-

SemTcondoc-tori •• • •

Tntroduc tton .
• d e -vices \n c.oh\c. h cof\\-t'o\\ ed e.9 .flow con be obw,ne d a,,-e.
➔he. bos, c bund,"ij b \oc.\ld of a\\ e\ec.-\.ton,c ch-c.uihs -

E~ '. s ern,conduc \-o1-.5 , \Jacc.urn tube6 , -\t-ano\s \-ot-iS .

y \/a.ccum -rubes

~ ee ate suppned b~ o. hea~ed c.a~hode

~ con\t-o \\ed e(:!J floU) - b'd \JO\-"~,n~ vo\\°ie. ~UJ @\ec\1-ode6 .
-:::., Ye9u,re5 vacc.urn : o\t-en.oi.se mcv\f'\ ~ ee roatl lose -fheir
~~ on C.ol\i~io" LJ.)tt'°' -\he a.,t- roo\ecu\e~ •
~ o.\so co.\\ed v a.\v e 6 - ee> c.o.n ~\ow o'"'\ij in 01"'>€. c\,f'ec ·
( c.a\-~de ~ /.\N)de')
t:>1500\Jnn\~ e s ·.
V\
• bu\~~. consl)me \-)i ~'n po~er
• \irn\\-ed \ife , \o~ \~<S>\ iab",\,.bd

• q>et a\e~ or hi~t'\ \IO\\-a.eel'.) ( tJ 100v1 .

°iy So\id s~a\e ~~a>nAuc\or~

)¥-- .s\ar\ed ftorn \qao :S ~ -th~ offer ~d. -+he paooib1\H1:j of-
. C.Of\\to\\to3 n_~ ~ direc • of f\ow of cha,T~e cat-t"\er-.s ·

Ao,'Jo..n'tnaes : ()\"\S\OY'\ ,m \J ctClUN'\ -\t.)oe.~ --

1
·-\} ac\- CJf"\ corn\> . ~
\'\ smo.\\ compI .fo -\ne\l" rlMl.YOMOn . ~o e\ec..\-t', ~ po
y . \ " o\\-c.tAe r- '-1" -
Yy r ~qv,rel!> OU) - \I . . _
,::, so\JeJ · . e,haY e carr,e6 U5\0~
·,r cor, Co f)tt'OI -the f;O 1::, d,rec . d 'iJ
' •~ " \--/

'JO\\~e
·,~ s'Me-ll. proof ' low c.os~ , eas~ -\ron.Spcrto fl on ' ,g fRcl e.nl- and
rer,ah\e·
 _ J_ ..__ _..._,...,...__ letn:W 'fti •-•-...-
1-----■------
r
v) cl-arae can·\e.s flow 7 60\icl iLse lf- i ·e no ~ed OF lar-c;,e @
space I vac.c.urn .

'J,Y \Jo.cc. um 1"0000 - I f low c.uhen cathcrle t s ~ ~ed e; ~ ar\.-

. erNr\\n~ ~a ·r ~ ta~e~ -tt me for crero+iof)
&:rn1C.Ooc\uc:loro - ho he,:,..\il\~ io rc,qoite d tj ~ i n ~ lo ope+-o~
a ~ 60on a s i~ \ & &.ot~cheJ.. on .

No~e.
~ C~T ( ca.-\hode t-a~ -\-ube~\ U'5ed ~,'"" "'tv ~ c:or()p - tno'"'·' tDttS
cohch U)Oy\l ~ ~l'ind plt2 of \JOCC.LX'() -\obec or<2 b ~n~ Ye.pl~
~ LEt) / LCD (_ Li q · CK~ rol d ,s.pla~) h"Oni \-ore Ldr),c.h w 6 r K
us,n~ 6D\1d s \o. ~ elee,\-ton i c~ .

Clo..ssific.a\ion cf seroiconduc rors on basis cf c..hemica I

c.om~·,\:ton :
y'8\erne.n\-al Semiconduc\-ot-~ - Si , 61 e.
\,) CC::r<)pc>und oero,conc.\ uc. \or<S
~ Tnor~an\c.. - C.d~ ,C:,iaAs , c d Se , :rnp
N - Ma;~ c.o~ ~ O r ~a r'\\ c. - an.\-hracene , doFd ~ha\o~an1oe.~
·,o use -4 o rea nic. pcl~tnet- - Po'~"-'""e. poltlPtln-o\e,
}'Ol\14hiopheoe

~ re~ funds
* To a cx~s\o.\ , €0C..h ee hl& un,9ue pcs) \-\Or) G he.ts d,ff · ~ca~
\€\Je\ ·
-'It~hen a\o~ ate ~ h \ neott2r -\o each o-4~ t- , -thet-<2 are ·
o\\-et'T"'O.\:to~ in ere~~ \s,e't> 6rd. so ~ c:.ol\e.c.hm of rv-o~ c\~
~ enex~~ \e"e1~ * en~ca~
tand .
I
\IS
' cs
.-. E,c. : Si , 6te a~s\a\
S \ ( n : 3"\ ~e t n = '1)
~o · o f- ~ \n ou\<9.t"rnos~ Ot'b,~ = 4 (2s""' 2p) .
 \-\enc.e foy l-\N \l a \Qnce e 9 -\Mre are ~N O\Jci,\ab!~ ~~
s\o.\-ss, l"he enet<3~ \xind of- -thee,~ %N 5\a.\-e ~ ,~ c pH ~ ,~~ -
\-u:>O tonds 6epe,.-o \-ed bcJ an ~'a~ ~ ap E %.

\Ja\ence Sand
➔ lt-e enexca~ b::\nd fortned ~ a. ~ r\(~~ a ~~~\1 \evel~
c.o~\o.\n \~ l-\N. \Ja\ex-ic.e ~\ec\-ton& a\- Ok , s c.a\\s! \/ B .
~ '\nc\Ucte6 -\he ~'J'd \~\~ of \JQ\e..rx~ ~e .
...,,. When -\\-ere 1& no e,t\ ernc,.\ ~~ , all \Ja\ence c:,@ ~e~1de in vB

~ Hl ~~s ~ ~~ \ e\Jel ,~ v B ⇒ tcSt"rf'\\ level .

