1 - AC Generators
1 - AC Generators
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
Main generator power ratings range from, typically, 250 kW to 2 MW at 440 V,
60 Hz AC or 380 V, 50 Hz AC, driven by diesel, steam turbine, gas turbine or
propulsion shaft‐driven prime movers. As the demand for increased electrical
power installations arise (e.g. for specialist offshore vessels and cruise liners) it
is necessary to generate at high voltage (HV) with voltages typically at 6.6 kV, 60
Hz but 3.3 kV and 11 kV are also used.
An emergency generator, typically 100 kW to 250 kW at 440 V or 220 V, will be
diesel driven and fitted with an automatic start facility.
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
The basic principle of an A.C generator is very simple. Pairs of electromagnetic poles
are driven (by the prime mover), past fixed coils of wire on the stator as shown in next
Fig.
An alternating electromotive force (emf) which, ideally, has a sinusoidal waveform, is
induced in to each stator phase winding.
The useful emf level (E) is called the root mean square (rms) value and all equipment is
rated in rms terms. A peak, or maximum, level is 1.414 (√2) times larger than the rms
level.
e.g. if E is 440 V, then
Emax = 1.414 x 440 = 622 volts.
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
The frequency ƒ (measured in Hertz) of the emf is the number of waveform
cycles per second. This obviously depends on the rotational speed and the
number of poles, so
ƒ = n × p
or
ƒ = (N/60) × P
Where n: speed in rev/s, N = rev/min, and P = pairs of poles.
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
Related speeds and frequencies with numbers of pole‐pairs are given in the
table below:
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
The two basic relationships for emf and frequency dictate how to control the
voltage and frequency output of a generator. In practice the speed is
maintained practically constant by the generator's prime mover which fixes the
output frequency. The constant speed then allows the size of generated emf to
be directly controlled by the size of pole flux (excitation). A Practical AC
generator has three sets of coils, called phase windings, located in slots in the
stator surrounding the rotating magnetic poles.
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
The emf induced in each phase is 120˚ out of phase with the other two phases.
Three phase windings are labeled as U‐V‐W with colour coding of red, yellow
and blue used on terminals and bus‐bars. One end of each of the three‐phase
winding are joined together to form the neutral point or a star connection.
1. AC GENERATOR OPERATION
The other ends of the phase windings are connected to outgoing conductors
called lines, which are coded as L1, L2 and L3.
The three output line voltages (represented by Vʟ) and the 3 output line
currents (represented by Ιʟ) combine to create the three‐phase electrical power
output of:
P = 𝟑 .Vʟ. Iʟ. Cos θ watts
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
2.1 Construction
The two main parts of any rotating AC machine are its stator and rotor.
The fabricated steel stator frame supports the stator core and its three phase windings
as shown in Fig. below
The stator coils are interconnected (in the end‐winding regions) to form three separate
phase windings with six ends. These phase ends are found in the stator terminal.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
Generator construction
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
In some cases only three terminals are available in the terminal box. In this
case, the neutral or star point connection is an internal part of the stator
winding arrangement. The main outgoing cables connected to these terminals
conduct the generator's electric power to its circuit‐breaker at the main
switchboard.
The rotor of a main AC generator provides the field excitation from its
electromagnetic poles. Two constructional forms of rotor are available as
shown in Fig.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
Type of the rotor of a main AC generator:
Salient pole type
The salient pole type poles bolted or keyed into the shaft hub. Field excitation
windings are fitted around each pole. This type of rotor is used with medium
and slow shaft speeds (1800 rpm and below) and is the most common
arrangement for marine generators.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
Salient pole rotor for a synchronous machine
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
Cylindrical type
Cylindrical type rotors are generally used with large power, high speed (1500‐
3600 rpm) steam/gas turbine drives. The excitation windings are wedged into
axial slots around the steel rotor. Unwound sections of the rotor form the pole
faces between the winding slots.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
The rotor winding (main field) is supplied with DC from an exciter. If the exciter
equipment is a conventional DC generator, or static, the DC excitation current is
fed into the field windings via carbon brushes on a pair of shaft‐mounted slip
rings.
To eliminate the maintenance problems associated with rotating contacts, a
brushless arrangement is usual for marine generators. All brush gear,
commutators and slip ring assemblies are eliminated by using an AC exciter,
with its output being rectified by a shaft‐mounted rotating rectifier, as shown in
Figure below. The diodes are connected as a three‐phase AC/DC bridge circuit.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
2.2 Cooling
Power losses, typically 10% of the generator rating, cause internal heating in the
windings and magnetic cores of both rotor and stator. This heat must be continuously
transferred out of the generator to prevent excessive temperature rise causing
breakdown of winding insulation.
