is to obtain eggs. The eggs
exotic breeds include Muscori, Pekin, Aylesbury
and poultry meat are the richest sources of
and Campbell. Domesticated ducks have been
proteins and vitamins.
derived from the wild duck named Mallard
Poultry byproducts: (Anas boscas). Farming ducks is profitable as it
The feathers of poultry birds are used for making can be combined with aquafarming practices.
pillows and quilts. Droppings of poultry can be Peculiarity of ducks:
used as manure in fields. The droppings are rich The body is fully covered with oily feathers.
in nitrogen, potash and phosphates. They have a layer of fat under their skin which
A number of poultry byproducts like prevents it from getting wet. They lay eggs at
blood-meal, feather meal, poultry by- night or in the morning. The ducks feed on
product meal and hatchery by-product meal rice bran, kitchen wastes, waste fish and snails.
are used as good sources of nutrients for Types of breeds: There are three types of
meat producing animals and poultry. These ducks depending on the purpose for which
byproducts supply proteins, fats, vitamins it is formed. They are meat productive duck
and good amount of minerals. breeds, egg productive duck breeds, and
Poultry diseases: breeds for both meat and egg production.
Ranikhet, Coccidiosis, and Fowl pox are Advantages of duck farming:
some common poultry diseases. They can be reared in small backyards where
Benefits of Poultry farming: water is available and needs less care and
The advantages of poultry farming are management as they are very hardy. They can
• It does not require high capital for adapt themselves to all types of environmental
construction and maintenance of the conditions and are breed for feed efficiency,
poultry farming. growth rate and resistance to diseases.
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Summary water runoff and also maintains ecosystem

balance by recycling the waste and excretory
Economic Zoology involves the study
products produced by the fish. Aquaculture
of application of animals for human welfare.
deals with the farming of aquatic organisms
The need of Zoology is to improve our
such as fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic
economic condition, to provide food security
plants. On the basis of water resources,
and employment opportunities. Based on
aquaculture can be classified into Freshwater
the economic importance, animals can be
aquaculture, brackish water aquaculture and
categorized as Animals for food and food
Marine water aquaculture. It includes culture
products, economically beneficial animals,
of fishes, prawn, crab and oyster.
Animals of aesthetic importance and Animals
Animal husbandry is the practice of
for scientific research. Vermiculture is the
breeding and raising livestock cattles
process of using earthworms to decompose
like cows, buffaloes, and goats and birds
organic food waste, into a nutrient-rich
etc. that are useful to human beings.
material capable of supplying necessary
Dairying is the production and marketing
nutrients to sustain plant growth. Sericulture
of milk and its products. Dairy operation
is the production of silk from the silk worm.
consists of proper maintenance of cattle,
It is an agro-based industry comprising three
collection and processing the milk and
main components. They are cultivation of food
its byproducts. Poultry refers to the
plants for the silkworms, rearing of silkworms
rearing and propagation of avian species
and reeling and spinning of silk. Care and
such as chicken, ducks, turkeys, geese,
management of honey bees for the production
quail and guinea fowls. The commonly
of honey is called Apiculture. Lac is produced
farmed chicken breeds are categorized into
by the lac insect.
five based on the purpose for which it is
Aquaponics is a combined technique of
farmed. They are egg layers, broiler type,
aquaculture and hydroponics. It prevents toxic
dual type, games and ornamental types.
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Evaluation Reason: The queen bee produces a

chemical substance called pheromone.
1.
Which one of the
The drones in that area are attracted
following is not related
to the pheromone and then mating
to vermiculture?
takes place.
i. Maintains soil fertility a. Assertion and reason is correct but
ii. Breakdown of inorganic matter not related
iii. Gives porosity, aeration and moister b. Assertion and reason is incorrect but
holding capacity related
iv. Degradation of non biodegradable c. Assertion and reason is correct but
solid waste related
d. Assertion and reason is incorrect but
a. i and ii is correct
not related
a. iii and iv is correct
b. ii and iv is not correct 6. Rearing of honey bee is called
c. i and iii is not correct a. Sericulture
b. Lac culture
2. Which one of the following is not an c. Vermiculture
endemic species of earthworm? d. Apiculture
a. Perionyx a. Lampito
7. Which of the statement regarding Lac
b. Eudrillus c. Octochaetona
insect is TRUE?
3. Match the following and select the correct a. A microscopic, resinous crawling
option scale insect
1. B ombyx mori - i. Champa - I. Muga b. Inserts its proboscis into plant tissue
2. Antheraea suck juices and grows
assamensis - ii. Mulberry - II. Eri c. Secretes lac from the hind end of
3. Antheraea mylitta - iii. Arjun - III. Tassar body.
4. A ttacus ricini - iv. Castor - IV. Mulberry d. The male lac insect is responsible for
a) 1 – ii – IV b) 2 – iii – II large scale production of lac.
c) 3 - i - I d) 4 - iv - III 8. Prawn belongs to the class
a. crustacea
4. Silk is obtained from ….
b. Annelida
a. Laccifer lacca
c. Coelenterata
b.Nosema bombycis
d. Echinodermata
c.Attacus ricini
d.Attacus mylitta 9. Aquaponics is a technique which is
a. A combination of aquaculture and
5. Assertion: Nuptial flight is a unique fish culture
flight taken the queen bee followed b. A combination of aquaculture and
by several drones. hydroponics
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c. A combination of vermiculture and a. Poultry production depends upon

hydroponics the photoperiod. Discuss.
d. A combination of aquaculture and b. Polyculture of fishes is of great
prawn culture. importance. Discuss.
10. Inland fisheries are 15.

Write the advantages of vermi-
composting.
a. deep sea fishing
b. capturing fishes from sea coast 16. Name the three castes in a honey bee
colony.
c. Raising and capturing fishes in fresh
water 17. Name the following:
d. oil extraction from fish i. The largest bee in the colony.
ii. The kind of flight which the new
11. Induced breeding technique is used in virgin queen takes along with the
a. Marine fishery drones out of the hive.
b. Capture fishery 18. What are the main duties of a worker
c. Culture fishery bee?
d. Inland fishery 19. What happens to the drones after mating

flight?
12. Isinglass is used in
20.
Give the economic importance of
a. Preparation Silkworm.
b. Clearing of wines
21. What are the Nutritive values of fishes?
c. Distillation of wines
22. Give the economic importance of prawn
d. Preservation of wines
fishery.
13. Choose the correctly matched pair 23. Give the economic importance of lac
a. Egg layers – Brahma insect.
b. Broiler types - Leghorn 24. Name any two trees on which lac insect
c. Dual purpose – White Plymouth grows.
rock 25. Define cross breeding.
d. Ornamental breeds – Silkie 26. What are the advantages of artificial
insemination?
14. Animal husbandry is the science of
rearing, feeding and caring, breeding 27. Discuss the various techniques adopted
and disease control of animals. It in cattle breeding?
ensures supply of proper nutrition 28. Mention the advantages of MOET.
to our growing population through
29. Write the peculiar characters of duck.
activities like increased production
and improvement of animal products 30. Explain the life cycle of bombyx mori.
like milk, eggs, meat, honey, etc.
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GLOSSARY Brood – a family of birds produced at one

Acetylecholine – A neurotransmitter found hatching or birth.
throughout the nervous system. Catecholamines – Naturally occurring amines
Acidosis – condition characterised by lower that function as neurotransmitters. They are
blood pH, due to the increase of keto acids characterised by catechol group in which an
(ketosis) amine group is attached. Example .Epinephrine
Acinus – Cells arranged into a circular secretory Cocoon – It is a bag like structure secreted by
unit the clitellum. Eggs and sperms are deposited into
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – A nucleotide it. Fertilization and development occurs within
molecule consisting of adenine, ribose and three the cocoon.
phosphate molecules. It plays a central role in Collagen – A triple helix protein which allows
energy exchange in biological systems. for great tensile strength.
Adipocyte – Large cell (up to 200 microns) with Dioecious – Animals in which male and
only a thin film of cytoplasm due to the presence female reproductive organs occur in separate
of a large fat droplet. individuals.
Adipose tissue – A group of adipocytes. Drilosphere – is the part of the soil influenced by
Alternation of generation – Alternation of earthworm secretions, burrowing and castings.
haploid sexual and diploid asexual generation in Dyspnoea – painful respiration.
the life cycle of an animal. Electromagnetic (EM) radiation –
Ampulla of vater – Common duct called Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy
hepato-pancreatic duct that is all around us and takes many forms, such
Ampulla – The widened opening for each of as radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma
the semicircular canals, containing sensory rays.
innervations. Evisceration (Autotomy) - Ejection of viscera
Apnoea – Temporary stopping of respiration. as a defensive action by an animal.
Berger’s waves – are neural oscillations in Falciform ligament – It seperate lobes of liver
the frequency range of 7.5–12.5 Hz arising connect the liver with diaphragm
from synchronous and coherent (in phase or Functional Respiratory Capacity (FRC) - Volume
constructive) electrical activity of thalamic of air present after expiration in lungsGlossary
pacemaker cells in humans.
Goblet cell – special mucus secreting columnar
Bicuspid valve – also called mitral valve. Left epithelial cell located in the respiratory tract and
Auricular ventricular valve with two flaps that is intestine.
present between the left auricle and left ventricle.
Hypopharynx – The hypopharynx is a somewhat
Biological indicator – refers to organisms, globular structure, located medially to the
species or community whose characteristics mandibles and the maxillae. In many species
show the presence of specific environmental it is membranous and associated with salivary
conditions. glands. It assists in swallowing the food.
Bipedal – Walk or stand on two feet.
Hypoxia – the failure of tissues for any reason to
Blood pressure – (BP) is the pressure exerted receive an adequate supply of oxygen.
by the circulating blood against the walls of
Incubator – is a device used to grow and maintain
blood vessels.
microbiological cultures or cell cultures. and
Book gills – Respiratory organs in aquatic maintains optimal temperature, humidity and
Limulus. other conditions such as the carbon dioxide
Book lungs – Respiratory organs of Scorpions (CO2) and oxygen content of the atmosphere
and most spiders. inside.
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Isovolumetric ventricular contraction – Properioception – The ability to sense stimuli