Conduc\\o" Sand
-+ ~ ~~ tard b-N'-€cl 0. 'Selie& cf hl'zJhex DJ e.nerca~ \~\
w~,cn , ~ e\-\-ner ~p~ a t fa,--\ia\\~ hl\ed. wi~h l.;N ~e a.\- o K.
O.bO\Je. \J B ·

~ ee \n c.~ - Vt"ee ~ - ab\e. ro TY)C~ a~u:h~ (..l.)Hh,~ ;-\-e vol -

of- t\-'t€. so\-,d •

to\-'b,dden E~e.t-~~ 6tap

--. ts,\'f °\n ~ --'z)~ Of \owes\- ~neJ--q~
~ E~ ~ (c.-B'trn·,"' - l\l ·B\\"nCOC.. .
~ enex-~ ~ap blw c~ ~ \J B .

~ ~ r-o -h-ee e 9 ·

~ W-,d-\-'°' of E~ deper<l.cS or, na\-ur@

~ A& ' 1' , E ~ ,l, -\J&_~---~~!_9~~-~~------------

I
Empty - - - - - - •• --- -- - - - - -- --- -- - -- - - - -· 4N states
....... -................ -. -.... .

r---7·--.-•-------------------.
•• - • - ••• - ••• - · • ... - ••••• - • - •• - • - Ci
Filled ._:•••_•••• ••·.:.:.i ·•t•"!"-·.:·.._
·.-.._-.--:.·.·.:.-.·.· 4 N states

Infinitely large number of

states each occupied by
two electrons at O K
FIGURE 14.1 The energy band positions In a
semlconductor at O K. The u pper band. called the
conduction band. consists of Infinitely large number
of closely spaced energy states. The lower band.
called the valence band. consists of closely spaced
1. completely filled energy states.
 !A~ference '\n rre~a\s, ·n15u\a\ors , 6e-oi conauc\.or~ Ch bas'io Ck @
Ere-8~ &ind

fv t--- - - 1
fc.i--- --1
VB rv.--- --
B

~>3eV - 80 , even E~ <:: 3eV .

~ app\ij°ln~ ~rrorxa .t~ :: \· \ eV (s·, )
E , ee c.af'\' l- be
= o ·:tev ( 6\e)
e)(_u~~d
C.B ~ \I~ cs ·,& <!:ftthet-
I

cl- otdirqy paYtta\\~ -fi \\ed

C..B ·, 5 er-op~ ~ Tu,ha\\~ C.B ·,&

l ~et-op - l0\-1 \JS ·,o c.on,re~e~ &'()p~ t-t VB ·,& m1\ .

1 tB tt VS O\le.r\op fl\\e..c\ fu\- w\\-'°" -therrNJ.\
pot'1a~ . ad\anon, ~0 frhs
-\nns~C9\-~ \-c (.~ .
lon1oc.'1\1 ®
to'=> - 10 -~ Sf'0 -1
~s,e,\.anc:e
tnediurYl

To\nns, c.. Eem,c.ondoc-lor-

._ s,I &le - d,arnond \,~ srr/ .
&xh a ~ \6 6l)rtOLJrd~ ~ fotx f'B:ln?o~ re,ca'h'cour~ ·
0

,t~ hu11t2. CO\/o\e.n~ I\la\enc:~ borrl · .

* :rntt1ooc.. .se.rn,condoc\or - p-1re ~ , corx:\ucJ-o- u:i,~h thetr-ra\\~ rta~
C:..Uh-€f\\ C.Ot- t- ·1 ers·

* Cu~\- Cort-'ter.s - e 0 ft ~h~o -

0 C,SJ or Ge - Covalent bond s

FIGURE 14.3 Three-dimensional dia-
mond like crystal struc ture for Carbon.
Silicon or Ge rrnanlum With
respective lattice spacing a equal
to 3.56. 5.43 and 5 .66 A.
 ~ - -- - -- -
Ho\ ®
._ A~ 0 'ti. C.6 o l m otx\uc \0t io 0~ \~ rn~\~ ~txi 1he
I ~\) mt r ·u ' \\()\ ,. .
It I 9u\, O"J ju.op k) \ ~ cs
(\Vt \\r , \

,, \ ~ ~ \nd a ii 1t,,.,.d c...o\\c6. r.c\e

\\ '
:\\ -\ \J \ r~e , ui,~h ~r,ihx\~ Gil 0 e
l
,, \ . :\l C: •

crw.\uc.~ - rro{n e0 , --\he \,o\ec.

• \ \~ ()\ ,"01 O)Xl,-~

h e Cne.\ ~ ~\e5 ( r'lh) \:er\--- t€. c..r-or<oe c.amer"

\f' 8\ = "'"' l \n \JB) -== \) \
L ""In \-t-'tm ·\C d--o""~ c..onc.. ·

e SlorCe

......... Covalent
..... • bonds

• Bonding
electrons

G SlorCe

(b)

;\--errro~ exci\~ and e~cape~ ou\-

~ •

l
rd ~ s\\~ 2 j umr~ to 'r-c~ o\- s\ ~ \
.t,
"f.1 I hd ~ ~·, \- e J. "cl t9 , r\ ~ \ \C? \
.1,
A\'f-Or e:11 ~ ho\l' r~ rnov J ~ '3\k9 \ ro ~n~ :l .
,,._ -\\--,e \"tee <5!<9 rno\JeG ·, r , ~ \ \ ~ 06 eorx\uc.\.lot-, c;,e a rd ©
~i\119& r°lre ro e.e w rre"\- l e ur-d:et- o,-., °'??" <!'<i ~ .