Forced air circulation in a closed circuit (to prevent ingress of dirt) via an air cooler is
pressurized by a fan on the rotor shaft.
Cooling air is forced through ventilation ducts in the stator core, between rotor poles
and through the air gap (a few millimeters) between stator and rotor.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
Water cooling of the circulating air may also be used for generators with a large
power rating. Temperature detectors (resistance type, thermistors or
thermocouples) are used to monitor the temperature of stator windings,
bearings and the cooling air/water of the generator. Single or grouped
temperature alarms are activated at the main watch keeping position.
2. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION AND COOLING
While the generator is stopped during standby or maintenance periods, low
power electric heaters within the machine prevent internal condensation
forming on the winding insulation. These heaters may be switched on manually
or automatically from auxiliary contacts on the generator circuit‐breaker.
Heater power supplies are normally 220 V AC single‐phase supplied from a
distribution box local to the generator.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
The two factors essential for the production of a generated emf in an a.c.
generator are rotational speed (n) and magnetic flux (Φ). Field windings on the
rotor create strong magnetic field poles when direct current is passed through
them. Various methods have been devised to supply the correct D.C field
(excitation) current to produce the required A.C output voltage from the stator
terminals. The excitation must be continually regulated to maintain the
generator output voltage as the load power demand fluctuates.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
Excitation methods are either rotary or static. A rotary method utilizes an A.C.
or D.C exciter which is shaft‐mounted and rotates with the main generator
rotor, The most common arrangement is to use ashaft‐mounted AC exciter.
Type of excitation method:
Rotary exciters (brushless)
Compound excitation
3. EXCITATION METHODS
Rotary exciters (brushless)
Traditionally, rotary exciters were D.C. generators with stationary field poles, rotating
armature, commutator and brush gear. Now the most common arrangement is to use
a shaft mounted a.c. exciter.
In some applications, a small additional rotary pilot exciter may be used to supply
current to the main exciter field. A pilot exciter is a small permanent magnet a.c.
generator which is driven from the generator shaft. Its output voltage is generally at a
high frequency (e.g. 1000 Hz) but this is rectified to D.C. before being fed into the
main exciter field.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
A "brushless" excitation scheme is shown in Fig. below. The absence of brushes,
brush gear and carbon dust improves reliability and considerably reduces
generator maintenance. Rectification of the a.c. exciter voltage is achieved by
six shaft‐mounted silicon diodes that form a three‐phase rotating rectifier.
The suppression varistor connected across the main generator field protects
the diodes against voltage surges arising from sudden changes in excitation
current.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
Although diode failures are rare, some generator field systems are fitted with
an electronic detector relay to give an alarm and/or trip signal should such a
fault occur. Usually, the detector monitors the exciter field current whose size
and shape are noticeably affected by a diode failure.
Generators with rotary exciters, conventional or brushless, have a relatively
sluggish response to sudden load changes. For example, it may take typically up
to one second to correct a 15% voltage dip caused by the start‐up of a large
pump motor.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
QUESTION:
What is likely to happen if one of the rotating diodes fails and becomes:
(a) an open circuit?
(b) a short‐circuit?
3. EXCITATION METHODS
(a) an open circuit?
The remaining healthy diodes would continue to supply the main field,
although the total field current, and so generator voltage, will be slightly
reduced. Under AVR control, the exciter field current would be
automatically boosted to maintain the correct generator voltage, while the
diode failure would probably be undetected. The exciter will gradually
overheat.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
(b) a short‐circuit?
A short‐circuited diode is more serious as it leads to a short‐circuited exciter.
Rapid overheating of the exciter will occur and the generator will lose
excitation.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
Compound excitation
The transient voltage response of a generator can be improved by eliminating the
rotary exciter in favour of a static excitation method. In this arrangement, the
generator field draws its D.C. current via a static excitation transformer/rectifier unit
fed directly from the generator voltage and current output.
This arrangement is known as compounding as it is controlled by voltage (shunt effect)
and current (series effect) feedback. Response times as low as 0.1 second to correct a
15% voltage dip are common with static excited compound generators.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
This fast response is most desirable on general/bulk cargo ships where heavy
and frequent load surges arise from deck cranes and winch gear. Such static
excitation equipment may be located within the generator casing or inside the
main switchboard.