Isovolumetric means constant volume and arising within the body regarding position,
length. During ventricular contraction, when motion and equilibrium.
all valves are closed, no blood can enter or leave Sclerites – Sclerite is hard armor like structure
the ventricle during this time. Because no blood for arthopods (even cockroaches) soft body.
leaves or enters the ventricles the ventricular Sclerites are really deposition of Calcium or
chamber has a constant volume and the muscle cross linking of protein to make the exoskeleton
fibres stay at a constant length. stronger.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus – The ascending Septum pellucidum – Located in the midline of
limb of Henle returns to the glomerular region the brain, between the two cerebral hemispheres.
of its own nephron, where it passes through It separates the lateral ventricles I and II.
the fork formed by the afferent and efferent Setae – They are small, S- Shaped chitinous
arterioles. Both the tubular and vascular cells at structures present in the pits of the body wall of
this point are specialized to form juxtaglomerular earthworms. They aid in locomotion. Some setae
apparatus that lie next to the glomerulus. (Juxta are modified into Penial setae in the male genital
means “next to”). opening and these help in copulation.
Juxtamedullary nephrons – the glomeruli of the Shared character – A shared character is one
juxtaglomerular nephrons lie in the inner layer of that two lineages have in common
cortex next to the medulla and the loops of Henle
Spawning - Process of shedding of mass eggs or
plunges through the entire depth of the medulla
sperms in water.
Concentrated urine is formed in these nephrons.
Sphincter of boydon – Sphincter which guard
Lacunae – A cavity or depression especially in
opening of the bile duct before it joins with the
the bone
pancreatic duct
Macrophages – Immune cells derived from
Sphincter of oddi – Sphincter which guard
monocytes; engaged in phagocytosis of microbes
the opening of the ampulla of vater into the
and debris.
duodenum
Mast cells – Cells filled with basophilic granules
Taeniae coli – Longitudinal muscular chords in
found in numbers in connective tissue and
the colon
releases histamine and other substances during
inflammatory and allergic reactions. Typhlosole – A median dorsal internal fold in
the intestine of several types of animals, including
Mesentery – A thin double walled epithelial
the earthworm,
membrane that support alimentary canal and
other organs in the abdominal cavity. Valves of kerkring or plicae circulares –
Circular folds in the lumen of ileum
Phylogeny – Relationships among various
biological species based upon similarities Vasa recta – (straight vessels) The peritubular
and differences in their physical or genetic capillaries of the juxtaglomerular nephrons forms
characteristics. vascular loops which run in close association
with the loops of Henle.
Piezoelectric Effect – It is the ability of certain
materials to generate an electric charge in Vectors –A vector is an organism that does not
response to applied mechanical stress. cause disease itself but which spreads infection by
conveying pathogens from one host to another.
Pneumothorax – presence of air in the pleural
cavity which causes collapsing of lungs. Villus – A minute finger-like process from
intestinal lining of vertebrates
Poikilotherms – Cold blooded organisms/
Body temperature fluctuates according to Yawning – prolonged inspiration due to increase
environmental temperature in CO2 concentration.
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Glossary
பாடம் 1 : The Living world-உயிருலகு Coelomic fluid உடற்குழி திரவம்
Diversity பல்லுயிரியல்பு / பல்லுயிர்த்தன்மை Sperma theca விந்து க�ொள்பை
Systematics இனத்தொடர்பு த�ொகுப்பமைவு Nephridia நெஃப்ரிடியா
Hierarchy Genital opening இனப்பெருக்கத்துளை

படிநிலை
Nomenclature Gizzard அரைவைப்பை
பெயரிடும்முறைகள்
Intestinal caeca குடல் பிதுக்கங்கள்
Biodiversity பல்லுயிர் தன்மை
Hydrostatic skeleton நீர்ம சட்டகம்
Autotrophic தன்னூட்டம் ஊட்டமுறை
Regeneration இழப்பு மீட்டல்
Phylogenentic tree பரிணாம மரம்
Commissural vessels இணைப்பு நாளங்கள்
Heterotrophic சார்ந்துண்ணிகள், பிறஊட்ட உயிரிகள்
Ganglion நரம்பு செல்திரள்
Thermoacidophiles வெப்பம் மற்றும்அமிலத்தன்மையை தாங்கி
வளரும் தன்மை Photoreceptor ஒளி உணர்வி
பேரினப்பெயரும்/ சிற்றினப் பெயரும் / Gustatory receptor சுவை உணர்வி

Tautonymy
ஒரே மாதிரியாக இருத்தல் Olfactory receptor நுகர் உணர்வி
Bioluminescence உயிர் ஒளிர்தல் Tactile receptor த�ொடு உணர்வி
Chemoreceptor வேதிஉணர்வி
பாடம் 2 : Kingdom Animalia - விலங்குலகம்
Thermo receptor வெப்ப உணர்வி
Pinacocytes கடற்பஞ்சுகளின் தட்டையான
புறப்படை செல்கள் Cocoon புழுக்கூடு
Diploblastic animals ஈரடுக்கு விலங்குகள் Vermiwash மண்புழு செறிவூட்டப்பட்ட நீர்
Asymmetryical சமச்சீரற்ற தன்மை பாடம் 5 : Digestion and Absorption - செரித்தல மற்றும் உட்கிரகித்தல்
Radial symmetry ஆரசமச்சீர் அமைப்பு Digestive system செரிமான மண்டலம்
Biradial symmetrical இரு ஆரசமச்சீர் Digestive glands செரிமான சுரப்பிகள்
Para zoa தளர்ச்சியான பலசெல் Salivary glands உமிழ்நீர் சுரப்பிகள்
Eumetazoa பல செல் உயிரிகள் Liver கல்லீரல்
Mesoglea மீச�ோகிளியா Pancreas கணையம்
Deutrostomia மூலக்குழியிலிருந்து மலவாய் த�ோன்றுதல் Gastro intestinal hormones இரைப்பை-குடல் ஹார்மோன்கள்
Cnidocytes(or) cnidoblasts Digestive enzymes செரிமான ந�ொதிகள்

க�ொட்டும் செல்கள்
Polyembryony பல கருநிலை Absorption உட்கிரகித்தல்
Haemocoel இரத்தம் உடற்குழி Assimilation தன்மயமாதல்
Water vascular system நீர் குருதிய�ோட்ட மண்டலம் Protein புரதங்கள்
பாடம் 3 : Tissue Level of Organisation - விலங்குத் திசுக்கள் Carbohydrates கார்போஹைட்ரேட்டுகள்
Epithelial tissues எபிதீலிய திசுக்கள் Fats க�ொழுப்புப் ப�ொருட்கள்
Connective tissues இணைப்புத்திசுக்கள் Egestion கழிவு வெளியேற்றம்
Muscular tissues தசைத்திசுக்கள் Nutrients உணவூட்டப்பொருட்கள்
Neural tissues நரம்புத்திசு Minerals கனிமங்கள்/ தாது உப்புகள்
Squamous epithelium தட்டை வடிவ எபிதீலியம்
Caloric value கல�ோரி மதிப்பு
Cuboidal epithelium கனசதுர வடிவ எபிதீலியம்
Malnutrition ஊட்ட குறைவு
Columnar epithelium தூண் வடிவ எபிதீலியம்
Indigestion செரிமானம்
Ciliated epithelium குறுஇழை க�ொண்ட எபிதீலியம்
Constipation மலச்சிக்கல்
Compound epithelium கூட்டு
Jaundice கல்லீரல் அழற்சி, மஞ்சள் காமாலை
Simple epithelium எளிய
Peptic ulcer இரைப்பை புண்
Pseudostratified epithelium ப�ொய் அடுக்கினால் ஆன எபிதீலியம்
Appendicitis குடல்வால் அழற்சி
Stratified epithelium அடுக்கு எபிதீலியம்
Histology Hiatus hernia குடல் இறக்கம்
திசுவியல்
Basic/Primary tissue அடிப்படை திசு Autotrophs தன்னூட்ட உயிரிகள்
Electrolytes மின்பகுப�ொருட்கள்
பாடம் 4 : O
rgan and organ system in Animals - விலங்குகளின் உறுப்பு மற்றும்
உறுப்பு மண்டலங்கள் Digestive juice செரிமான திரவம்
Worm castings நாங்கூழ் கட்டிகள் Heterotroph சார்ந்துண்ணிகள்
Epigeics மேல்மட்ட புழுக்கள் Foregut முன்உணவுப்பாதை
Anecics நடு மட்ட புழுஙக்கள் Midgut நடு உணவுப்பாதை
Endogeics அடிமட்ட புழுக்கள் Hidgut பின் உணவுப்பாதை
Peristomium பெரிஸ்டோமியம் Buccal cavity/oral cavity வாய்க்குழி
Prostomium Terminal sulcus முனைப்பள்ளம்

புர�ோஸ்டோமியம்
Pygidium Cardial portion இரைப்பை மேல்பகுதி
பைஜிடியம்
Fundic portion இரைப்பை நடுப்பகுதி
Clitellum கிளை டெல்லம்
Seta சீட்டா Puloric portion இரைப்பை பின்பகுதி
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Duodenum முன்சிறுகுடல் Passive transport இயல்பு கடத்தல்

Cardiac sphincter கார்டியாக் சுருக்குத்தசை Bartholins duct (or)
duct of rivinis நாவடிச் சுரப்பி நாளம்
Pyloric sphincter பைல�ோரிக் சுருக்குத்தசை பற்கள் ஈறுடன் இணைக்கும் கடினமானப்
Cementum
ப�ொருள்
Regurgitation மீளத்திரும்புதல்
பாடம் 6 : Respiration - சுவாசம்
Gastric rugae இரைப்பை உட்புற மடிப்புகள்
Respiratory volume நுரையீரல் க�ொள்ளளவு
Jejunum நடுச்சிறுகுடல்
Respirometer சுவாச அளவி
Ileum பின்சிறுகுடல்
Spirometer ஸ்பைர�ோமீட்டர்
Chyme இரைப்பை பாகு
Surfactants மேல்பரப்பிகள்
Microvilli குடல் உறிஞ்சிகள், நுண்குடலுறிஞ்சிகள் Bio-molecules உயிர் மூலக்கூறுகள்
Goblet cells க�ோப்பை வடிவச்செல்கள் Respiratory disorder சுவாசக்கோளாறுகள்
Lymphoid tissue நிணநீர்த்திசு Pollutants மாசுபடுத்திகள்
Peyer’s patches பேயர் திசுத்தொகுப்பு Nasopharynx நாசிப்பகுதித் த�ொண்டை
Lymphocytes லிம்போசைட்டுகள் Glottis குரல்வளைத் துளை
Crypts கிரிப்ட்ஸ்/ மடிப்புகள் Epiglottis குரல்வளை மூடி
Succus entericus சிறுகுடல் சாறு Cartilaginous rings குருத்தெலும்பு வளையங்கள்
Ceacum பிதுக்கம் Alveolus காற்று நுண்ணறை
Colon பெருங்குடல் Chocking சுவாச அடைப்பு
Rectum மலக்குடல் Trachea மூச்சுக்குழல்
Vermiform appendix குடல்வால் Bronchus மூச்சுக்கிளைக்குழல்
Herbivorous animal தாவர உண்ணிகள் Bronchioles மூச்சுக்கிளை நுண்குழல்கள்
Symbiotic bacteria இணைவாழ் பாக்டீரியாக்கள் Basement substance ஆதாரப் ப�ொருட்கள்/அடிப்படைப்பொருட்கள்