* l)ncte-r -!he ac\1on of- E , ~o\e5 ~ \Je~ -\-ex.oat-du - --vs y:crehHa ~

~-,,,-n.. .,'Q r,se -ro r-o\e. c.urr<2-nt I h .

~ = "Ie ~ "I\-\
'-- process cf- ro.\lon
* ~com\ino\ion - ec!i recora'tM~s LO~\--. \--oles .f\m1J\\-aneo<.AS\'<1- •
oc
* A.'r 0 \

r ore of rei--anon -= r-o. e

€.9U \ I
\ ', \-

r
"'"~0f'\\\_' nclt10('") .
l ,u

Ee Ee
~c:: l
Q.)

c:: E9
0
.!:l
~ Ev
w

Um,\a\1on&
~ UlUl c_onc\uc\\\i1~ d= \t, \12s6 l,O · OF char~ carh er5 a \- room ~
_., ~ oad,~ .so-re ir<'lj>l.lt,hes ·1\-6 cor-d.uc.½\Ji~ COf\ \::e =<9:l82d .

t>op~
odcti \-ion
0

~ -\-~ proc~S6 of d.e hrero\·~ of C$S ltob\\2 1rnr-ur\~ \-o 0. ~'<"~

~cordu:Jcr \o ~ ·\\-s CDrtl\Jctl~ .

~~ addect ·,rnpu-\\1e.s - ~ffiNTS .
I "'-.
 r
@) I

1)e,n\4~0\6!nl- :rml>°rij:y
-¥ e\ernel')\6 c.oro&e a\om h a ve c .. e \e ~ n \\S c.v~ ororoe. ~ ve
\JQ\ence \~ · ee · a \Ja\ence e.\~ \t-oos
-1ff, :CY°' f <:,, Q I P) \ l '8 •
~ As , p, Sb
-t Aceep\·m· \rn?Jri \-\~s
~ d onor \m?ur \ \-\e&

"RE9u\remenl~ fct· ~n3

~ of k,~h PL)'"\~ ·
~mi cof'\ductor '5"hoo\d be
~S\z.e of dopat)t ~ svz.e o t sem\conduct-or amm · Hence ~ u.se
\~th /,5~h carp ~\ernen~.s -
-.:ap cone · doFn\- aroms s"°°\& ~ v~ s~\\ -...) \ ppm ·
Of
-4- dopat)r o\ot"n5 .sl-'Ou\d n o\- d,s\or\- c.t~o\-ol \oJ-\i~s ·

E x.1t1n~c Ssmiconduclor<S
~ a.oe«1·1con:kx:\o,- C>b\-ci1t)~d. b~ c\opin~ a. pae ser-nacordt.emt- ~,1l-)
C1Cee.p\-or o r donor ·,rn~,..-, ~ o.\-om 80 ao -to t- c.onduc.h\J® .
~ "T~r95
PN- 1fPE
~ t)oP,n8 8, I 6te. t..Uilh F~a"a\@-n ~ ,rnpur,~ .
~ J-\ e.e Or S i bond oo,,n
\L
Tuur ~e
r:,_
Of- 'rr-.l>u"'·'~ \
<9::).\J)f'\~
~hiod
a ~\-.f\~ 'corded 5t\-i e9 •

~ So , 4-he ·,on\.sa'1on r~u·1,(2d.. hJ ~e~ -\-h,o ee ft~

e.t)ex-~~

·,6 \J e~ s m~\ \ a t')d. e ~ o.\- too rn t e M p ·,\- be tr~ w, \\

10 tno\l & h'\ -\-~ \0 \-\i c. ~ Of- S e.Y''(\I C.O rd Le.Jo,- .

~ no · or Qe rna.(\e 0\)0\\a'o\e far CO~UCMOY'\ ~ abyan~

a\-or-r-,& ci~nd& O\'\ c\op~3 \e\Jcsl c.H1d , ~ \ \"\~t)O.S)\- oF
arob",~\-- t~r ·
-+ no · of FYee e 9 ~~e.rq~ °d s, t- ~~~ with ~«£rop .
~ No · of d.ue. to dopcil'\\- -+ \r-i\-f,ns,cct\\lj ~~~d
0

ee \S
~o · of "°'o\e5 ·,o c\ue. \-() ·,n\-t\N \c. ~!2XQ\-t o" on\~ .

~ \\e.nce , e,e C\Ye_ Y'()Q~ or,~ c.orr \ ~ It'&

ho\e.s It N)\ f'\OY\ ~ COYt\ ens
-. &)sr~~ t,ond : ®
➔ The fi-ee e e i.s \Jertl ~ llltl QH-tac l<!?d ~ donor lrn JY-Xi~ .
➔ A of'()Q\\ ~e ~ O f 0 ·01 e v i 6 enouah to ft~ -the ~(3 ·

-+- lh\s s9 CXLur~s --\h e. \otu26\- F 'b \~ (3f')<£t"8~ ~h'I C. 8 .

~ He r,02 +he. done,- ~r~ ~ te \Je \ Ii e5 j u.s~ below -the C...B ·
~ Af rco-n t @'Op -\h\ 6 u rna\\ ~ ex-ca~ t,o C.0\JCSt"~d 6d -\\)@.t'roa\\a
s-x.d~d e<9 • So, LB hos rnon2 e.0 ·

