CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Introduction:

 Devices in which controlled flow of electrons can be obtained - building blocks of electronic
circuits.
 Vacuum tubes (valves) – vacuum diode has two electrodes-anode (plate) and cathode.
Vacuum triode which has three electrodes-cathode, plate and grid, Tetrode-4 electrodes,
pentode-5electrodes.
 In vacuum tube, the controlled flow of electrons (supplied by heated cathode) will be in
vacuum.as the electrons moves in one direction i.e. from cathode to anode these devices are
called as valves.
 Vacuum tubes are bulky, consume high power, operate generally at high voltages, and have
limited life and low reliability.
 In 1930, it was realized that solid state semiconductors and their junctions offer the
possibility of controlling the number and direction of flow of charge carriers through them.
 The flow of charge carriers in the semiconductor devices are within the solid itself.
 They are small in size, consume less power, operate at low voltages and have long life and
high reliability.

Classification of solids:

On the basis of electrical properties, solids are classified into three types.

(i) Conductors: The substance which easily allow the electric current through them are
called conductors.

Properties of conductors:

o They have high electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.

o They have positive temperature coefficient of resistance i.e. with the increase in
temperature, the resistance of the conductor increases.
(ii) Insulators: The substances which do not allow the electric current through them are
called insulators.

Properties of insulators:

o They have high resistivity and low electrical conductivity.

o They have negative temperature of resistance i.e. with the increase in temperature
resistance decreases.
(iii) Semiconductors: The substances whose electrical properties lie in between conductors
and insulators are called semiconductors. Ex. Germanium(Ge) and Silicon(Si)

Properties of semiconductors:

o The resistivity of semiconductors is higher than that of conductors but lower than
that of insulators.
o They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e. the electrical
resistance of a semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
o The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by adding a small
amount of suitable impurity. This is called doping.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Band theory of solids:

 All the atoms of a solid, if assumed isolated from one another, can have completely identical
electron schemes of their energy levels.
 As isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid, various interactions occur between
neighbouring atoms. As a result of this interaction there will be splitting of a single energy
level of an isolated atom into a large number of energy levels.

Energy Band: The closely spaced energy levels into which a discrete energy level splits into, due
interaction among the atoms of a solid, is known as energy band.

Valence Band: The energy band occupied by the valence electrons of all the atoms of a solid is
known as valence band.

 This may be either completely filled or partially filled.

 This is the highest filled band.
 The electrons in this band are not available for conduction.

Conduction Band: The energy band occupied by the free electrons in a solid is known as conduction
band.

 This may be partially filled or empty

 This is the lowest unfilled band.
 The electrons in this band are available for conduction.

Forbidden energy gap: It is the energy difference between the lowest level of conduction band and
the highest level of valence band.

Insulators:

In case of insulators, the forbidden energy gap between valence band and conduction band
is large. Valence band is filled with electrons and are bound very tightly to their parent atoms so the
conduction band is empty. Due to large forbidden energy gap electrons cannot jump from valence
band to conduction band.

Conductors:
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In conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap each other. In conductors the
forbidden energy gap is 0 eV. The electrons in valence band can easily enter into the conduction
band.

Semiconductors:

In semiconductors, the forbidden energy gap between valence band and conduction band is
very small. In germanium, the forbidden energy gap is 0.7 eV and in silicon the forbidden energy gap
is 1.1 eV.

In semiconductors at 0K, there are no electrons in conduction band and the valence band is
completely filled with electrons, so they behave as insulators at 0K. When a small amount of energy
is supplied, the electrons can easily jump from valence band to conduction band.

The semiconductors are of two types:

 Intrinsic semiconductors
 Extrinsic semiconductors

Elemental semiconductors Si and Ge

Compound semiconductors
Inorganic CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP
Organic Anthracene, doped phthalocyanines

Intrinsic Semiconductor:

A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor. Ex. Si,Ge.