Anal mucosa மலவாய் க�ோழைப்படலம்
Conducting zone கடத்தும் பகுதி
Anal column cells மலவாய் தூண்செல்கள்
Respiratory zone சுவாசப்பகுதி
Piles/haemorrhoids மூலம்
Pressure gradients அழுத்த சரிவு வாட்டம்
Serosa செரஸ் உறை
Intercostal muscles விலா எலும்பிடைத்தசைகள்
Muscularis தசை உறை
Thoracic chamber மார்பறை
Sub mucosa க�ோழைகீழ் படலம்
Inspiration உட்சுவாசம்
Mucosa க�ோழைப்படலம்
Expiration வெளிச்சுவாசம்
Visceral peritonium வயிற்றறை பெரிட�ோனியம்
Snoring குறட்டை
Submucosa plexus க�ோழை கீழ் வலைப்பின்னல்
Residual volume எஞ்சிய க�ொள்ளளவு
Biological catalysts உயிர் வினையூக்கி
Total lung capacity ம�ொத்த நுரையீரல் க�ொள்ளவு
Parotid மேலண்ணச் சுரப்பி
Inspiratrory capacity உட்சுவாசக் க�ொள்ளளவு
Subumaxillary gland கீழ்த்தாடைச் சுரப்பி
Expiratory capacity வெளிச்சுவாசக் க�ொள்ளளவு
Sub lingual gland நாவடிச் சுரப்பி
Vital capacity உயிர்ப்புத்திறன்
Peptic cells இரைப்பை செல்கள்
Inspiratory reserve volume உட்சுவாச சேமிப்புக் க�ொள்ளளவு
Parietal cells இரைப்பை சுவர் செல்கள்
Expiratory reserve volume வெளிச்சுவாச சேமிப்புக் க�ொள்ளளவு
Falciform ligament அரிவாள் வடிவம்
Partial pressure பகுதி அழுத்தம்
Hepatic lobules கல்லீரல் நுண் கதுப்புகள்
Partial pressure gradient பகுதி அழுத்தம் சரிவுவாட்டம்
Ampulla of vater கல்லீரல், கணையப் ப�ொது நாளம்
Dead space பயனற்ற இடம்
Mastication மெல்லுதல்
Bronchitis மார்புச்சளி ந�ோய்
Bolus உணவுக் கவளம்
Emphysema நுரையீரல் அடைப்பு
Peristalsis அலையியக்கம்
Reversible manner மீள்வினைத் தன்மை
lubrication உயவூட்டுதல்
Chemosensitive area வேதிஉணர்பகுதி
Churn கடைதல்
Sputum சளி
Proenzyme முன்நொதிகள்
Nasal congestion மூக்கடைப்பு
Putrifaction அழுகுதல்
Sore throat த�ொண்டை வலி
Emulsification பால்மமாதல்
Fibrosis நார்த்தசை ந�ோய்
Absorption உட்கிரகித்தல் Carcinogens புற்றுந�ோய்க் காரணிகள்
Intestinal mucosa குடல் க�ோழைப்படலம் Hypoxia ஆக்சிஜன் பற்றாக்குறை
Lumen வெற்றிடப் பகுதி Heart palpitation இதயப் படபடப்பு
Facilitated transpot ப�ொருட்கள் வழி கடத்தல் Nausea வாந்தியுணர்வு
Concentration gradient அடர்த்தி வேறுபாடு Anaemia இரத்தச�ோகை
Active transport செயல்மிகு கடத்தல் 267

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Congenital heart disease பிறவிக்குறை இதய ந�ோய் Unidirectional flow ஒருதிசை ஓட்டம்
Hyperbarisim மிகைஅழுத்தத் தன்மை Ventricular septum வென்ட்ரிகுலார் இடைத்தடுப்பு
Suffocation மூச்சுத்திணறல் Auricular septum ஆரிகுளார் இடைத்தடுப்பு
Conjugated protein இணைவுப்புரதம் Double circulation இரட்டைச் சுற்று ஓட்டம்
Haem moieties ஹீம் பகுதியின் ஒரு பாதி
Pulmonary circuit நுரையீரல் இரத்த ஓட்டம் (சுற்றோட்டம்)
Respiratory quotient சுவாசக்கெழு எண்
Cat ions Systemic circuit சிஸ்டமிக்(அ) உடல் இரத்த ஓட்டம்
நேர்மின்அயனிகள் (சுற்றோட்டம்)
Electrostatic attraction மின்னிலைக் கவர்ச்சி Papillary muscles பாப்பில்லரித் தசைகள்
Irritants எரிச்சலூட்டும் ப�ொருட்கள் Pericardial space பெரிக்கார்டியல் குழி
Hiccups விக்கல் Pericardial fluid பெரிக்கார்டிய திரவம்
Aerobic respiration காற்றுடைச் சுவாசம்
Auriculo ventricular valves ஆரிக்குல�ோ வென்ட்ரிகுலார் வால்வுகள்
Anaerobic respiration காற்றற்ற சுவாசம்
Inferior vena cava கீழ்ப்பெருஞ்சிரை
பாடம் 7 : Body fluids and circulation - உ
டல் திரவங்கள் மற்றும் சுற்றோட்டம்
Superior vena cava மேற்பெருஞ்சிரை
Cardiac activity இதயச்செயல்பாடுகள் Pulmonary veins நுரையீரல் சிரைகள்
Cardiac cycle இதய சுழற்சி Myogenic heart மய�ோஜெனிக் வகை இதயம்
Blood coagulating factors இரத்த உறைதல் காரணிகள் Depolariation மின்காந்த முனைப்பியக்கம்அகன்ற நிலை
Vasovagal syncope வேகஸ் நரம்பின் அதிகரித்த செயலால்
ஏற்படும் மயக்கம் Tachycardia டாக்கி கார்டியா
Perfusion மேற்பரவல் Brady cardia பிராடிகார்டியா
Capillary தந்துகி Stroke volume(SV) வீச்சுக் க�ொள்ளவு
Arteriole நுண்தமனி Semilunar valves அரைச்சந்திர வால்வுகள்
Hydrostatic pressure இரத்த திரவ அழுத்தம் Heart rate(HR) இதயத்துடிப்பு வீதம்
Osmosis ஊடுகலப்பு Cardiac output (CO) இதயத்திலிருந்து வெளிப்படும் இரத்த அளவு

Arterial end தமனி முடிவுப் பகுதி Sphygmomanometer இரத்தஅழுத்தமாணி
Venous end சிரை முடிவுப்பகுதி Pulse rate நாடித்துடிப்பு
Formed elements இரத்தச் செல்கள் Atheroma தமனிச்சுவரில் க�ொழுப்புப்படிவு
Hepatic portal vein கல்லீரல் ப�ோர்ட்டல் சிரை Hypertension மிகையழுத்தம்
Hepatic vein கல்லீரல் சிரை Atherosclerosis இதய இரத்தக்குழல் அடைப்பு
Hepatic artery கல்லீரல் தமனி Brain haemorrhage மூளையில் இரத்தக் கசிவு
Erythropoiesis Cerebral infarction பெருமூளைத் திசுச் சிதைவு

சிவப்பணு உருவாக்கம்
Myocardial infarction இதயத்தசை நசிவுறல் ந�ோய்
Granulocytes துகளுடையவெள்ளையணுக்கள்
Angina pectoris தீவிர மார்பு வலி
Agranulocytes துகளற்ற வெள்ளையணுக்கள்
Rheumatoid heart disease ருமாட்டிக் இதய ந�ோய்
Phagocytic nature விழுங்கும் தன்மையுடைய
Rheumatic fever ருமாட்டிக் காய்ச்சல்
Pus சீழ்
Varicose veins இரத்தநாளங்கள்சுருளுதல்
Inflammatory reaction வீக்கம் ஏற்படுதல்
Embolism தமனியில் இரத்தக் கட்டி அடைப்பு
Cell mediated immunity செல்வழி ந�ோய்த்தடைகாப்பு Aneurysm தமனி விரிசல், குருதிநாள நெளிவு
Macrophages மாக்ரோஃபேஜ்கள் Catheter உட்செலுத்திக் குழாய்
Sinusoids குழிப்பைஅடைப்பு Scaffolding சாரக்கட்டு, தூக்கிக் கட்டுதல்
Antigen எதிர்ப் ப�ொருள்
Pump oxygenator பம்ப்ஆச்சிஜன�ோட்டர் (ஆக்சிஜன்செலுத்தி)
Antibody எதிர்வினைப்பொருள்
Resuscitation செயல் தூண்டல்
Blood transfusion இரத்தம் செலுத்துதல்
Cessation of breath மூச்சு நிறுத்துதல்
Trauma விபத்து
Meshwork வலைப்பின்னல் பாடம் 8 : Excretion - கழிவுநீக்கம்
Lymph nodes நிணநீர் முடிச்சுகள் Nephron நெஃப்ரான்
Inguinal த�ொடைப்பகுதி Nephron tubules நெஃப்ரான் நுண்குழல்கள்
Axillaries அக்குள் பகுதிகள் Osmoregulation ஊடுகலப்பு ஒழுங்குபாடு
Sub clavian vein சப்கிளேவியன் (அ) சிரை Ionic regulation அயனி ஒழுங்குபாடு
Lacteals லாக்டியல் நாளங்கள் Ammonotelic அம்மோன�ோடெலிக் – அம்மோனியா நீக்கிகள்
Vasoconstriction இரத்தக்குழல் சுருக்கம் Uriotelic யூரிய�ோடெலிக் – யூரியா நீக்கிகள்
Vasodilation இரத்தக் குழல் விரிவடைதல் Uricotelic யூரிக்கோடேலிக்-யூரிக்அமில நீக்கிகள்

Flamecells சுடர்ச்செல்கள்
Anastomoses இருவேறு தமனிகள் இணைப்பிடங்கள்
Green glands பச்சை சுரப்பிகள்
Abdominal cramps வயிற்றுப்புறப் பிடிப்புகள்
Malpighian tubules மால்பிஜியன் நுண்குழல்கள்
Venules நுண்சிரைகள் 268

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Renal tubule சிறுநீரக நுண்குழல் Exoskeleton புறச் சட்டகம்

Proximal Convoluted Tubule அண்மை சுருள் நுண்குழல் Endoskeleton அகச்சட்டகம்
Distal convoluted Tubule சேய்மை சுருள் நுண்குழல் Axial skeleton அச்சுக் சட்டகம்
Bowman’s capsule Appendicular skeleton இணையுறுப்புச் சட்டகம்