Unbonded 'free'
electron donated
by penlavale nl
(+5 valency) atom

Elt"Ctron

iy P - TYPE
~ 1)oped b'd h-·I\Ja\€-n ~ ·,rnpur \ \-i~s
~ 3 e e of Si bond w H-l'I 3 ee cF i rnpurHij at-om .
~ S o , -the bond blw -\he foJr \h ~e:,ahbov\- C\nd tth,a\®1\- a\um
ha& a \Kleon °'d o r no\e .
~ An ~ g ·,t°' tr'€ ou\-€r or bi~ of an Ol-ot°'r> 'tn 4he ~,shtoorhcod
.jun)~ to H \\ thio \Ja.can<{i , Gtal hn~ a vocan~ ·,h He CW') ~\-e .
~ lhe dorm~ a\-om C.Ot"I be \-t~~d 05 cor~ c,F Qr)€ -ve c.hQ1e
OS60cia~~ w Hh ·,hs h,\cg . :r\.- beco~6 - \Je cha,.-cae on .shai-,1
~ ~1h e e UJ,+ h 8i ·
~ ho\~ a rcg O\Jai \a~ fur condu:Hot')
4- NO. of- ho\E?~ = "\n \-t) N \ C(l\\~ caen~r a Hon + dopon~ t nh 'r f'>e.
,, fl Q e> = O Y'I \~ ,, It j
 - I
lli\ ,I
c...:fl
~ \-\o\e s - roajOt"\~ carr'1 e rs
~e - ro\nori ty c.a rt-·,es ·

ifr i-\--e r~corn\::s1t')at10n t>roc.~s6 tt£duc~s ne. .

♦ E "'et-8 ~ 'Bond :
--. fue,\--, a.cceplot irnp.,r"i11J ct<9'.:1\C% a hole <...0h1Ch coh be
QC\S,\'d fi\\ed 6d
on ee of sern\conduc \-ct" a\-Om .
_.,. A \IE\~'d sl'0all sn4~ of o 01 - o ·on e\J i<5 t<29u1n!>cl. 6d e 0
of- \IB \-t:l roo"e. '\n\o -+h,c t)O\e .

~ \-\e nce , -the o.cceptot- <£r)&<a'j \e~\ \i~6 u~3h+\~ aoove \JB
~ A~ t-oorn ~p , ~O ·ee
~l e~d~<5>d. -h:, acc.epror ~&r~~
\e~\ \€0,ilt")~ ~n·\1")(1 ro\eB ·
-+ So VB ~oo rnor<2 ho\t9& -than e. e> · '"'\V-)e6e ho\es c.ondLX.. ~ (.or~~

Ev
____ J-------
_ _ -
E•
I", 1 - 0.05 eV
=0.0
-_..
(al ... ...
Acceptor core (al T> OK
one lhennaUy generated eleclron-hole (bl T> OK
pair+ 9 electrons from donor aloms

000 FIGURE 14.9 E nergy bands of (al n type semiconductor at T > OK. (bl p-type
000 semiconductor at T > OK.

odo Hole

(bl

E9u·1\ibt'1um Condi'1on
~ -i\)e ee - no\e cone. . ·,n a. se.,-rf,cordud·-cr- \n -\herrnal gq0-,\i br,\)m
, 6 n, -i. = ne nh ( Mas6 f.\ctton Lac..o)

~ :rn \"\ -~r-:e

~ :rn r- hj~ fI

Ncl-e.
1 * O~ ra,l ~o\t-ali~ o f char ~e ",s rrait)~q·,~ .
+ Po.s,H\l<.9 donot a\om -t-ft-ee. e 9 -¢- n~o\-rol
~ N~QHve ,, ,, + hc\e. -::::>-n~uh-al .
 p-nJunctton @
~ S\1:a\e U~'5\-a\ of 6\e rs,
dops1 in ~uc.n a. rnanre.r -tro\-- c,ne h a \ f
-pcr"'on o.c\c . a.s o. p-~pe nY'd o-t"'1e.r ha\ F n 6 ~- ~ <Setl)iccn:kx:Jot- •
~ A p - If'\ - ~pe '5°t\i con c.t~'5\a\ c.an be ob~a,~d.. o.d~in~ bo
..SU\\a\:ie. QC.C.ep\-o,.. , dor-,0,~-.ro~Yl °1t\\o
1 s,
me.\t w\"),'e carOUJ\\')'cj a..
CX\jS\a \ .
4-The.n ·, ~ , s c.u~ ·,n\-o -t~\f) s\, c.e6 c..a\\ed waf<2rc5 .

a ~\e\ion ~,on
,_ l)Je m d , f f ·,'°" cha~e corr\~r :S cone. · ·,n p - N re2~r10f)S I the
ee -fi-or-o N - r<~=<aion d i ffuse ➔hrough +t--e )one.Hof\ if'\to 'P -re~,on
ho\eo fro"" p - te~,on " ,, ,. l' ,, "1 -r~1on

-. Neuh-a\i~ of I¼. - .. ? - ~pe ·,~ dis~t',bu~ed .

~:n C\'eareo ~ \a~et" of -~ ·, on6 hear ?- ~ -t\Je ·,o~ t'\eot- N -

c.a\\ ed dep\e-+tora \o.~r . +- Electron diffusion

Electron drift ~
-. .1- ~ ·, ~ deo\e. ~ Of tt~(2 c.ha~ ~s · eeEBEB
r~ 69EBEB
n
• Wi d-\-r-, of de.p\er1on t~·,on CX _ _I _ P ::::
66EBEB
i i +- Depletion region
Hole d iffusion ~
+-- Hole drift
:bep\e t\O\"\ DL T exnp .

lpr>c~tta\ ~~t
~ pohsntta\ d ', f f cr~ ~ed
acxo~6 P - N. jLJr,c.h on due to d ,f f-u15·1on

of- ~g and ho\e.~ ·

~ ~~ on :
---..1 w I◄
-.:., No \-or<2 o f 5e.rn,corducJo,- 88M
88M
p eeN n
~Temp . e0M
88$61
-+ Am~ of dopn~ .__E
(a)
~ R>t ~ e. -Vo =- Cr3 V
S j _ \Jo ~o·-:t v
'1 Diffut,on one\ D-if~ C\\t~o~ @
-.. \-\<::>\es J ee ha,>H')8 h',Gh ~E dlf fuse ft-oYn -\~,r .s,de -to ancnhet-
s,de c..r~a\1~ on e \ecJt',c c..u rr~n \- ( :r,H- ) ~om P - to N - 15\de ·
• Vo se\5 up a. barr\e r ~ -fi-orn N - to 'P- s , de .
~ e 0 on p '5,de n,0\Je~ -to n - s , de <; ho\e2. C\'"'i '"" si de r-rx::Ne~
-m p ~, de ~ t)\< , t::, .
:t\- cxea~& d t, f \- c..urre~\-- ~ a. d,r-~c · opp · to Id f- .
* °Il't, \-\ a \\tl I df ·,c5 \ot"~e. , Idt- 1 ~ sma\\ • P\6 d i f f u s\cn c.on\:\nueo
-4he .space char<ae t<93,ons on eH·ne.r d\de of -\ne- junc.\10\')
ext~nd , 1' E one\ Io~ 1' .