This type of generator has two shaft slip‐rings and brush gear to connect the
static excitation equipment to the rotor field winding.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
Note:
compounded means that the excitation is derived from the generator
output voltage and it’s current.
On no‐load, the generator excitation is provided by the PRI.1 winding of the
excitation transformer. On load, the generator current injects an additional
excitation current via PRI.2 of the transformer to maintain a constant output
voltage. If the excitation components are carefully designed, the generator
voltage of a compounded generator can be closely maintained at all loads
without the use of an AVR or manual voltage trimmer.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
However, some generator manufacturers do include an AVR and a manual
trimmer rheostat in such a compounded static excitation scheme. This addition
may provide closer voltage regulation over the‐load range and allow manual
control of the generator voltage, e.g. for synchronizing and kVAr load balancing
between generators.
A practical 3‐phase static excitation scheme has additional components such as
reactors and capacitors. The circuit in Fig. has no AVR or manual trimmer
regulator.
3. EXCITATION METHODS
Sudden load current surges (e.g. due to motor starting) on a generator cause a
corresponding change in its output voltage. This is due to an internal voltage
drop in the generator windings and the effect is usually called voltage dip.
Similarly, load shedding will produce an over voltage at the bus‐bars. An
unregulated generator excitation system would not be realistic on board ship
due to the varying voltage caused by the fluctuating load demand. Automatic
voltage regulation (AVR) equipment is necessary to rapidly correct such voltage
changes. See Fig. below.
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
An AVR will control the generator's voltage to ± 2.5% (or better) of its set value over
the full load range. This is its steady‐state voltage regulation. Transient voltage dip is
usually limited to 15% for a specified sudden load change with recovery back to rated
voltage within 1.5 seconds. In special cases where unusually large surges are expected
(e.g. from heavy‐duty cargo cranes) the generator/AVR performance limits may be
extended.
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
The AVR senses the generator output voltage and acts to alter the field current to
maintain the voltage at its set value. A manual trimmer regulator may be fitted on the
generator control panel to set the voltage level e.g. 440 V.
More commonly, two voltage trimmer potentiometers are assembled. One is inside
the generator's panel and the other is incorporated into the control card of the AVR.
This option gives more flexibility to personnel for adjusting the generator’s voltage.
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
The control circuit for a modern AVR consists of voltage and current
transformers, mounted on the generator, as well as solid state elements,
mounted on an electronic module fitted into the generator’s termination
board.
Although the AVR control circuit design varies with the manufacturer, the basic
scheme contains the following elements shown in Fig. below.
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
The voltage sensing unit transforms down, rectifies and smooth’s the generator
output voltage. This produces a low voltage D.C. signal that is proportional to
the a.c. generator voltage. This actual D.C. signal is compared with a set D.C.
value produced by a reference circuit of zener diodes and resistors. An error
signal output from the comparator is then amplified and made suitable for
driving. The field circuit regulating thyristor(s).
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
A thyristor is a fast‐acting electronic switch controlled by a voltage signal at its gate
Terminal. This device rectifies and regulates the generator field current.
Additional components and sub‐circuits are included in the AVR to ensure:
Rapid response time with voltage stability
Fair current (and kVAr) sharing when generators are to be operated in parallel
Quick voltage build‐up during generator run‐up
Over voltage/under voltage alarm/trip protection
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
The complete AVR circuit is fairly complex and includes a few pre‐set variable
resistors for the control of sensitivity, offset‐error and stability (proportional,
integral and differential control). These are adjusted and set during generator
trials to achieve an optimum and stable performance.
You should resist the temptation to adjust preset controls unless fully
competent with such a feedback control system. However, bear in mind that,
after replacing a faulty AVR, the newly assembled unit should always be
adjusted.
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
AVR running checks, as guided by the manufacturer, consist of A.C and D.C
voltage measurements at installed test points. These are compared with values
found acceptable during previous generator trials. The test voltmeter type and
its range are usually specified for each test.
Most ships will carry a spare AVR unit or spare cards which may be
interchanged after a suspected failure. An AVR changeover should only be
attempted when its generator is stopped and locked off.
4. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION
Checks at the test points on the new AVR excitation field current level and the
manual regulator operation (if fitted) should be proven with the generator
running on no‐load before attempting to synchronize on to the busbars.
When generators are load sharing in parallel, check for approximately equal
current (or kVAr) sharing between the machines. This will indicate correct
operation of their AVRs.
THE END