ப�ௌமனின் கிண்ணம்
External auditory meatus வெளிச் செவித்துளை
Hydrostatic pressure நீர்ம அழுத்தம்
Ear ossicles செவிச்சிற்றெலும்புகள்
Filtrate வடி திரவம்
Foramen magnum மண்டைய�ோட்டுப் பெருந்துளை
Collecting duct சேகரிப்பு நாளம்
Neural canal நரபுக் கால்வாய்
Micturition சிறுநீர் வெளியேற்றம்
True ribs உண்மை விலா எலும்புகள்
Renal failure சிறுநீரக செயலிழப்பு
False ribs ப�ோலி விலா எலும்புகள்
Renal calculi சிறுநீரகக் கற்கள் Floating ribs மிதக்கும் விலா எலும்புகள்
Ultra filtration நுண்வடிகட்டுதல் Girdle வளையம்
Interstial fluid இடையீட்டு திரவம் Collar bone காரை எலும்பு
Body fluid உடல் திரவம் Acromion ஏகுர�ோமியன்
Hypotonic தாழ் உப்படர்வு Olecranon process ஓலிகிரானன் நீட்சி
Hypertonic உயர் உப்படர்வு accetalrlum எலும்புக்குழி
Pubic symphysis பூப்பெலும்பு இணைவு
பாடம் 9 : Locomotion and movement - இடப்பெயர்ச்சி மற்றும்இயக்கம்
Miscle fatigue தசைக் ச�ோர்வு
Amoeboid movement அமீபா ப�ோன்ற இயக்கம்
Muscle pull தசைப் பிடிப்பு
Ciliary movement குறு இழை இயக்கம்
Muscular dystrophy தசைச்சிதைவு ந�ோய்
Flagellar movement நீளிழை இயக்கம்
Rigor mortis மரண விறைப்பு
Muscular movement தசை இயக்கம்
Arthritis மூட்டு வலி
Myocytes தசை செல்கள்
Osteoarthritis ஆஸ்டிய�ோ மூட்டு வலி
Skeletal muscles எலும்புத் தசை
Rheumatiod arthritis ருமாடிக் மூட்டுவலி
Visceral muscles உள்ளுறுப்புத் தசைகள்
Gout க�ௌட்
Cardiac muscles இதயத் தசைகள்
Osteoporosis எலும்புப்புரை
Tendon தசை நாண்
Parietal bone சுவரெலும்பு
Fascicle ஃபாசிகிள்
Temporal bone ப�ொட்டெலும்பு
Epimysium எபிமைசியம்
Frontal bone நெற்றி எலும்பு
periusium பெரிமைசியம்
Sphenoid ஆப்புருவ எலும்பு/ஸ்பீனாய்டு
Endomysium என்டோமைசியம்
Occipital பிடரிஎலும்பு
Sarcolemma சார்கோலெம்மா
Ethmoid எத்மாய்டு
Anisotropic bands (A bands) மாறுபட்டதன்மையுடைய பட்டைகள்
Maxilla மேல்தாடை எலும்பு
Isotropic bands (I bands) ஒத்த தன்மையுடைய பட்டைகள்
Zygomatic கன்னத்தின் வளையயெலும்பு
Muscle fibre தசையிழை
Palatine அண்ணவெலும்பு
Myofibril தசை நுண்ணிழை
Lacrymal கண்ணீர்ச் சுரப்பியன்மை எலும்பு
Myo filaments தசை நாண்
Nasal மூக்கினிடைத்தட்டெலும்பு
Meromyosin மீர�ோளமைய�ோசின்
Inferior nasal koncha மூக்கினிடைக்கீழ் காஞ்சா
Troponin ட்ரோப�ோனின்
Mandible கீழ்த்தாடை எலும்பு
Tropomyosin ட்ரோப�ோமைய�ோசின்
Vomer இடைராசி எலும்பு
Sliding – filament hypothesis சறுக்கும் இழை க�ோட்பாடு
Malleus சுத்தி எலும்பு
Neuro muscular junction நரம்பு தசை சந்திப்பு
Incus பட்டடை எலும்பு
Motor end plate இயக்க முடிவுத் தட்டு
Stapes அங்கவடி எலும்பு
Dark band அடர்த்தி மிகு பட்டை
பாடம் -10 : Neural control and Co- ordination - ந
ரம்பு கட்டுப்பாடு மற்றும்
Light band அடர்த்தி குறை பட்டை ஒருங்கிணைப்பு
Active sites/ Neuron நியூரான் (நரம்பு செல்)
செயற்படு பகுதி/செயல் மிகு பகுதி
Cross bridge Sensory neuron உணர்வு நியூரான்
குறுக்குப்பாலம்
Power stroke Motor neuron இயக்கு நியூரான்
விசைத்தாக்கம்
Motor unit Automatic functions தானியங்கு வேலைகள்
இயக்க அலகு
All or none principle Afferent neurons உட்செல் நியூரான்கள்
உண்டு அல்லது இல்லை விதி
Isotonic contraction Efferent neurons வெளிச் செல் நியூரான்கள்
சமநீளச் சுருக்கம்
Isometric contraction Inter neurons இடை நியூரான்கள்
சம இழுப்புச் சுருக்கம்
Oxidative contraction Nissles granules நிஸ்சல் துகள்கள்
ஆக்ஸிஜனேற்ற தசைச் சுருக்கம்
Glycolytic contraction Node of Ranvier ரான்வியர் முடிச்சு / கணு
கிளைக்கோஜன் சிதைவு தசைச் சுருக்கம்
fast fibres Myelin sheath மயலின் உறை
துரித இழைகள்
Slow fibres Nerve impulse நரம்புத் தூண்டல்
மெதுவான இழைகள்
Skeletal system Axon hillock ஆக்ஸான் மேடு
எலும்பு மண்டலம்
Hydrostatic skeleton நீர்ம நிலைச் சட்டகம் 269 Synapsis நரம்பு செல் சந்திப்பு

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Synaptic knob நரம்பு செல் சந்திப்பு முடிச்சு ECG எலக்ட்ரோகார்டிய�ோகிராம் (இதய துடிப்புமின்
வரைவி)
Synaptic vesicles நரம்பு செல் சந்திப்பு பகுதி நுண்பைகள் EEG எலக்ட்ரோ என்செஃபால�ோகிராம்
Neurotransmitters நரம்புணர்வு கடத்திகள் Ultra ound scanner அல்ட்ராசவுண்ட் ஸ்கேனர்
Extra cellular fluid செல்வெளித் திரவம் CT Scanner கம்ப்யூட்டட் ட�ோம�ோகிராபி ஸ்கேனர்
Intra cellular fluid செல்உள் திரவம் Prognosis முன் கணிப்பு
Resting membrane potential ஓய்வுநிலை சவ்வின் மின் அழுத்த அளவு பாடம் 13: Trends in Economic zoology - வணிக விலங்கியலின் ப�ோக்குகள்
Action potential செயல்நிலை மின் அழுத்தம்
Apiculture தேனீவளர்ப்பு
Polarization முனைப்பியக்கம்
Drone ஆண் தேனீ
Sodium-potassium pump ச�ோடியம்-ப�ொட்டாசியம் உந்திக் கடத்தல்
Nuptial flight புணரும் பறத்தல்
Depolarization முனைப்பியக்க நீக்கம்
Pheromone ஃபிர�ோம�ோன்
Threshold stimulus அவசியமான குறைந்தபட்ச தூண்டல்
Fertilization கருவுறுதல்
Repolarization முனைப்பியக்க மீட்சி
Sterile மலட்டுத்தன்மை
Spike potential கூர்முனை மின் அழுத்த அளவு
Hive தேன்கூடு/தேனடை
Hyper polarization மிகை முனைப்பியக்கம்
Necter பூந்தேன்
Synaptic cleft நரம்பு செல் சந்திப்பு இடைவெளி
Propolis புர�ோப�ோலிஸ்/ தேன் பிசின்
Exocytosis செல்வெடித்தல்
Swarming கூட்டமாகசெல்லுதல்/கூட்டமாகபறத்தல்
All or none principle உண்டு – இல்லை க�ோட்பாடு
Inoculation ந�ோய்தடுப்பு ஊசிமருந்து
Cranial nerves மூளை நரம்புகள்
Predators க�ொன்றுண்ணிகள்
Olfactory nerve நுகர்ச்சி நரம்பு
Queen Excluder இராணித்தேனீ தடுப்பான்
Optic nerve பார்வை நரம்பு
Comb foundation தேன்கூட்டு அடித்தளம்
Trigeminal nerve முக்கிளை நரம்பு
Bee glove தேனீக்கையுறை
Facial nerve முக நரம்பு
Bee veil முகத்திரை/ தேன் எடுக்க உதவும் முகத்திரை
Hypoglossal nerve நாவடி நரம்பு
Hive Tool தேன்கூட்டு சாதனம்
Sympathetic nervous system பரிவு நரம்பு மண்டலம்
Honey extractor தேன்பிழி சாதனம்
Para sympathetic nervous system இணைப் பரிவு நரம்பு மண்டலம்
Hive entrance guard தேன் கூடு முகப்பு தடுப்பு
Mechanoreceptors த�ொடு உணர்விகள்
Antseptic நச்சுத்தடை
Myopia கிட்டப் பார்வை
Laxative மலமிளக்கி
Hyper metropia தூரப் பார்வை
Sedative மயக்கமூட்டி
Cataract கண்புரை
Masticated மெல்லுதல்
Proprioception அசைவுகளை உணரும் உணர்வு
Hyper parasitism ஒட்டுண்ணி மேல் ஒட்டுண்ணி வாழ்க்கை
பாடம் 11: Chemical coordination and integration - வேதி ஒருங்கிணைப்பு
Aquaponics நீர் உயிரி பயிர் வளர்ப்பு
Goose bumps ர�ோமங்கள்சிலிர்த்த நிலை
Deep water culture ஆழ் நீர் வளர்ப்பு
Hormones ஹார்மோன்கள்
Media based culture ஊடக அடிப்படை வளர்ப்பு
Homeostasis உடல்சமநிலைப் பேணுதல் ஊட்டப் ப�ொருள் படல (த�ொழில் நுட்ப முறை)
Nutrieut film technique
Exclusive endocrinme glands முழுமையான நாளமில்லாச் சுரப்பிகள் வளர்ப்பு முறை
Aqua vertica செங்குத்து முறை
Neuroendocrine glands நரம்புசார் நாளமில்லாச் சுரப்பிகள்
Polyculture கலப்பின மீன் வளர்ப்பு
Partial endocrine glands பகுதி நாளமில்லாச் சுரப்பிகள்
Zooplankton விலங்கு மிதவை உயிரிகள்
Neuro secretory cells நரம்பு சுரப்பு செல்கள்
Phytoplankton தாவர மிதவை உயிரிகள்
Releasing hormone விடுவிக்கும்ஹார்மோன்
Isinglass இஸ்ஸிங்கிளாஸ்
Inhibiitory homone மட்டுப்படுத்தும் ஹார்மோன்
Hypothalamic hypophyseal ஹைப�ோதலாமிக் ஹைப�ோஃபைசியல் Milch breed கறவை இனம்
portal blood vessel ப�ோர்ட்டல் இரத்தக் குழல்
Drought breed இழுவை இனம்
Hypothalamic hypophyseal axis ஹைப�ோதலாமிக் ஹைப�ோஃபைசியஸ்அச்சு
Duel purpose breed இரு உபய�ோக இனம்
Limbic system உணர்வுச் செயலித் த�ொகுப்பு
Incubator அடைகாப்பு சாதனம்
Sella turlica செல்ல டர்சிகா
Brooding பேணிக்காத்தல்
Infundibulam இன்ஃபன்டிபுலம்
Drilospheres மண்புழு ஏற்படுத்திய குழி
Anterior lobe முன் கதுப்பு
Reeling பின்னுதல்
Tropic hormone தூண்டும் ஹார்மோன்
Spinning நூற்றல்
Feed back பின்னூட்டம்
Moricultere மல்பெரி தாவர வளர்ப்பு
பாடம் 12 : Basic medical instrument ad techniques - அ
டிப்படை மருத்துவக்
கருவிகள் மற்றும் த�ொழில் Moulting த�ோலுரித்தல்
நுட்பங்கள்
Diagnostic and monitoring Diapause type of egg விரைவில் ப�ொரிக்கும் முட்டைகள்
பரிச�ோதனை மற்றும் கண்காணிப்புக் கருவிகள்
Instruments
Non – diapause type of egg மெதுவாகப் ப�ொரிக்கம் முட்டைகள்
Imaging Instruments நிழலுரு கருவிகள்
Stifling புழுக்கூட்டை க�ொன்று பதப்படுத்துதல்
Therapeutic Instruments சிகிச்சை கருவிகள்
Brood cells இளம்தேனீ வளர் அறை
Biomedical Techniques உயிரி – மருத்துவ த�ொழில் நுட்பம்
Smoker புகையூட்டி
Stethoscope ஸ்டெத்தஸ்போப்
Hive tool தேன்கூட்டுக்கருவி
Sphygmomanometer ஸ்பிக்மோமான�ோமீட்டர் (இரத்த அழுத்தமானி)
Autoanalyser ஆட்டோ அனலைசர் (தானியங்கி பகுப்பய்வி)
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References
1. Brooker et.al. (2008), Biology Volume two Plants 14. Kotpal R. L. (2014) Modern text book of zoology
and Animals, The MacGraw Hill companies,inc. : Invertebrates : animal diversity- I. 11th Edition.
2. Carman,R.H, 2008. Handbook of Medical Meerut : Rastogi Publications.
Laboratory Technology. Second Edition. Christian 15. Lauralee Sherwood and Robert kell.(2007). Human
Medical Association of India, New Delhi1. physiology from cells to systems. First Canadian
Guyton and Hall. J. E, (2006) Textbook of Medical Edition Nelson Education Ltd, Toronto, Ontario
Physiology- Eleventh Edition Elsevier saunders.
International Edition. 16. Mackean D.G. and Hayward D (2014). AS and
3. Chatterjee C.C., Human Physiology (Vol. I & Vol. A level biology book, Cambridge International,
II), Medical Allied Agency, Calcutta, 11th edition, 3rd edition, Hodder Education, An Hachette UK
1985. company, London NWI 3BH.
4. Christopher D. Moyes and Patricia M. Schulte, 17. Marieb. E.K., and Hoehn . K., 2010. In. Human
Principles of animal physiology 2nd edition (2016) Anatomy and physiology. Eighth Edition. Pearson
Pearson publications. education, Inc.1114 pp.
5. Darrell S. V and R Moore (2004) Biology: 18. Mary Jones, Richard Fosbery, Jennifer Gregory and
Laboratory Manual 7th Edition. McGraw-Hill Dennis Taylor, Cambridge International AS and A
College. level Biology Course book 4th edition, Cambridge
6. Dee Unglaub Silverthron, [2016] Human University Press.
physiology –an integrated approach - 7th Edition 19. Moyes and Schulte, 2016 Principles of Animal
- Pearson Global edition. Physiology– 2 nd edition, Pearson
7. Dee Unglaub Silverthron, Human physiology –an 20. Muthayya N.M., 2010 Human p hysiology– 4th
integrated approach – 7th Edition – Pearson Global edition, Jaypee brother medical publishers.
edition. 21. Peter H. Raven, George B. Johnson, Kenneth A.
8. Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn (2010). Human Mason, Jonathan B. Losos, Susan R. Singer (2013)
Anatomy and Physiology Eighth Edition, Benjamin Biology 9th Edition. Published by McGraw-Hill
Cummings, Pearson. New York. Science.
9. Guyton A.C. and Hall. J. E, (2006) Textbook of 22. Shailendra Singh, (2008) Economic Zoology, 1 st
Medical Physiology– Eleventh Edition Elsevier Edition, Campus books internationals, New Delhi.
Saunders, International Edition ISBN 0–8089– 23. Sherwood. L, and Kell. R., 2010. Human Physiology,
2317–X. Nelson Education Ltd., Thomson Brooks/Cole.,
10. Janet L. Hopson and John Postlethwait (2006) 24. Shukla, G.S. and Upadhyay V.B (1997) Economics
Modern Biology Published by Holt Rinehart & Zoology, Rastogi Publication, Meerut.
Winston Harcourt Education Company.
25. Silverthorn D-U 2016, Human Physiology,
11. John H. Postlethwait and Janet L. Hopson ; Holt, Seventh Edition, Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Rinehart and Winston, Modern Biology; A Publishing Ltd.,
Harcourt Education Company, Orlando. Austin.
NewYork. San Diego. Toronto. London. 26. Sultan Ismail, S A 1992, The Earthworm Book
Other India Press India.
12. Jordan E. L, Verman P. S, Revised Edition- (2009);
Invertebrate Zoology, S. Chand & Company Ltd., 27. Ekambaranatha Ayyar, Anantha Krishnan,
5th Edition- (1987); Manual of Zoology, Vol I
13. Kenneth R.R.Miller and Joseph Levine1998. Invertebrata - S.Viswanathan Publishers and
Biology –fourth edition. Prentice – hall .inc, New Printers Pvt. Ltd.,
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271