~ A p - n junc Hen w,H-~ N"\E-\a\\tc. c..on~acJ& pro\l,ded a\- 4\,e e.r-do

foy -\he. app\iCatton Of exJ · Vo\\-a.cae. ·
~
Metallic
contact
p ffiit
Depletion
n b
Metallic
contact
region
~ A\\CX).}S un,d,rec .\-\o'"'a \ c..or~~ f \ow [a]

~ p- s·, de (f:\r-odt2.) \t\ . . &,de (c.oJhode) o---------{>1--

-=> Ar-, e~l · vo\\-a.ge (ba'51 +o p - njunc.\ion
ex t.oo~~ ·.

yTor ward g\ase,nq

* pas, t1\ 1t9 -\&rt'(")\r-iQ \ - p &, de I I
~o. h\Je H - "" s",de . ------..1 Wt+--
* A?f",ed <2)(.\- · vo\ ~a..~ e - \J p
ee
ee
ee
ee
n
\ l \ - \Jo ee
~w,er r°\e,nnd
• i)ue. to FB , eff~c."'ve b :wr\e"' (a)

r°\e'°''1a\ beccr-re6 \Jo - V ~

so e,~~ b:lrr\e.r oc.ro&S
J unc \-\Or'\ i l a.s V ~ Vo ore
c.,f"' opp d wec ·)
 @
-1t l't\,noi~ c,atr·,e r ·, ~ec\-\on - e.8 t\ ho\es ..-a:x:.n -+"1~h- m·,Mt1~
s\oo. ·,. e ee t-no\Jc:96 from N ➔ P , ho\es frO\'"'n P --,.. N ·

* 1) f fos\on cf ~e ard ho\e6 h)\-o dep\ehon \a~~r- decx-eao~o ·,}o

tu\dt~ . So 1< ,l, I I 1' .
* If \J "?'Vo I e,e I oo\e&
c.un-en\- •
~ ~ ""a ph plo~~d b fw V ar'\d. I for PB 16 ca\\9:i ~ foru.nrd
c.ha\'"ac.hsr\ sn c •

• It- ·\S"" ' ~ sh-I · \ine ( dosen '\- fo\\OJ.) Onrn'c low')

• :Iii,ha\\~ 4-he c.un-eh ~ t -tttt- ~"'a'b\~ .\,; n t'he. \/C\\a.ae

C-tns.s@& cu\- - \ r'\ / 4t'\n~'sM\d \IO\~a.~e ·
• Be~ c.u\- ·n ~ \JO\~e , a.ep\e\ion \a~e~ 'B
c\oNino~~ ~ ,
°'f \-et- ,, ,, ,, , c\, oc\c9. C-l:>ht2n\- lt'\CX~ o ropd\ 'd fa-
Cl \l@l"'j .SIYXJ\\ ·n,cxoose ·,n d,ode vc\ \~e . •eeee •
=eeee:
p :eeee: n
:eeee:
* ~f ~ lO -a 15 5L =eeee:
1' 1'
. ..,.- bte - o · 3V
* Cu \- ''"' vo\ io.e e. L- s,- o · l- v
Injected Injected
electrons holes

~-----1 J' Voltmeter(V)

l(mA)

100

'----1--------'Is,vttch 80
60
(a)
40
~------1 J' VoltmeterM
20
100 80 60 40 20

p n 10
20
Microammeter
(µA) 30
I (µA)

(b) (c)
 - -----... - ·-·· -~--·-. .·- --·- -- - - -
·p~"~t'~e s,os1ng II
®
,. 1)0,!;°1\:t\J<S? -\Grrnina\ - '"" s,de ---..1 w f+-
98861$$
~ -tt\le ,, - p s,de p
99861$$
00eeee n
eeeeee
98861$$
~ App\,~d \JO\\a.3e - V
1>o~\ia\ borr,s- - \Jc (a)
2
1

*~ \t) re\le.rs<2 b,a.s\n8 , Vo

ef ~\:1~ bot~ }X)~~a\ ~ to

(bl
\Jo "\ \J ~ ener~~ \:ct-r\e.r 1' •

* MajorH{f ca~,~r~ ~~\f'\ -\o r-no"e. UUJO~ ftom ·Ju nc. Hon , dep,e\.ion
\~r's w ·,dth 'l' , R t , -r_ '1 .