The atoms of pure semiconductor are tetravalent.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

 At 0K, in their crystal lattice each atom four covalent bonds with its neighbouring atoms.
Due to this valence electrons are tightly bound. Valence band is filled with electrons and
conduction band is empty. Hence intrinsic semiconductor acts as an insulator at 0K.
 As temperature increases covalent bonds between the atoms start breaking, hence
electrons in the valence band get energy and jump into the conduction band.
 At that place in the valence band, a vacancy is created. This vacancy is called a ‘hole’.
 Hole behaves as positive charge and moves only in the valence band giving hole current (I h).
 The excited electrons in the conduction band move in the conduction band giving electron
current (Ie).
 The current in the semiconductor is due to both electrons as well as holes. I = I e + Ih
 In intrinsic semiconductors the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
number of holes in the valence band n e = nh = ni where ni is called the intrinsic carrier
concentration.
 Apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous
process of recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes. At
equilibrium the rate of generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers.

Fermi energy:

The highest energy that an electron can have at 0K is called Fermi energy. The level
corresponding to Fermi energy is called Fermi energy level.

Fermi energy level in intrinsic semiconductor is at the middle of the forbidden band.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Doping:

The process of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor crystal to increase its conductivity is
called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants.

 The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor
lattice.
 Size of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same.

Types of dopants:

 Pentavalent (valency 5): Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P) etc
 Trivalent (valency 3): Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) etc.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:

The semiconductors with impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic

semiconductors are of two types-p-type and n-type semiconductors.

P-Type Semiconductor:

When few semiconductor atoms of pure crystal are replaced with atoms of III group
element, the resulting crystal is called p-type semiconductor. This impurity atom is called acceptor
impurity.

 When trivalent boron is added to pure germanium crystal each atom of boron form three
covalent bonds with the surrounding germanium atoms. In the fourth covalent bond, only
germanium atom contributes one valence electron and there is a deficiency of one electron
which is called a hole. For each boron atom added, one hole is created.
 The energy level occupied by the hole due to trivalent doping which lies very close to
valence band is called acceptor level.
 The addition of impurity atom, produces a large number of holes in valence band. There are
few electrons in the conduction band due to thermal energy associated with room
temperature.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

 Holes are the majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors and electrons are the
minority charge carriers.
 The relation between the electron density n e, hole density nh and the density of intrinsic
charge carriers ni is nenh = ni2

N-Type semiconductor:

When few semiconductor atoms of pure crystal are replaced with atoms of V group element,
the resulting crystal is called n-type semiconductor.

 When pentavalent arsenic atom is added to pure germanium crystal, it forms four covalent
bonds with the surrounding four germanium atoms. The fifth electron of arsenic atom is not
covalently bonded but it is loosely bound to the parent arsenic atom.
 The energy level occupied by an electron donated by pentavalent impurity which lies very
close to conduction band is called donor level.
 In n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the
minority charge carriers.
 The relation between the electron density n e, hole density nh and the density of intrinsic
charge carriers ni is nenh = ni2

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

P-n junction:

A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices like diodes,
transistor etc.

p-n junction formation:

A thin p type silicon semiconductor wafer is taken. By adding a small amount of pentavalent
impurity part of p-Si wafer is converted into n-Si.

Two important processes during the formation of p-n junction- Diffusion and Drift.

 Holes diffuse from p side to n side and electrons diffuse from n side to p side. This motion of
charge carriers give rise to diffusion current.
 As the electron continue to diffuse from np, a layer of positive charge on n side of the
junction is developed. Similarly, as the holes continue to diffuse from pn, a layer of
negative charge on the p side of the junction is developed.
 This space charge region on either side of the p-n junction which is depleted of free charge
carriers is called depletion region. The thickness of the depletion region is of the order of
one tenth of a micrometer.
 Due to the charges across the junction, an electric field is developed and it is from positive
charge to negative charge.
 Due to this field, an electron on the p side moves towards n side and holes on n side moves
towards p side. The motion of the charge carriers due to electric field is called drift. It
constitutes drift current and it is opposite to the diffusion current.
 Initially diffusion current is large and drift current is small. The diffusion process continues
until the diffusion current is equal to the drift current. In a p-n junction under equilibrium
there is no net current.
 The potential which tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n region into p
region is called as barrier potential.