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MCQs for Higher Studies

1. Taxonomically a species is ……….(PMT-94) a. Thermoreceptor
a. A group of evolutionary related population b. Pheretima
b. A fundamental unit in the phylogeny of c. Chemoreceptor
organisms d. Tangoreceptor
c. Classical evolutionary taxonomy
9. The endocrine gland of insects, wich secretes
d. A community taken into considerationa.
they juvenile hormone, is (UP-CPMT 1995)
an evolutionary base
a. corpora allata
2. A community includes ………. (CET-98) b. corpora albicans
a. a group of same genera c. corpora myecaena
b. a group of same population d. all of these
c. a group of individuals from same species
10. Wuchereria is found in (UP-CPMT 2007)
d. different populations interacting with
a. lymph nodes b. lungs
each other
c. eye d. gonds
3. Carl Linnaeus is famous for …. (GGSPU-2002) “Turbellarians” are free living
a. coining the term ‘systematics’ (UP-CPMT 2008)
b. introducing binomial nomenclature a. flatworms b. trematodes
c. giving all natural system of classification c. nematodes d. cesrtodes
d. all of these
11. M
outh parts of housefly are
4. Which form of reproduction is correctly a. Piercing and sucking type
matched? (AIIMS 2007) b. Biting and sucking type
a. Euglena - transvers binary fission c. Sponging and sucking type
b.Paramecium - longitudinal binary fission d. biting and chewing type
c. Amoeba - multiple fission
12. Fasciola hepatica is (AFMC 2007)
d. Plasmodium - binary fission
a. hermaphrodite. Self fertilizing
5. The primitive prokaryotes responsible for b. hermaphrodite, cross fertilizing
the production of biogas from the ruminant c. unisexual
animals (2016) d. both (a) and (b)
a. Thermoacidophiles 13.Match the excretory organs listed under
b. methanogens column I with the animals given under
c. Eubacteria column II. Choose the answer which gives
d. Halophiles the correct combination of alphabets of the
column.
6. Salient features of Arthropoda is (RPMT-2003)
Column I Column II
a. Aquatic and free living
A Nephridia p Hydra
b. C hitinous exoskeleton and jointed
B Malpighian tubules q Leech
appendages
C protonephridia r Shark
c. Radulla
D kidneys s Round worms
d. None of those
t Cockroack
7. Mollusca is (JCECE-2006) a. A = q; B = t; C= s; D = r
a. Triploblastic, acoelomate b. A =s ; B= q; C= p; D= t
b. Triploblastic, coelomate c. A = t; B = q; C = s; D = r
c. Diploblastic, acoelomate d. A = q; B = s ; C =t ; D= p
d. Diploblastic, coelomate 14.Which of the following cell type is capable of
8. Osphradium of Pila globosa is (BHU 1994, giving rise to other cell types in sponges?
2000, 2007) 272 a. Pinacocytes

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b. Archaeocytes B Ornithology q Study of worms

c. Thesocytes C Herpetology R Study of fishes
d. Collenocytes D lethylogy S Study of fungi
t Study of reptiles
15. Sea cucumbers belong to class
a. Echinoidea a. A=s, B=p, C=t, D=r
b. Holothuroidea b. A=q, B=s C=r, D=t
c. Ophiuroidea c. A=s, B=t, C=p, D=r
d. Asteroidea d. A=p, B=s, C=r, D=t
16.Camouflage of chameleon is associated with 22. Which of the following statements is
(AIIMS1995) true?(AMU 2003)
a. Chromoplast a. All chordates are vertebrates
b. Chromosome b. All vertebrates are chordates
c. Chromatophore c. Invertebrates possess a tubular nerve cord
d. Chromomere d. Nonchordates a have a vertebral column
17.Which of the following are uricotelic animals?
(AIIMS2002) 23.An important characteristic that
a. rohu and frog Hemichordates share with chordates is
b. camela and frog (NEET 2017)
c. lizard and crow a. Ventral tubular nerve cord
d. earthworm and eagle b. Pharynx with gill slits
c. Pharynx without gill slits
18.Which of the following does not come under d. Absence of notochord
the class mammals?(AIIMS2007)
a. flying fox 24.Match the animals listed in column-I to
b. hedgehog blood listed in column-II. (KCET 2010)
c. manatee Column-I Column-II
d. lamprey (P) Man (i) Plasma and cells are
colourless
19.Excretory organ in Balanoglossus are (DPMT (Q) Earth worm (ii) Plasma colourless
1991,2008) and nucleated RBC
a. nephridia (R) Cockroach (iii) Plasma colourless
b. antennary gland and enucleated RBC
c. collar cord (S) Frog (iv) Plasma red and
d. proboscis gland nucleated colourless RBC
20.Reptiles share which of the following (v) Plasma and RBS have
character with birds and mammals?(DPMT haemoglobin
1994) a. (P-iii), (Q-iv), (R-i), (S-ii)
a. Amnion b. (P-iv), (Q-v), (R-iii), (S-ii)
b. Homeothermy c. (P-i), (Q-iv), (R-ii), (S-iii)
c. Diaphragm d. (P-v), (Q-iii), (R-i), (S-iv)
d. nipple
25. The body cells in cockroach discharge their
21.Match the names of branches of science listed nitrogenous waste in the haemolymph
under column- I with the field study given mainly in the form of (NEET 2015)
under column-II choose the choice which a. Calcium carbonate
gives the correct combination of the alphabets. b. Ammonia
(AMU2000) c. Potassium urate
Colum – I (Branch of d. Urea
Colum –II (Field of study)
Science)
A Mycology p Study of birds
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26.Frog's heart when taken out of the body 32.A baby aged two years is admitted to play
continues to beat for sometime. Select the school and passes through a dental check-
best option from the following statements. up . The dentist observed that the boy had
(NEET 2017) twenty teeth . Which teeth were absent.
(i) Frog is a poikilotherm. (NEET 2017)
(ii)
Frog does not have any coronary a. Canines
circulation. b. Pre- Molars
(iii) Heart is "myogenic" in nature. c. Molars
(iv) Heart is autoexcitable Options: d. Incisors
(a) Only(iv) (b) (i) and (ii) 33.Which cells of Crypts of Lieberkuhn’ secrete
(c) (iii)and(iv) (d) Only(iii) antibacterial lysozyme ? (NEET 2017)
a. paneth cells
27.How pepsin is differing from trypsin? b. Zymase cells
(DPMT – 1993) c. Kupffer cells.
a. It digests protein in acidic medium d. Argentaffin cells
b. It digests protein in alkaline medium
34.Volume of air remaining in lungs
c. It digests carbohydrate in acidic medium after maximum respiratory effort is
d. It digests carbohydrate in alkaline medium (J.K.C.M.E.E.1992,Har.PMT.2003)
a. Vital capacity
28. In human being cellulose is digested by
b. Residual volume
a. Enzyme
c. Total lung capacity
b. Symbiotic bacteria
d. Tidal volume
c. Symbiotic protozoans
d. None of the above 35.Presence of large number of alveoli around
alveolar ducts opening into bronchioles in
29.Dental formula shows (M.P.P.M.T. -2000) mammalian lungs is
a. Structure of teeth a. Inefficient system of ventilation with little
b. Monophyodont or diphyodont condition of residual air
c. Number and type of teeth in both jaws b. Inefficient system of ventilation with high
d. Number and type of teeth in one half of percentage of residual air
both jaws c. An efficient system of ventilation with no
30.Which of the following statement is not residual air
correct ?( NEET 2015) d. An efficient system of ventilation with
a. Bruner’s glands are present in the little residual air
submucosa of stomach and secrete 36.CO2 is transported
pepsinogen a. dissolved in blood plasma
b. Goblet cells are present in the mucosa of b. As carbonic acid
intestine and secrete mucus. c. In carbaminohaemoglobin
c. Oxyntic cells are present in the mucosa of d. As carbaminolaemoglobin and carbonic
stomach and secrete Hcl. acid
d. Acini are present in the pancreas and
37.Bicarbonate formed inside erythrocytes moves
secrete carboxypeptidse
out to plasma while chloride of plasma pass
31.Which hormones stimulate the production of into erythrocytes. The phenomenon is called
pancreatic juice and bicarbonates ? (NEET a. Bicarbonate shift
2016) b. Carbonation
a. Cholycystokinin and secretin c. Hamburger phenomenon
b. Insulin and glucogon d. None of the above
c. Angiotensin and epinephrine 38.Vital capacity of lung is equal to
d. Gastrin and Insuline a. IRV+ERV+TV
274