... No ]: ~ \Ow6 across -\ ~e. )unc..\-bn due to r('\Q j O\'""i\·~ c..ho,-.tr~-

cametiS . Hou:ie..\J&- due. I m RB rf'\T'\oy·, ~ charje. Cdt"t'\ ~ r o ~
pus~ -\-ou.:ords )unc.\-\on, cr~\-\n3 h~-~ e / \eafu3e C.UY~\- i "'
J...\ ~ ..
• As c.onc. · o\: tniro"\'1j c.har-3~ cat-r\~r-cS is \·ow Ol"\d c\o.se'"'' \-
c\--a~e. c...ud-'n \e.mt> '" -\t'\e. \-'e\le--se ell rn~:i n \.. r·e r-rc i no constol)\-
c..u' \'n O)()n~ e 1'0 'b, as ~ ~er~e... fu\-on:~ hon Cl.Jr re n \-.
* A~ \-),9h ~\ler.se \lo\\aee. , due +o h,~" ~ , f'0°\\''tOt"\ ~ c.ha1e..
can\ets OCC\u·n-e \Je.r~ h,~h ve\od \,es c.o~,\e q-oss·1l')3 ➔~ )unc. •
~ c..o\\\ (\€.. br-ea~.'lt)~ -\h<2 c.ova\e.n \- mt)(j. 'Q~t\n~ mo'""e.
CO.tt·, &s ana. hl(Jh c..un·en~ . 7h'\S \s ca\\e.o.. ava.\cu"'lc..~ I R ~
brea\<.dOOJo •
* v T :t. ~rap~ or ~B ~ U,e..\Js-&:2 ci-'tO.ro.c..b·,s\ic •
\r-.a~en\- - SrNJ\\ \JO\\°'Je S~~ h)\t)ori ~ ci"-o"\l~6
-1lc- \Jo\\-~e
h-om one slde tu another up\o \/ b~ .
,t A\- v ~ Vr , c.urtef)\- ~ 6harp\Q . ·
~ t:,.Jer a, par\-\c.u\ar va\u~ , , \-- CT..\'1 desh~ -\\)~ d i Ql~ .
Jff \Jr 6 e - 15V
_ Si - 35V
• t)~nam\ c: l<ests~anc~
yd = 6\/ ~ sr-oa\\ chon"ae \n CApp\,ed vo\~e
~ :I ~ c.otY~spond,n~ c..hon~ e \n c..urren\- .

A fP\·, co\-ton of Junc.\io" °))\oc\e P>s ~ec\--i ~~..-

• RecHHca\-ion - C.Ot\\Je"\-\n~ ~c +o D e.
• l<ec H H~,~ - d e \JiC<2 u sai fur- re:..\-1 Hw \-1 0 1")

* l)R1NCIPLE
~ r"B oF PN jur-.c-\1on d ioo.e. to a\\oLo curr~n\- -to 'fess Q t)\~
·,n ~ B · So , ~c. \ 6 o.ppr.~d ac. ro.ss j ut"c.\-ion di ode c:o r~~\- °'
+\ow \n -\- \le ha\f qjde_ on\~ .
~ Ha\f - Wa\l~ ~ecttfiet-
--+ , 0 c.o,\ cf o. -\-tans for ~,- i '& conr~J-ed. to Ac.. r-oain~ ~
:J.. o ,. ,. ,, ,, n"' ct·, oai e. cL\ ~L (
c.o;.LL \ood r~oi6\-anc..e •)

~ Wren Ac ·, s suppned to (' c.oi \ I -the. ~o co·\\ ~upph~o

d es\r~ o\~,,nottn'o curren~ a \- A t1 8 - 'Dur\ ~ -pos\½ve. t)a\F
L~ l.\ e o f Ac. I A ·, s -\ \J ~ ~ B -, ~ - ve . 'SO I d\ooe icS {=- B.
~ So , .fu\\ f \ow of c.un-<~H)\- occ..ur..s \1-oM ~ to Y .
➔ ~f,nca ~Q\-1~ ha\f c'dcl e A \s - ve q B ·, ~ -t\Je . So I

d °\cd.e i s R\o -1)\crle. C?poses -\~ .f \ou:> OF cu r n2.n\- O.t"IO. f'-10

c..urre?,n\ °'?~rs ocro~o loo.cl ·
~ Tuu6 , s,<ana\ ~??9°r cS on\~ fur +\Je Ojc.le 1·<2 ~W UJOve op,~-.s •
➔ u Of l"ec \-Hied v o \ \ °"8 e =- 'D of h, p-:> \- A c.. .

11 S~con dary
I
I
L--------J B y

(a)

! INPUT ac I

(bl
 - -·--~----·--•-••-- •- - - - - , - - - - -•- -
1 --W•-• .L.-u~ ·

d '1 ode ~
~ C.ircu,~ haa 1 d iode5 - p s\d<2 of & s\d~ a~ col'lr6::\-~d to -+he
ends of 1° of -\-rqt)s for t-ner and. n 1S)d e of- r;2 d\odc.$ are
C0f'if)s::,h9d. ~ ~e-\he.1- ~ o o\-po\- )6 +a \<~n b lw cornrnon in\- OF
d \od~ ono mrl~,n\- ot o)
0
Or -\-~ \-tamfor rret- .

__,. 1° o f- 4\-.e hunsfotroei- lo p-o\Jided (J.)ith o.. cer,l-tc2. tappir,~

~"'d. so i\- "ks ca\\ si c.e n~ -\-ap -\-taN for \'()et- .
~ Su~~ -th e 1npu\- vol\a.~e tu A w·1t'1 res pee.\- to -\h~ c.en\-t~ +a~
a~ on~ \~ran\- ·,s F \'1ve . so , a\- -tha\- ·,h.s~af)\- \Jo\\a.3e at- B
c..01\\ ~ ne8o.h\JiS> ·~ t:),od~ D, CJe.hs ~~ a t)d 01. _i s R~ ·So Ct')\~
1), conduc\-6 ·

:fi-) ➔he nex\- half- c'dde , A becoros><S - ve ~ B 1: 'Ve · -:r~ +hi~

~ rl- Of- 1he.. Clf\e d i o d e D, (.AX)u \dl") ' ~ cord.LC\- b-J\- D 2- w ·,\\ .
'~j•'i'n8 01"'\ oo~\- Curr en\- dur "tY'\~ +\----e \\e.~<:.\ \-\ 'v<5:! ha\F OF- -+~
·1t-.pu\- Ac ·
➔ ~ c.s cxe_ ~ \- ~ \ - \JO\ta.~e. c\\.),_-,n~ bo~'1 -\-k ~'t\\J~ as ~\\
as ~ o Vw~ \-)oW o f- -\'he <-tjd e. •
~ U o,- OO\r,v\- -= 2 'b o~ Pi C. ·, rryu \, ·
Cen tre-Tap
Tra n sformer