Pn junction diode:

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode:

Graph:
Barrier height:

Forward bias: Reverse bias:

Depletion region – decreases Depletion region - increases
Resistance - low Resistance - high
Barrier height – Vo–V Barrier height-V 0+V
*Minority carrier injection (Pg.480) *why reverse current is independent of
Applied voltage? (Pg.480-481)
*dynamic resistance (Pg.482)

Rectification:
The process of converting an alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification.
Rectifier:
The device used to convert an alternating current into a direct current is called
rectifier.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Applications of p-n junction diode:

Half wave rectifier:

A device which converts only one half of the ac input is called half wave rectifier.
A p-n junction diode offers less resistance in forward bias and high resistance in reverse bias.

Working:
 Whenever a positive half cycle enters as input the diode becomes forward bias, it conducts
and gives output across RL.
 Whenever a negative half cycle enters as input the diode becomes reverse bias, it does not
conduct and there will be no output.
 The process repeats and only one half of the ac input is rectified.

Full wave rectifier:

A device which rectifies both half cycle of the ac input is called full wave rectifier. (*principle)

Working:

 Whenever a positive half cycle enters as input, diode D 1 becomes forward biased and
with respect to the center tap transformer diode D 2 becomes reverse biased. So D 1
conducts and gives output across RL.
 Whenever a negative half cycle enters as input diode D 1 becomes reverse biased and
with respect to the center tap transformer diode D 2 becomes forward biased. So D 2
conducts and gives output across RL.
 Thus both half cycles are rectified.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Role of capacitors in filtering:

When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no
external load, it remains charged to the peak value of the rectified output. When there is a
load, it gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next
half cycle of the rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value.
The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse product
of capacitor C and the effective resistance R L used in the circuit and is called time constant.

Zener Diode:
A special purpose diode which operates under reverse bias and used as voltage
regulator is Zener diode.
 It is fabricated by heavily doping p and n sides of the junction.
 The depletion region is very thin (<10-6m)
 Electric field of the junction is extremely high(5 x 10 6 V/m)

*Electric field ionisation (Pg. 485)

Zener as voltage regulator:

Any increase/decrease in the input

voltage results in, increase/decrease of the voltage drop across R s without any change in
voltage across the zener diode. Thus zener acts as voltage regulator.

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 CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Optoelectronic junction devices:

Semiconductor diodes in which charge carriers are generated by photo-excitation

are called optoelectronic junction devices.

 Photodiodes-used for detecting optical signal(photodetectors).

 Light Emitting Diodes-converts electrical energy into light.
 Photovoltaic devices-convert optical radiation into electricity(solar cells)

Photo diode:

 It is fabricated with a transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode.

 It is operated under reverse bias.
 Light used to illuminate must have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor.
 Electron hole pairs generation will take place near the depletion region.
 Due to the electric field of the junction, electrons and holes are separated before they
recombine.
 Electrons are collected on n side and holes on p side. When external load is connected
current flows.

Light Emitting Diode:

 It is a heavily doped p n junction working under forward bias.

 It is fabricated with transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
 The concentration of the minority charge carriers increases at the junction boundary.
 They recombine with the majority charge carriers near the junction.
 On recombination energy is released in the form of photons with energy equal or less than
the band gap.
 The semiconductor used for the fabrication of visible LEDs must have a bandgap of 1.8 eV.
 It is used in remote controls,burglar alarm systems, optical communication etc.

Advantages of LEDs over incandescent lamps:

 Low operational voltage and less power.

 Fast action and no warmup time required.
 It is monochromatic.
 Long life and ruggedness and fast on off switching capability.
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CBSE CLASS – 12 CHAPTER 14 – SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Solar cell:

 No external bias is applied.

Generation of emf is due to three basic processes-generation,separation and collection.

 Generation of electron hole pairs close to the junction.

 Due to the electric field of the junction electrons move to n side and holes to p side.
 Electrons are collected by the front contact and holes are collected by the back contact.
 P side becomes positive and n side becomes negative giving rise to photovoltage.

*V-I characteristics is drawn in fourth quadrant as solar cell does not draw any current.

Criteria for the selection of material for solar cell:

 High band gap (1 – 1.8 eV).

 High optical absorption.
 High electrical conductivity.

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