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b. IRV+ERV+TV-RV b. Starting of atrium systole

c.IRV+ERV+TV+RV c. End of ventricle systole
d.IRV+ERV d. Starting of ventricle systole
39. Asthma may be attributed to (AIPMT/NEET 46.The mechanism of urine formation in
2016) nephrone involves (CPMT 1992)
a. bacterial infection of the lungs a. Utrafiltration b. Secretion
b. allergic reaction of the mast cells in the c. Reabsorption
lungs d. All of the above
c. inflammation of the trachea
d. accumulation of fluid in the lungs 47.Part not belonging to uriniferous
tubule is
40.Name the chronic respiratory disorder a. Glomerules
caused mainly by cigarette smoking: (RE-
b. Henle’s loop
NEET 2016)
c. Distal convoluted tubule
a. Emphysema
d. Connecting tubule
b. Asthma
c. Respiratory acidosis 48.Angiotensinogen is a protein produced and
d. Respiratory alkalosis secreted by. (AIPMT 2006)
41.Lungs are made up of air-filled sacs, the a. Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells
alveoli. They do not collapse even after b. Macula densa cells
forceful expiration. (NEET 2017) c. Endothelial cells of blood vessels
a. Inspiratory Reserve Volume d. Liver cells
b. Tidal Volume
49.Grafted kidney may be rejected in a patient
c. Expriatory Reserve Volume
d. Residual Volume due to (RE-AIPMT 2015)
a. Innate immune response
42.Regulation and initiation of heartbeat is b. Humoral immune response
indicated by (CBSE - 95) c. Cell-mediated immune response
a. AV Node – bundle of His muscule – SA d. Passive immune response
node – purkinje fiber
b. SA Node – purkinje fiber – AV Node – 50. W
hich of the following statement is correct?
Bundle of His muscle (NEET 2017)
c. Purkinje fiber – AV Node – SA node – a. The descending limb of loop of Henle is
Bundle of His muscle impermeable to water.
d. SA Node – AV Node – Bundle of His b. The ascending limb of loop of Henle is
muscle – Purkinje fiber permeable to water
43.Which is the correct statement for blood ? c. The descending limb of loop of Henle is
(APMEE – 96) permeable to electrolytes.
a. WBC is more than RBC d. The ascending limb of loop of Henle is
b. RBC is more than WBC impermeable to water
c. RBC is less than platelets 51.Ratio of which is more in red muscle?
d. Platelets is less than RBC (JIPMER -2002)
44.There is no DNA in a. Myoglobin b. Actin
a. Mature RBCs c. Myosin d. Albumin
b. Mature spermatozoa
c. Hair root 52.Given below is a table comparing the
d. Ovum effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system for four features (1-4)
45.What P indicates in ECG ?
which one feature is correctly described?
a. End of atrium systole
275 (A.I.I.M.S.2006)

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sympathetic parasympathetic a. (a – t) (b – r) (c – p) (d – q)
a. Salivary inhibit stimulate b. (a – s) (b – t) (c – p) (d – q)
gland secretion secretion c. (a – p) (b – q) (c – r) (d – t)
b. pupil of dilate constricts eye d. (a – q) (b – s) (c – t) (d – p)
the eye
c. heart rate decreases increases 56.What is the function of enterogastrone?
a. I t stimulates the secretion of digestive
d. intestinal stimulates inhibits peristalsis
juices in the stomach
53.Which option is correct for the few statements b. I t stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice
are given for the function of cerebrum, which c. I t regulates the flow of bile
of few following option is shows all correct d. It inhibits the secretion of gastric juice
statements.
(i) to control the sensitivity, movement, 57.Doctors use stethoscope to hear the
memory, vocabulary etc. through the sound; produced during each cardiac
cycle. The second sound is heard when:
(ii) to control the vision and adaptation
(RE-AIPMT-2015)
through the occipital and frontal lobes
a. A
V node receives signal from SA node
(iii) to control the contraction of voluntary
b. AV valves
muscles through the frontal lobe
c. V
entricular wall vibrate due to gushing
(iv) to control the temperature, taste, touch,
of blood from atria
pain etc, through the parietal lobe
d. S
emilunar valves close down after the
a. (i),(ii),(iii) b. (iii),(iv),(i)
blood flows into vessels from
c. (i),(iii),(iv) d. (i),(ii) Ventricles.
54.Match item in column-I with those given in 58.Sliding filament theory can be best
column-II explained as (NEET 2015)
column-I column-II a. when myofilaments slide pass each other
p. ADH a. Pituitary actin filaments shorten while myosin
q. ACTH b. mineralocorticoid filaments do not shorten
r. aldosterone c. diabetes mellitus
s. insulin d. diabetes inspidus b.actin and myosin filaments shorten and
t. adrenaline e. vasodilator slide pass each other
a. (p – d) (q – a) (r – c) (s – b) (t – e) c.
actin and myosin filaments do not
b. (p – a) (q – d) (r – b) (s – c) (t – e) shorten but rather slide pass each
c. (p – d) (q – a) (r – b) (s – c) (t – e) other
d. (p – d) (q – b) (r – a) (s – c) (t – e) d.
w hen myofilaments slide pass each
55.Match the endocrine gland, given under other myosin filaments shorten while
column-I with their respective position in actin filaments do not shorten
the body given under column-II choose the 59. A cranial nerve with maximum branches
answer which gives the correct combination in the body is (M.P.P.M.T.1997,A.P.M.E.E
of alphabets of two columns: (K.C.E.T.1998) 1999)
column-I column-II a. Auditory b. Trigeminal
(Endocrine glands) (Position in body) c. Vagus d. Facial
a. pituitary gland p. Above kidney 60.A person undergoing prolonged fasting
b. T
hyroid gland q. Inside pancreas his urine will be found to contain
abnormal quantities of (MP PMT 2005)
c. A
drenal gland r. On larynx
a. Fats b. Amino acid
d. Islets t. At the base of
of langerhans brain 276 c. Glucose d. Ketones

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ZOOLOGY PRACTICALS
General Instruction
In order to get maximum benefit and good training it is necessary for the
students to follow the following instructions.
1. Th
e students must attend all practical classes. Each experiment in
practicals has got important relevance to theory subjects.
2. Bring this practical manual to your practicals class.
3. Bring the following objects to the practicals class – Pencils (HB), Pen,
Eraser, a scale and a small hand towel.
4. Record the title, date and findings of the experiment in the observa-
tion note book.
5. Carefully listen to the instructions given by your Teacher.
6. While observation slides or models draw the structure of the speci-
men as you see it neatly in your observation note book. Use pencil for
drawing.
7. While doing experiments neither consult your neighbours nor look
into their readings or observations.
8. If the object under the microscope remains without proper focusing
immediately bring it to the notice of the Teacher.
9. Do not touch or lift the models or equipments kept for your identifi-
cation.
10. No need to draw diagrams from part III to VII in the record note.
Relevant photograph can be collected, pasted and notes to be writ-
ten.
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MODEL QUESTION
TIME: 2½ hours
Marks: 15
I. Identify the given animal ‘A’ (picture/specimen) draw and
write any 2 diagnostic features. (2)
II. Identify the given animal tissue ‘B’ (slide/photograph /picture)
and write any 2 comments with diagram (2)
III. Identify and comment on the given bone/joint ‘C’. (1)
IV. Identify the deficiency disease / disorder in the given
picture/photograph “D”. Write any three symptoms. (2)
V. Identify the medical instrument “E” and
write any three significant points. (2)
VI. 1. Identify the given sample solution ‘F’ for the
presence/activity of Ammonia/Urea/Salivary amylase (Any one). (3)
2. Observe and write about the given
experiment ‘G’ - Determine Your Blind Spot / Identify the sex
of cockroach (Any one) (2)
VII. Identify the photograph / picture and
write its economic importance ‘H’ (1)
Total (15)
MARKS ALLOTMENT
TIME: 2½ hours
MARKS 15
I. Identification – ½; Diagram - ½ ; (2)
Diagnostic features (any 2 points) -1
II. Identification and Diagram– 1; Comments (any 2 points) – 1 (2)
III. Identification – ½; Comments – ½ (any two points) (1)
IV. Identification – ½; Symptoms – 1½ (any three points) (2)
V. Identification - ½; Significance - 1½ (any three points) (2)
VI. 1. Procedure – 1; Experiment- 1 ; Result - 1 (3)
2. Procedure – 1; Result – 1 / Identification – 1; Reason – 1 (2)
VII. Identification – ½; Economic importance – ½ (any two points) (1)
Total (15)
NOTE: Any relevant points, diagnostic features and comments apart from those
provided in the practical manual must also be considered for evaluation.
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CONTENT
QUESTION NO-I (A)
S.No Preserved Specimens/Photographs

1 Spongilla
2 Sea Anemone
3 Pleurobrachia
4 Tapeworm
5 Ascaris
6 Earthworm
7 Cockroach
8 Pila
9 Starfish
10 Balanoglossus
11 Rat
QUESTION NO-II (B)
S.No Prepared Slides/Pictures/Photographs
1 Squamous Epithelium
2 Columnar Epithelium
3 RBC
4 WBC
QUESTION NO-III (C)
S.No Models/pictures/Photographs (Human)
1 Humerus
2 Pelvic girdle
3 Rib cage (True ribs, Pseudo ribs, False ribs)
4 Ball and Socket joint
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QUESTION NO-IV (D)

S.No Pictures/Photographs
1 Addison’s disease
2 Marasmus
3 Exopthalmic Goitre
QUESTION NO-V (E)
S.No Medical Instruments
1 Stethoscope
2 Sphygmomanometer
3 Glucometer
4 ECG
QUESTION NO-VI (F and G)
S.No Experiments
1 Test for Ammonia
2 Test for Urea
3 Test for Salivary Amylase
4 Determine Your Blind Spot
5 Identify the sex of cockroach (using hand lens)
QUESTION NO-VII (H)

S.No Photographs/pictures
1 Kangayam bull
2 Aquaponics
3 Honey bee
4 Bombyx mori
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I. Identify the given animal ‘A’ (picture/specimen) and write any 2 diagnostic features
with diagram.
1. SPONGILLA
Identification:
Porocyte
The given specimen is
Ostium
identified as Spongilla.
It belongs to the Phy- Wooden stick
lum Porifera. Osculum
Reasons for identification:

• It is a pore bearing animal.
• It is an aquatic multicellular animals with cellular level of organization.
• It possess a canal system where the water enters into the central cavity, spongocoel
through minute pores called ostia.
• The spongocoel is lined with special flagellated cells called choanocytes.
2. SEA ANEMONE
Identification:
Hypostome
The given specimen is identified
Tentacles
as Sea anemone. It belongs to the
Phylum Cnidaria.
Basal disk

• Sea anemone is diploblastic and the first group of animals to exhibit tissue level of
organization.
• It has stinging cells called nematocysts on their tentacles.
• The central vascular cavity is called coelenteron which opens out through the
hypostome.
• The nervous system is formed of a diffused nerve net.
• Cnidarians exhibit 2 basic body forms, polyp and medusa.
• The polyp represents the asexual generation and the medusa represents the sexual
generation (Alternation of generation).
• Development includes a ciliated Planula larva.
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3.
PLEUROBRACHIA
Identification:
The given specimen is identified as
Pleurobrachia. It belongs to the Phylum
Ctenophora.