= (a)

(c)
Use of capn& \ot- ·,1"'\ ~c. tt tt€... @
._ lhe rech Pt~d vo\\-o.8e frot'f) fun wa\le rec.hf1<91- i8 )n , 'h~ fur- rn
Cf ~\se'5 0 f- -½t-e ShctJ>C9 Of ~ \f .SlnU5Dd6 · 7houejh H· ·,~ \)T).\(j\\'"<3:tt
·,'"° d ~ ' ~ ho.v~ s hro4Y va\ue .
-tl So ' a mpaa\-n,-. ,s connoc\'t2d. oc..raso -\he odp\.)\-- +errn,na\c \t e l
to \<L -\o <je\- a\-<2ad~ be.. OU\pu\- .
* ~h&n \-\->e,~ , ~ \ee.d , i\- ~e dhschav~d. ,\-,.,.o°'d\ , \>r,e. \oed. ~
-ltr When -t'-'e \JO\~e. 00066 -lt\£ caJXlci \-or lc5 )")<5'1n~ , \ \-- 'Jehs chorea~

at>a Yema\n& cha~C9d. 1'D peok vo\\a.~ e whe"' 4'nere \6 no ~\--

loa.d •
¼ W\-,en --\he,-(2 '1s loo.d. , i I- ~fl-6 d;ochar'a"' d. --\~rou3h Ioo.d cihd +'re
\/cl lo.3e ~ \n6 -\o fol I - It'\ -\\-, e ne){ I- haIF - c~\., o I' rec \-i Ii~ d
OU\pu\- i \- aeo\n ~e~o c..ha,,.~d, to p<20\l V Q\ue .
• ~o~ of fa\\ of vo\~e oCXOSo ihe cape10\-ot- ·depe-~d& Ot")

\~'\J~rse prd of l<L ~ c.

'\ ·e av = '
d\- Re ( t\me cons~ ·)

\ o t'OaKe -h~ wn&~ ,- \a~e IC. shco\d be. \orcae i ·e '-1.)€

'5hoo\<i U6e lar'ae. c.apaci rot-<S ·

,r. 7he oo\.p-il- \10\~e ob\011'\ed. b~ 1}$·11,a c.apaci \-or -,h~\)\- \'.i ,1-~,- \<S
f\ea~ -\o F\l \JO\~ e of- -\he t~c..Hfi~d vc,9e.
de component ...,
X ::l
0.
C: ,___ ......,..__ ~ - -~ - --+--
(.)
ro

ac C Ri. de

(a)
Optoelec-ltonic. de\,ic~s @
* p-" junc.t\ons can be desigt)€d &o -tha~ ~he c urr~n\- -\rw()l)<ah
4 ~ chanir~ e ,t\-'€r b~ ·.

~ ee extoo\--\on b~ \i 8h\- phom~

~ ,, ,, b'd su·,\ab\e b\as \Jo\~ o.8e E-rn,t-\in~ \i ~'n\- ph0°

~ O YC2 ca\\~d. ap\-oe\ec..\-ton·,c. de\l \ ce& ·

~ ' ~P2S
~ Pharode\(2<: \-ors - de~cJ-· \i~ht-
~ 'Voomvo \\aic. dev\ces - c.on'1e,--"'5 \1gh\- ~ca~ ,n \o e\ecJ-t1 ci ~
~ ~,,,~ to COf\\ler\- ~\ech·ic.al et-ier<a~ H,\-o \i~h\-

Y'"Pholodiode
~ SJ::ecial p-- n junc.hon diode tctbHcal-<!'d (..A)iH, -\t-anopa~n~ wiN!ou
-to a\\ow \\~'r-,~ to fa\\ Ct) -the diode .
-+ OJ:€-ra\-&\ under 12.B .
➔ W \-.,e,~ pn,ma,ode \G '1\\um1l"\o~d with \i ~h\- (p'no\-ons o f- ~~
~ '\J),, t= ~ ') , e.e> - ho\e. fait"c. on~ caene,-oh~?d . ·n') or na:1r -\he
aep\e tton t-e~i on .
➔ t>ue to E of -\ne ·)unc.HOY1 , ee - ho\e0 or~ ~\-<2d ~tar~
r~mb'1nCl\:,on such --\-ha\-- ~ " ' ~ r, -s·,ae ~ \--o~ t- ecr.h ~;,ck r
➔ ~e or-e CD\\ec.\-ed. on n - s\d~ & '10\eis on p -s\<ie <'j'"·,n~ r \se
m an emf .
➔ Wt'):2.n an ex\.en,a\ \ood ·15 COl"\h~J<::J~d , corr~n\- f \ ~ · Tue
~nH-o<ie cf- f ho\oc.utt-er'\~ de.pd~ o n ·,r-i \-<2M1~ O f- \\~\-\\- .

➔ I \- ,s ~~r -k> obsc?.t v~ -+~ cl--an8e Jn --\~ c.ur~ n ~ CJ.:)Hh

c..ho.n<3e. ·,n -\re \\8h\- ·1 r--i~ns\~ ·, f- ~B iu ap~,~d . . • ::\
~ :rn RB , m,nor-,~ chat-~e ca~ri e r <S t-ro\,e ~ue m c..oh,c.h
re\a\-,"e -"t ·16 \--,;i<i)h bu ~ +n·,.6 dos~ ' ~ hQrren lr") t: 13 d u~ \-t)

~o"e~\- of- \at'"~ cha1e. c.orrl~o .