• Pleurobrachia are exclusively marine, biradially symmetrical, diploblastic animals
with tissue level of organisation.
• They have eight external rows of ciliated comb plates (comb jellies) which help in
locomotion.
• Bioluminescence is well marked in ctenophores.
• They lack nematocysts but possess special cells called colloblasts which help in food
capture.
• They reproduce only by sexual means. Fertilization is external and development is
indirect and includes a larval stage called cydippid larva.
4. TAPEWORM
Rostellum Hook
Gravid
Identification: Scolex
proglottid
Sucker
Neck
identified as Tapeworm. It Mature
proglottid
belongs to the Phylum
Platyhelminthes. Immature
proglottid

• It is a dorsoventrally flattened, triploblastic, acoelomate animal with organ level of
organization.
• It is an endoparasite.
• Hooks and Suckers act as organs of attachment.
• Excretion is carried out by specialized cells called flame cells.
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5. ASCARIS
Mouth
Excretory Pore
Mouth
Identification: Female
Excretory
Pore
Gonopore
as Ascaris. It belongs to the Phy- Leteral Line
Cloacal
lum Aschelminthes. aperture
Penial
Spicules
Anus
Tail

• Ascaris is a roundworm because it is circular in cross section.
• It is a triploblastic, pseudocoelomate animal.
• The unsegmented body is covered by a protective layer called cuticle.
• Alimentary canal is complete with a well developed mouth, pharynx and anus / cloaca.
• Sexes are separate and exhibit sexual dimorphism.
• Excretion is carried out through Rennet glands.
• It is an endoparasite.
6. EARTHWORM
Prostomium
Peristomium
Clitellum
Identification:
The given specimen is Segment
Anus
identified as Earthworm.
It belongs to the Phylum
Annelida.

• Earthworm is a triploblastic, schizocoelomate animal.
• Its elongated body is segmented.
• The longitudinal and circular muscles in the body wall help in locomotion.
• The circulatory system is of closed type and the respiratory pigment haemoglobin is
present in the plasma.
• It is a hermaphrodite animal.
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7. COCKROACH
Antennae
Compound
eye
Identification: Tegmina

Hind wing
identified as Cockroach.
It belongs to the Phylum
Arthropoda. Abdomen
Anal cerci

• It is a triploblastic, schizocoelomate animal.
• It has jointed appendages which are used for locomotion.
• Body is covered by a chitinous exoskeleton which is shed off periodically by a process
called moulting/ecdysis.
• Respiration is through trachea.
• Excretion is by malpighian tubules.
8. PILA
Apex
Suture
Identification:
Body
identified as Pila. It belongs Outer lip
to the Phylum Mollusca. Umbilicus Mouth

• It is a triploblastic, coelomate animal.
• Body is covered by a calcareous shell.
• Internal organs are covered by a soft layer of skin called mantle.
• Respiration is carried out through a number of feather like gills called ctenidia.
• The mouth contains a rasping organ called radula.
• Excretory organs are the nephridia.
• Blood contains a copper containing respiratory pigment, haemocyanin.
• Their development includes a Veliger larva.
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9. STARFISH
Identification: Arm or Ray

identified as Starfish. It Mouth
Ambulacral
belongs to the Phylum groove
Echinodermata. Tube feet

• It has spiny skin.
• It has Water vascular system.
• Tube feet help in locomotion.
• The adults are radially symmetrical.
• Larvae are bilaterally symmetrical
• Circulatory system is open type without heart and blood vessels.
• It exhibits autotomy with remarkable power of regeneration.
• Bipinnaria is the first larva in its development.
10. BALANOGLOSSUS
Proboscis
Collar
Identification:
as Balanoglossus. It belongs to
Trunk
the Phylum Hemichordata.

• It is a connecting link between invertebrates and chordates.
• The body is divided into anterior proboscis, a short collar and a long trunk.
• It is a marine and bilaterally symmetrical animal.
• Excretion is by a single proboscis gland.
• Development is indirect with a free swimming Tornaria larva.
• Presence of buccal diverticulum is the significant character of this animal.
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11. RAT
Identification: Hair
Pinna
The
specimen kept for Eye
Whiskers
identification is the Rat. It

belongs to the Phylum Chordata,
Subphylum Vertebrata and Class
Mammalia. Tail

• Presence of mammary gland is the unique feature of mammals.
• Pair of pinnae or external ears are present.
• Heart is 4 chambered.
• Kidneys are metanephric and are ureotelic animal
• Rats are homeothermic and viviparous.
II. Identify the given animal tissue ‘B’ (slide/photograph/picture) and give any 2
comments with diagram.
1. SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Nuclei Cell
membrane
Identification
The given slide/
picture is identified as
squamous epithelium.
Comments:
• Squamous epithelium is a type of simple epithelium
• It is made of a single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
• Found in cheek, kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart and blood vessels.
• It is involved in diffusion and filtration.
2. COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Identification: Cell membrane
e given slide/ picture

Th Nucleus
is identified as colum-
nar epithelium. Basement
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Comments:
• Columnar epithelium is a type of simple epithelium.
• It is composed of a single layer of tall cells with round oval nuclei at the base.
• It lines the digestive tract from the stomach to rectum.
• It is involved in absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances.
3. RBC
Identification:
The given slide is identified
as Red blood corpuscles
(Erythrocytes).
6LGHYLHZFXW 7RSYLHZ
Comments:
• The red colour of the RBC is due to the presence of a respiratory pigment, haemoglobin.
• Haemoglobin plays an important role in the transport of respiratory gases.
• RBC’s are produced in the red bone marrow of large bones and are destroyed in the spleen
and liver.
• The average life span of an RBC in a healthy individual is about 120 days.
4. WBC
Identification:
Eosinophils Basophils Neutrophils
The given slide is identified
as white blood corpuscles
(leucocytes).
Monocytes Lymphocytes
Comments:
• Leucocytes are colourless, amoeboid, nucleated cells devoid of haemoglobin and other
pigments.
• Based on the presence (or) absence of granules, WBC’s are divided into two types,
granulocytes (Neutrophil, Basophil and Eosinophil) and agranulocytes (Lymphocyte
and Monocyte).
• WBCs are involved in protecting the body against pathogens.
• The life span of a white blood cell ranges from 13 to 20 days. These are destroyed in the
lymphatic system.
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III. Identify and comment on the given bone/joint ‘C’.
1. HUMERUS BONE
Identification: Head
of humerus
The given specimen/picture
kept for identification is the
human – humerus bone.
Comments: Shaft
• It is found between the shoulder and elbow.
• The head of humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of the
pectoral girdle.
• The other end of the humerus articulates with the two forearm Coronoid
fossa
bones namely the radius and ulna.
2. PELVIC GIRDLE
Identification:
The given specimen kept for Ilium
identification is the human

pelvic girdle.
Coccyx
Comments:
Pubic arch
• It is composed of 2 hip bones called coxal
bones together with the sacrum and Ischium
coccyx.
• It is a heavy structure specialized for weight bearing.
• Each coxal bone consists of 3 fused bones namely the ilium, ischium and pubis.
• At the point of fusion of the 3 bones, a socket called acetabulum is present.
• The acetabulum is meant for the articulation of the lower limbs.
3. RIB CAGE
Identification:
The given specimen kept for
identification is the human ribcage.

7UXHULEV 6WHUQXP
Comments:

• There are 12 pairs of ribs.

• Each rib is connected dorsally to the vertebral column and

)DOVHULEV

9HUWHEUDOERQH
ventrally to the sternum. )ORDWLQJULEV
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• The first 7 pairs of ribs are called true ribs.

• Th
e 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate with the sternum but is joined with
the 7th rib. They are called as false ribs.
• Th
e last 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are not connected with sternum. They are called as
floating ribs.
4. BALL AND SOCKET JOINT
Identification:

The specimen/model/picture
Ball and Socket joint.
Comments:
• It is a type of synovial joint.
• In this type, the ball shaped rounded bone fits into the cup like depression of another
bone.
• It allows multi directional movements and rotation.
• This type of joints are found between the upper arm and shoulder and between the
upper leg and hip.
IV. Identify the deficiency disease/disorder ‘D’ in the given picture/photograph and write
any 3 symptoms.
1. ADDISON’S DISEASE
Identification:

The picture kept for
identification depicts
Addison’s disease.
Comments:
• It is a disorder in which the adrenal glands do not produce
enough hormones.
• It is caused due to hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids from the
adrenal cortex.
• Muscular weakness, low BP, loss of appetite, vomiting, hyper pigmentation of the skin
are the symptoms of Addison’s disease.
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2 MARASMUS
Identification:
The picture kept for identification
depicts Marasmus.
Comments:
• It is a disorder due to protein deficiency in children.
• It is an acute form of protein malnutrition.
• This is due to a diet with inadequate carbohydrate and protein.
• Diarrhoea and emaciation are the symptoms of this disease.
3. EXOPTHALMIC GOITRE
Identification:
The picture kept for identification
depicts Exopthalmic goitre.
Comments:
• The hyper function of thyroid gland results in exopthalmic
goitre/gravis disease.
• It is characterized by increased BMR (50% - 100%) with
increased pulmonary ventilation and protrusion of eye balls from the sockets (exoph-
thalmos)
• Elevated respiratory and excretory rate with increased body temperature are the gener-
al symptoms.
V. Identify the Medical instruments ‘E’ and write any 3 signifiance.
1. STETHESCOPE
Identification:
The medical instrument
stethoscope.
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Significance:
• Th
e stethoscope is used to hear the heart beat, sounds in the respiratory pathways,
intestinal movements and also foetal movements.
• I t helps to diagnose valve functions, lung diseases such as pneumonia, pleuritis and
pulmonary oedema.
• S tethoscopes along with sphygmomanometer are used to measure blood pressure in
humans.
2. SPHYGMOMANOMETER
Identification:
The medical apparatus kept
for identification is the
sphygmomanometer.
Significance:
• Sphygmomanometer is a device used to measure the blood
pressure.
• N ormal blood pressure is 120/80mmHg.
• 120 depicts the systolic pressure and 80 depicts the diastolic pressure.
• I t helps to assess the state of blood circulation.
• Provides the functional details of heart.
3. GLUCOMETER
Identification:
The medical device kept
for identification is the
Glucometer.
Significance:
• It is a simple portable medical device
used to record the approximate level
of blood glucose.
• It displays the glucose level in mg/dL.
• It is a battery operated digital meter.
• Normal glucose value is 70-110mg/dL.
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4. ECG GRAPH
456FRPSOH[
Identification: 9HQWULFXODU
GHSRODUL]DWLRQ
The picture kept for identifica- $WULDO

GHSRODUL]DWLRQ
9HQWULFXODU
UHSRODUL]DWLRQ
tion is an ECG graph. 3 7
4
Significance: 34 67
VHJPHQW
LQWHUYDO
• An ECG records the electrical activities of the 6
47
LQWHUYDO
heart over a period of time.