 p-slde n -slde

(a)

rnA

1,-..-=:--_
1,- ~ - volts

13.- -
1••- - µA

iyLED
..., hemi,I~ dopt<?c\ 1= B p-r. junctton diode (J.)h;ch .spo" ~aneou.sla
6
C01'v~~ b"IO~r,~ e\:9c.l-tlcal e~3'd i nlo opllcal <~J'<~t-9~ lil/.e -:r.R ,
Vi.sible \i<uh~ .
* p- t\ junc. fun tna.de ftorn -trOf\5\L)(X2n~ .ser-n,conduc~r h\<e 6a As
wh,c:h ha6 rne\-a\\,c. con~achs .
~ Whgn i~ 16 . ~B ➔ \-\~h se,-:,~5 1-as·)Skln~ R , ''<ah~ pno\-on& or~
emi\-\-ai ft-om f)()() - ~kl\\",C.. SUt'face. of ? - t"~'JiOn . 7k t"t9.S\s\anc~ R.
htnihs -+hs?.. C...L,t-112n\- -throu~h Lt:.o , \---.enc~ +h.e. in\-t?.~,~ cf- li~t)\- .
~ When -H~ d·,ode \s FB , C?B (n~p) hc\eo C.p~n') ,
~ At- -+he.. ]UncttOr) tovf'\dat-~ , c.onc • of rri,f'IOr"d·\1 c.art-,e,'1S -1"
wh·, cn r ~ b , ~ w,-\h \"'(")Ojor,~ c..ar-r-,er-i ~ r . -\he.. "junc\-\on .
* ee QY-e ·n, c. B t\ ho\e Qre \ n \J B • Ot\ h~cornb,na \:tar") , ~
aiff H\ enex-811 \~ t~\eas~d. \n -\-he. form Of p'notons \n
V1s\b\e.. r ~ ·,on of E.lY\hl • ·
~ When ~ fc:xUXlrd C\)t' \""$~t Of- -\-re d , ode °ts sma\\ I ·,n\.<2.nS\~
of ~\\\e:l \i~"'~ \s s~\\ · As °"I.f 1' , Tn~ns,~ 't ~ t-<91ches
o. ma.x · , fur--\her ·,rx..r~s.e ,~ +he If- deq--~ast?& ln~e~,~ .
~ At>V ~
~ \.a..o O~t\Of'tQ\ 'Jo\\aee ari<i less po~t- .
~ \:as\-- ac..oon Ot\d ro ().)ar m L=9 t\roe r~lJ)r{Sj
4- Lon~ \ift9 and \"D<a~ edre~
 -- ----- - - -- - - - - - - - -
~ \:'as\. on -o\'.=f SOJi~c.h\Qg ci+s C'a?)b',\i~ (§)
--:.,. r-nonochrorna \-\ c \\ <ah\- ·

i,' So\or Cel\

~ JUt')c\-100 d \od~ oi))ch con~r \c so\ar ~~ ·,n\-o ~\ec.-\-t\ci~
~ pho\o\Jo\\a\c ef f~~ (~&~ra\ian oF \X)Ho.<ae d~ to ~rnbordrog)\-
o f- h ~ h }- pho\-()n')
~ Co~\s\s c~ p-'"" )\.)nc.\-\on d,ode rnadc2 of s, l 6\a ~ because
-\.t\e ~o\a,-- ra.dtanon spe:.\-t-urn °lE, t)~,-- I · 5 ev · For yno\-a
e~ d ~ahon ~'\) '7 E<o · Si\\con ~ aa A6 ho:ve t.~ of ,. l ev ~
I · 5oe\l ·

-x &o As - h, 'J\-,.s- ob6or p\ion c..~ \1 ~~\- •

_. u; \er,o. fu &?\ec Hon ·.
_,,. O\JQ\\a'ti,h~ of row toct~r\a \
--4- cos\- ef~c.Vwe
➔ ~\ec\-ri c.a\ conouc\·h,-,}:y (a) (b)

➔ \.i,~\...e optic.a\ absorptlol) ( 10 4 cm-' J

--:,. fuhd ~o.p t, - , · & e v)
\-t1 t:aoo J.\Yn wafer)
~ A 4h,l', \a~er Or n- ~pe \& carown Of\ '? - ·CJ~ .
_... ,-1--e iop ol'- I\\- \o.'jer 10 pm"1d.ed wi~ some -1\n~ I,¼;>. eial-rcde.s
L<. I 5 ./ . ) Ie,:>.\J\ n ~ enouca I, sroc.e m,- \i 31-> ~ tu teach r, \o.~e-
* Bot \om p\a~ n; ~ro\iid.ed c.ui~\. cut~~ c.o\\9:::\-\!::') e\ec.h-ode
(tctC\l cca~\ ·
~ ~eratton Or ~f bu a. so\a,~ ce\\ c...o~ \,~h~ ta\\s on ·,\- \s
due. tt> ·.
'P E:En~a\\on- of . e 0
-no\es pa,r due \-o ' <ah\- (hu 'ct<a l .
~eo.'( ~ ·luf'Ltion .

~ Sepe-ra.\ion- of e0 E. ho\e,s d\J~ \a 8" or- -l-1-e ctl"fJlel'lo

~<'?'3·,on . e3 o se .:su:ep~ -It, r-, -s lde and \-:oles la r -slck: ~
~C.01\~c.\-\on - e e b~lch·,n8 -\"'& n - c5 ·, de a r~ co\\ecJ.<!>d. ~ 4he @
.fron\- con\-ucJ an?- no\es reac,h\n 3 p ~·,de are. co\\<S?c.\t!>d.. 6~
+\..e. bac\2. c.o a \~ · .
'-Thus p -s,de bee~~ t-\Je a h -otde ~m~s -\JC2 'a'"1n1
t-,se. \o p"'o\u\Jo\\a.ie •

-. 7he \J - I 'Grapn of- so\oy ce\\ ,,~6 \n J...\+h 9uodra'1\- t:€caus~

,\- d~n'~ draw on~ c.um2n\- ro~ 0l)pp\tc:26 c..ur ~h\- to \oa.d .
,. used'"" s poce v en\c \ es , sa~c:9 \\\\-~s , so\Y)e c.c,.\c.u \aro-s .

P n

Deplellon
region
(a)

V.,. (open circuit voltage)

I.,
"-Short circuit c urrent
fhl