7LPHV

• The special flap of muscle called the Sino auricular

node in right atrium initiates the heart beat.
• The waves of the ECG are due to depolarization and not due to contraction of the
heart.
• A normal ECG shows 3 waves designated as ‘P’ wave, ‘QRS’ complex and ‘T’wave.
VI. 1. Identify the given sample solution ‘F’ f or the presence/activity of salivary amylase/
ammonia/urea.
2. Observe and write about the given ‘G’ experiment / specimen / picture.
Determine Your Blind Spot / Identify the sex of cockroach
1. TEST FOR AMMONIA
Aim : To test the presence of Ammonia in the given sample solution.

Materials Required: Test tube and holder.
Solution Required: Sample solution and Nessler’s Reagent.
Procedure:
1) Take 2ml of the given sample solution in a clean test tube.
2) Add few drops of Nessler’s reagent in the test tube containing sample solution.
3) Appearance of dark yellow/brown colour confirms the presence of Ammonia
in the given sample.
Inference: It is inferred that ammonia is present in the given solution.
2. TEST FOR UREA
Aim: To test the presence of urea in the given sample solution.

Material Required: Test tube, sample solution, test tube holder and pipette / dropper.
Required Reagents: Phenol red and Horse gram powder (which contains the
enzyme urease).
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Procedure:
1. Take 2 ml of sample solution in a clean test tube.
2. Add few drops of phenol red in the test tube containing sample solution.
3. Add a pinch of horse gram powder in the test tube and mix well.
4. Appearance of dark pinkish colour indicates the presence of urea in the given sample.
Inference: It is confirmed that the given sample solution contains urea.
3. TEST FOR SALIVARY AMYLASE
Aim: To test the presence of Amylase enzyme in the human saliva.

Materials Required: Test tubes, Potato, Mortar and Pestle.
Solutions Required: Iodine solution, Human Saliva.
Procedure:
1) Add mashed potato pieces in a test tube and add warm water. Shake well.
2) Collect the clear supernatant in a test tube.
3) Add few drops of iodine solution to the liquid in the test tube.
4) Note the bluish black (dark blue) colour in the test tube.
5) Collect a few drops of saliva in a clean test tube.
6) Transfer the saliva into the test tube containing the sample solution and
shake well.
7) Leave the sample undisturbed for 5 minutes. Observe the colour change in the sample
solution.
8) The solution gradually becomes colourless.
9) This confirms the presence of amylase in the human saliva.
Inference: It is inferred that human saliva contains the enzyme amylase that digests the starch.
4. DETERMINE YOUR BLIND SPOT
Procedure:
1. Cover your left eye.
2. Hold the figure shown about 50 to 60 cm away from your face and directly in front of
your right eye.
3. Stare at the cross in the shown figure. You can also see the circle.
4. Continue to stare and slowly bring the figure nearer to your eye.
5. Note the point at which the circle will seem to disappear. This is your blind spot.
6. Record the distance.
7. Test your other eye in a similar manner, but focus on the circle and watch for the cross
to disappear.
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Result:
1) Blind spot of my right eye is ________cm
2) Blind spot of my left eye is___________cm
5. Identify the sex of the cockroach by observing the given specimen/picture /model
and write two reasons.
Identification :
Reasons:
VII. Identify the photograph / picture ‘H’ and write its economic importance
1. KANGAYAM BULL
Identification:
The photograph kept for
identification is Kangayam bull.
Economic importance:
1. It is originated from the place called

Kangayam in Tamilnadu.
2. This breed is meant for pulling carts,
ploughing fields etc.
3. This breed is exclusively used in the traditional game called Jallikattu (manju
virattu) in Tamilnadu.
4. It is a best example for a draught breed.
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2. AQUAPONICS
Identification: Waste uptake by plants and bacteria
The photograph kept for identification is Clean

water
Aquaponics.
Economic importance: Gravel
1. Aquaponics is a technique which is Waste water
a combination of Aquaculture and Pump
Hydroponics.
2. It maintains balanced ecosystem by
recycling the waste and excretory products produced by the fish.
3. Cultivable fishes like Tilapia, Gold fish, Koduva etc. are cultured in aquaponics.
4. Plants like tomato, pepper and cucumber can be cultivated in this method.
3. HONEY BEE
Identification: The photograph kept for identification is Honey bee.
1. The chief products of bee keeping industry are
honey and bee wax.
2. Honey is the healthier substitute for sugar.
3. It is used as an antiseptic, laxative and as a
Worker bee
sedative. Queen bee Drone bee
4. Bee wax secreted by the abdomen of the worker
bee is used for making candles, polishes for floors and furniture etc.
4. Bombyx mori
Identification:
The photograph kept for identification is silkworm Bombyx mori
1. Silk fibre produced by this silkworm is
called mulberry silk.
2. It mainly feeds on mulberry leaves
3. It is used in manufacturing silk cloths,
fishing fibres, tyres of racing cars, in
medical dressings, parachutes etc.
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Zoology – Class XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Advisory Committee Members Subject Coordinator Translators
Dr. S. Shameem Dr. S. Muthazhagu
Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail Deputy Director
Scientist Associate Professor (Rtd)
State Council of Educational Research and Training, A.A Govt Arts college, Cheyyar.
Eco-science Research Foundation, Chennai. Chennai
Dr. P.K. Kaleena Dr. N. Kumanan
Associate Professor Coordinators Biology PGT
Department of Zoology, Presidency College, ADW, GHSS. Mullangurichi, Pudukkottai Dist.
Dr. V.T. Shanthi
Chennai. Senior Lecturer, DIET, Tirur. Mrs. R. Amali
Content Writers Biology PGT
Mrs. B. Selvi GHSS, Panruti, Cuddalore.
Ms. P. Maheswari Lecturer,
Lecturer in Zoology Mr. R. Nagendaran
SCERT, Chennai Biology PGT
DIET, Uthamapalayam, Theni District.
GHSS, Nathamedu, Dharmapuri Dist.
Dr. S. Ganesapandian Reviewers
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GHSS Sathankulam, Ramanathapuram Dist.
Dr. Dinesh Kumar
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Dr. J. Savarimuthu Michael NCERT, New Delhi Associate Professor & Head
PG Assistant in Zoology
Carmel Higher Secondary School, Nagercoil,
Dr. Vareishang Tangu Dept. of zoology and wildlife Biology,
Assistant Professor in Zoology RIE, (NCERT) Govt. Arts College, Ooty, The Nilgiris Dist.
Kanyakumari Dist.
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Biology PGT PG and Research Department of Zoology,
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Mrs. M. Anusua Catherina Chelliah Dr. S. Sambasivam
Professor (Rtd), Dr. Mazher Sulthana
Biology PGT Associate Professor in Zoology (Rtd)
Presidency College, Chennai.
Presidency GHSS Presidency College, Chennai
Egmore, Chennai Dist. Dr. Sivashankar
Professor Dr. Usha
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Biology PGT Presidency College, Chennai
MCC Mat. HSS, Chetpet, Chennai. Royapettah, Chennai - 14.
Dr. S.S. Subramanian Dr. R. Saravanan
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Biology PGT Principal & H.O.D (Physiotherapy)
Dr. Ambedkar Govt. Arts College,
GHSS, Johilpatti, Virudhunagar Dist. Sree Balaji College of Physiotherapy &
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Rehabilitation Centre, Chennai.
Mr. L. Sivan Pillai Dr. N. Sarojini
Biology PGT Dr. S. Dinakaran Assistant Professor in Zoology
Bharath Senior Secondary School, Adyar, Chennai. Associate Professor & Head
Bharathi Women’s College, Chennai
Dept. of Zoology, The Madhura College, Madurai.
Mrs. T. Devikala Mr. S. Thiyagarajan
Biology PGT Biology PGT
DAV Girls Senior Secondary School, Gopalapuram, G.H.S.S. Gomangalampudhur, Pollachi.
Chennai.
Mrs. A. Sudha
Domain Experts Biology PGT
Dr. P. Sarala Municipal GHSS, Pollachi, Coimabatore Dist.
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Mrs. G. Gomathi
Quaid-e- Millath College for Women, Chennai. Biology PGT
Dr. B. Meena Govt GHSS, Tharamangalam, Salem Dist.
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, Mr. L. Murugaiyan
Presidency College, Chennai. Biology PGT
Dr. E. Malathi Career Guidance St. Joseph HSS, Vichoor, Pudukottai Dist.
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 1 16/12/2021 10:23:59

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational Research

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 2 16/12/2021 10:23:59

Conceptual picture with caption relating to

Chapter Outline Presents a complete overview of the chapter

Goals to transform the classroom processes into

Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

Note: Additional inputs to content is provided

Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning .

To motivate the students further to explore the content

ICT To enhance digital Science skills among students

Conceptual diagram that depicts relationships between

Glossary Explanation of scientific terms

Evaluation Assess students to pause, think and check their understanding

Career corner List of professions particular to that chapter

References List of related books for further details of the topic

Web links List of digital resources

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 3 16/12/2021 10:24:00

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 4

◉ Animal Biochemistry ◉ Dairy Science

◉ B. F. Sc. (Bachelor of Fisheries Sciences) ◉ Soil science & Agro Chemistry

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 5

NEET Physics 45 Form out: Last week of Jan.

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 6

 Entomology  Obstetrics & Gynaecology  Veterinary Physiology

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 7 16/12/2021 10:24:02

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 8 16/12/2021 10:24:02

Learning Objectives: for food. Animals are also used as source

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 1 16/12/2021 10:24:03

live in diverse ­ecosystems. Ecosystem is organisms. Hence it becomes necessary to

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 2 16/12/2021 10:24:03

of organisms which includes all flora and History of Classification

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 3 16/12/2021 10:24:03

After Aristotle, his student of relationship among individuals. Later

is the numerical taxonomy, which evolved $PQLRWLFHJJ

in the 1950s. This system evaluates the )RXUOLPEV

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 4 16/12/2021 10:24:04

Depending on the system of placed into the domain Eukarya. Archaea

XI Std Zoology Chapter-1 EM.indd 5 16/12/2021 10:24:04

and harmful pathogenic bacteria which mitochondria. Organisms in this domain

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

The Six –Kingdom system

Bacteria Archaea Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

The Seven – Kingdom system

Table 1.1 Five Kingdom Classification

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Non-cellulose Present in Present Present Absent

Entomology Obstetrics & Gynaecology Veterinary Physiology

live in diverse ecosystems. Ecosystem is organisms. Hence it becomes necessary to

$$FRHORPDWH %3VHXGRFRHORPDWH &&RHORPDWHPROOXVFV

Compare the advantages and Figure 2.11 Example of Ctenophora-

symmetrical, schizocoelomates and exhibit

Table. 1 Comparison of chordates and non-chordates